LIST OF ENTRIES
For facility of Encyclopaedia use, since headings of entries there are generally in Arabic, Per-
sian or Turkish, this list provides English references to either the main article in the Encyclopaedia
or to the Index of Subjects proper, which groups all articles concerned with the subject under
one heading. The main Encyclopaedia article is given here in bold type, the Subject Index
heading is in capitals preceded by an arrow (e.g. Clove Karanful; but Spices -»■ Cuisine.food).
The Index of Subjects follows the List of Entries on p. 1 9. Countries and names of dynasties or
caliphates, which are included in extenso in the Index of Subjects, are not given in the following
list.
Abbreviations [in Suppl.] Abbreviations
Ablution -»■ Ablution
Abridgement Mukhtasar
Abstinence Istibra'
Academy Madjma' 'Ilmi
Accident 'Arad
Accounting -»■ Finance
Acquisition Kasb
Acrobat Djanbaz
Act 'Amal; Fi'I
Addax Mahat
Administration -»■ Administration
Admiral Kapudan Pasha
Adoption -> Adoption
Adultery -»■ Adultery
Advance guard Tali'a
Adverb Zarf
Aesthetics 'Ilm al-Djamal
Agency Wakala
Agriculture -»■ Agriculture
Aims (of the law) [in Suppl.] Makasid al-
Shari'a
Album Murakka'
Alchemy -»■ Alchemy
Alfa-grass Haifa 1
Algebra -»■ Mathematics
Almanac Takwim
Alms -»■ Alms
Aloe Sabr
Alphabet -»■ Alphabet
Amazement Ta'adjdjub
Amber Kahruba
Ambergris 'Anbar
Americas -»■ New World
Amplification (of poetry) Takhmis
Amulet Tamima
Analogy Kiyas
Anatomy -»■ Anatomy
Anecdote Nadira
Anemone Shakikat al-Nunian
Angel -»■ Angelology
Animal -»■ Animals
Ant Naml
Antelope -»■ Animals
Anthology Mukhtarat
Anthropomorphism -► Anthropomor-
phism
Antinomianism Ibaha (II)
Antithesis Tibak
Aphrodisiacs [in Suppl.] Mukawwiyat
Apostasy -»■ Apostasy
Appeal Isti'naf
Apple Tuffah
Apricot Mishmish
Aqueduct -»■ Architecture.monuments
Arabian peninsula ->■ Arabian Penin-
sula
Arabic -»■ Alphabet; Languages.afro-
asiatic; Linguistics
Arabicisation Ta'rib
Arabism -> Panarabism
Arachnoids ->■ Animals
Arbitration Tahkini
Arbitrator Hakani
Archaeology -»■ Archaeology
Architecture -»■ Architecture
Archives ->• Administration
Arithmetic -»■ Mathematics
Armour [in Suppl.] Silah
Army -»■ Military
2
LIST OF ENTRIES
Arsenal Dar al-Sinaa
Art ->■ Art
Artemisia Shih
Article Makala
Articulation [in Suppl.] Lafz. 1
Artisans ->• Professions.craftsmen and
TRADESMEN
Ascendent al-Tali'
Ascension to Heaven, Prophet's Mi'radj
Ascensions al-Matali'
Asceticism -»• Asceticism
Assignation Haw a la
Association Andjuman; Djam'iyya
Associationism Shirk
Astrolabe Asturlab
Astrology ->• Astrology
Astronomical handbook Zidj
Astronomy ->• Astronomy
Atheism Kafir
Atomism Djuz'
Attributes Sifa
Autobiography -»• Literature.auto-
BIOGRAPHICAL
Avarice Bukhl
Babism ->• Sects
Bacchism ->• Wine.bacchic poetry
Backgammon Nard
Bahais -► Bahais
Balance al-Mizan
Balance of powers Tawazun al-Sulutat
Bamboo sugar Tabashir
Band ->• Military.band
Banking ->• Finance
Barber [in Suppl.] Hallak
Bargaining Sawm
Barley Sha'ir
Barracks Tabaka
Barter Mu'awada
Basques -> Basques
Bat Watwat
Bath ->• Architecture.monuments
Battalion Tabur
Battle ->• MlLITARY.BATTLES
Beard, the Prophet's Lihya-yi Sherif
Beauty c Ilm al-Djamal
Bedding Mafrushat; Mifrash
Bedouin ->• Bedouins
Bee Nahl
Beggar Sasan
Belles-lettres ->• Literature
Belomancy Istiksam
Ben-nut Ban
Bequest Wasiyya
Berbers ->• Berbers
Betrothal Khitba
Bible ->• Bible
Bibliography -> Literature.bibli-
OGRAPHICAL
Bier Djanaza
Biography ->• Literature.biographical
Bird ->• Animals
Birth control ->• Life Stages.
childbirth.pregnancy
Bitumen Mumiya'
Blacksmith Kayn
Blasphemy [in Suppl.] Shatm
Blessing Baraka
Blockprinting ->• Writing.manuscripts
and books
Blood [in Suppl.] Dam
Blood-letter [in Suppl.] Fassad
Blood-vengeance Kisas; Tha'r
Boar, wild Khinzir
Boat Safina
Body Djism
Book Kitab
Bookbinding ->• Writing.manuscripts
and books
Bookseller Warrak
Booktitle 'Unwan.2(=3)
Boon-companion Nadim
Booty ->• Military
Botany ->• Botany
Boundaries Takhtit al-Hudud
Bow Kaws
Bowing ->• Prayer
Brand Tamgha; Wasm
Bread Khubz
Breadwinner [in Suppl.] Mu'insiz
Bribery ->• Payments
Brick Labin
Bridal gift see Dower
Bridge ->• Architecture.monuments
Brigand Suluk
LIST OF ENTRIES
Broadcasting Idha a
Broker Dallal
Buddhism -> Buddhism
Buffalo [in Suppl.] Djamus
Building Bina'
Butcher [in Suppl.] Djazzar
Butter al-Samn
Byzantines -> Byzantine Empire
Calendar -> Time
Caliph Khalifa
Caliphate -> Caliphate
Call to prayer Adhan
Calligraphy -► Art; Writing.scripts
Camel -> Animals
Camel-driver [in Suppl.] Djammal
Camomile [in Suppl.] Babunadj
Camphor Kafur
Canal Kanat
Candle Shama
Candle-maker Shamma'
Canines -> Animals
Cannon Top
Cap [in Suppl.] Kalansuwa
Capitulations Imtiyazat
Caravan ->■ Transport
Carmathians -> Shiites.branches
Carpet ->■ Art. tapestry; Prayer
Cart 'Adjala; Araba
Cartography ->■ Cartography
Cattle Bakar
Cause c IUa
Cedar-oil Katran
Cemetery Ma k bar a
Ceramics -> Art.pottery
Cession Havvala
Chair Kursi
Chamber, underground Sardab
Chamberlain Hadjib
Chameleon Hirba'
Chancellery -► Documents
Charity -^ Alms
Charms -> Charms
Cheetah Fahd
Cheiropters Watwat
Chemistry -^ Alchemy
Chess Shatrandj
Chest -^ Anatomy
Child -^ Life Stages
Childbirth -► Life Stages
Childhood -> Life Stages
Chintz Kalamkari
Chirognomy al-Kaff
Christianity -> Christianity
Christians Nasara
Chronogram Ta'rikh.III
Church Kanisa
Cinema Cinema
Cinnamon [in Suppl.] Dar Sini
Circumcision -^ Circumcision
Cistern Hawd
Citizen Muwatin
Citrus fruits Narandj
City (planning) [in Suppl.] Madina
Civilisation Medeniyyet
Clan Al
Clay Tin
Cleanliness Tahara
Clime Iklim
Cloak Khirka
Cloak, the Prophet's Khirka-yi Sherif
Clock Sa c a
Clothing -^ Clothing
Clove Karanful
Cock Dik
Codes -> Cryptography
Codification (of the law) Tashri'
Coffee Kahwa
Coinage -► Numismatics
Coitus Bah
Coitus interruptus 'Azl
Colour -> Colour
Column 'Amud
Comedians -^ Humour
Commanding right see Forbidding wrong
Commentary Sharh
Commentary (Qur'anic) -> Qur'an
Commerce -^ Finance
Communications ->■ Communications
Communism -^ Communism
Community, Muslim Umma
Companions (of the Prophet) -►
Muhammad, the Prophet
LIST OF ENTRIES
Compass Maghnatis.2; al-Tasa
Concealment (of belief) Takiyya
Concubinage -► Women
Conference Mu'tamar
Confessionalism Ta'ifiyya
Confinement (of Ottoman princes) [in
Suppl.] Kafes
Congress Mu'tamar
Conjunction Kiran
Constellation -> Astronomy
Constitution Dustur
Consul Consul
Consultation Shura
Contraception Tanzini al-NasI
Contract -> Law. law of obligations
Cook Tabbakh
Cooking -► Cuisine
Cooperatives Ta'awun
Copper Nuhas; and see Malachite
Copts -► Christianity.denominations
Copyist Warrak
Coral Mardjan
Cornelian c Akik
Corpse Djanaza
Corpse-washer [in Suppl.] Ghassal
Corsair -► Piracy
Corundum Yakut
Cosmetics -► Cosmetics
Cosmography -► Cosmography
Cotton Kutn
Country Watan
Court (of law) Mahkama
Court ceremony ->■ Court Ceremony
Court hierarchy [in Suppl.] Martaba
Courtier Nadim
Couscous Kuskusu
Cowrie Wada c
Craftsmanship -> Professions
Creation -> Creation
Creditor Gharini
Creed Akida
Crescent Hilal
Criticism, literary -^ Literature
Crocodile Tinisah
Cross al-Salib
Crow Ghurab
Crown Tadj
Crucifixion Salb
Crusades -> Crusade(r)s
Crustaceans -> Animals
Cryptography -> Cryptography
Crystal see Rock-crystal
Cubit Dhira'
Cuckoo Wakwak.4
Cuisine -► Cuisine
Cumin Kanimun
Cupper [in Suppl.] Fassad
Currants Zabib
Custody Hadana
Custom -> Custom
Customary law ->■ Law
Cymbal Sandj
Dactylonomy Hisab al-'Akd
Dam -^ Architecture.monuments
Dance Raks
Dandy Zarif
Date Nakhl
Day Yawm
Death -► Death
Debt [in Suppl.] Dayn
Debtor Gharim
Deception (in law) Taghrir
Declension IVab
Declination al-Mayl
Decoration ->■ Architecture; Art.
decorative; Military
Decree, divine al-Kada' wa '1-Kadar
Decree of ruler Tawki'
Deer Ayyil
Definition Ta'rif
Delegations Wufud
Delusion Wahm
Demography [in Suppl.] Demography
Demon Djinn
Dentistry -► Medicine
Deposit Wadi'a
Deposition [in Suppl.] Khal 1
Deputisation Wakala
Dervish -^ Mysticism
Description Wasf
Desert -> Deserts
Devil Iblis; Shay tan
Devotions Wird
Dialect -► Languages.afro-asiatic.
ARABIC
LIST OF ENTRIES
Diamond Almas
Dictionary ->■ Dictionary
Dill Shibithth
Diplomacy ->■ Diplomacy
Disease ->■ Illness
Disputation ->■ Theology
Dissolution Faskh
Ditch Khandak
Divination -> Divination
Divorce -> Divorce
Documents -> Documents
Dog Kalb
Donative coins Yadgar
Donkey Himar
Double entendre Tawriya
Doubt Shakk
Dove Hamam
Dower ->■ Marriage
Dragoman Tardjuman
Dragon al-Tinnin
Drama -> Literature
Drawing ->■ Art
Dreams ->■ Dreams
Dress ->■ Clothing
Dressmaker Khavvat
Drinks -»■ Cuisine
Dromedary ->■ Animals.camels
Druggist al- c Attar
Drugs -> Drugs
Drum Darabukka; Tabl
Drummer Tabbal
Druze -»■ Druzes
Dualism ->■ Religion
Dulcimer Santur
Duress [in Suppl.] Ikrah
Dwelling Bayt; Dar
Dye -> Dyeing
Dyer -> Dyeing
Dynasty -> Dynasties
Eagle 'Ukab
Earthquakes -> Earthquakes
Ebony Abanus
Eclipse Kusuf
Ecliptic Mintakat al-Burudj
Economics -> Economics
Edict Farman
Education -> Education
Elative Tafdil
Elegy Marthiya
Elephant Fil
Elixir al-Iksir
Eloquence Balagha; Bayan;
Emancipation -> Emancipation
Embalming Hinata
Emblem of sultan Tughra
Emerald Zumurrud
Emigration ->■ Emigration
Emphatic phonemes Tafkhim
Encyclopaedia Mawsu c a
Endive [in Suppl.] Hindiba'
Endowment, charitable Wakf
Enjambment Tadmin
Ephemeris Takwlm
Epic Hamasa
Epidemic Waba'
Epigraphy -> Epigraphy
Epistolography -> Literature.
EPISTOLARY
Epithet -i- Onomastics
Equation (astronomical) al-Ta c dil; Ta c dil
al-Zaman
Equator Istiwa 5
Equines ->■ Animals
Eroticism -> Love.erotic
Error Khata'
Error, writing see Mistakes
Eschatology ->■ Eschatology
Esoteric sense al-Zahir wa '1-Batin
Espionage see Spy
Estate Day c a
Eternity -> Eternity
Ethics -" Ethics
Ethnicity -> Ethnicity
Ethnography -> Tribes
Etiquette -> Etiquette
Etymology Ishtikak
Eulogy Madih
Eunuch ->■ Eunuch
Europeanisation Tafarnudj
Evidence Bayyina
Ewer [in Suppl.] Ibrik
Exception Istithna'
Executor Wasiyya
LIST OF ENTRIES
Exegesis Tafsir
Existence Wudjud
Exoteric sense Zahir; al-Zahir wa '1-
Batin
Expedition ->■ Military
Expiation Kaffara
Extremism Tatarruf
Eye -> Anatomy; Evil Eye
Faculty, university Kulliyya
Faience Kashi
Faith -> Faith
Faith, profession of see Profession of faith
Falconry -»■ Falconry
Family 'A'ila
Family planning Tanzim al-Nasl
Fan Mirwaha
Farming -> Agriculture
Fasting -► Fasting
Fate ->■ Predestination
Fauna ->■ Animals
Felines -► Animals
Felt Lubud
Female circumcision Khafd
Fennec-fox Fanak
Fennel [in Suppl.] Basbas
Festival -> Festival
Fief Ikta c
Fifth, one- [in Suppl.] Khums
Fig Tin
Film Cinema
Finance -> Finance
Fine Djurm
Fire Nar
Firefighter Tulumbadji
Fiscal system ->■ Taxation
Fish -^ Animals
Fishing Samak.3
Five Khamsa
Flag 'Alam; Sandjak
Flamingo Nuham
Hax Kattan
Fleet, naval Ustul
Flora -^ Flora
Flower poetry Zahriyyat
Flowers -^ Flora
Flute [in Suppl.] Nay
Fly Dhubab
Folklore ->■ Folklore
Food -^ Cuisine
Fools, wise [in Suppl.] TJkala' al-
Madjanin
Footprint, the Prophet's Kadam Sharif
Forbidding wrong [in Suppl.] al-Nahy 'an
al-Munkar
Forest Ghaba
Foreword Mukaddima
Forgery (of coins) Tazyif
Forgery (of writings) Tazwir
Form, legal Wasf.2
Form, linguistic [in Suppl.] Lafz.l
Formulas -► Islam
Fornication Zina
Fortress ->■ Architecture.monu-
ments.strongholds
Foundling Lakit
Fountain Shadirwan
Fowl Dadjadja
Fox Tha'lab; and see Fennec-fox
Fraction Kasr
Frankincense Luban
Fraud Taghrir
Free will -^ Predestination
Freedom Hurriyya; [in Suppl.] Azadi
Freemasonry [in Suppl.] Faramush-
khana; Farmasuniyya
Fruit ->■ Cuisine.food
Fundamentalism ->■ Reform.
politico-religious.militant
Funeral Djanaza
Fur Farw
Furnishings -»■ Furnishings
Furniture [in Suppl.] Athath
Furstenspiegel Nasihat al-Mulflk
LIST OF ENTRIES
Gain Kasb
Gambling -> Gambling
Games -> Recreation
Garden -> Architecture.monuments
Gate ->■ Architecture.monuments
Gazehound Saluki
Gazelle (J nazal
Gemstones -> Jewelry
Gender studies -> Women
Genealogy -»• Genealogy
Generation, spontaneous Tawallud
Generosity [in Suppl.] Karam
Geography -»• Geography
Geometry -* Mathematics
Gesture Ishara
Gift -► Gifts
Giraffe Zarafa
Girdle Shadd
Glass -> Art
Gloss Hashiya
Goats [in Suppl.] G
God Allah; Hah
Gods, pre-Islamic -> Pre-Islam
Gold Dhahab
Goldsmith Sa'igh
Gospels Indjil
Government Hukuma
Grains ->■ Cuisine.food
Grammar Nahw
Gratitude Shukr
Greeks Yunan
Greyhound see Gazehound
Grocer Bakkal
Guardianship Hadana
Guild -»• Guilds
Gum resins Samgh
Gunpowder Barud
Gymnasium Zurkhana
Gynaecology -»• Life Stages
Gypsies -> Gypsies
Hadith -»• Literature.tradition-
literature
Hagiography ->■ Hagiography
Hair -> Anatomy
Hair, the Prophet's Lihya-yi Sherif
Hairdresser [in Suppl.] Hallak
Hamito-Semitic Ham
Hand, right Yamin
Handbook Tadhkira
Handbook, astronomical Zidj
Handicrafts -»• Art
Handkerchief Mandil
Harbour Mina'
Harbourmaster Shah Bandar (and [in
Suppl.] Shahbandar)
Hare [in Suppl.] Arnab
Headware -> Clothing
Health -> Medicine
Heart Kalb
Heaven Sama'
Hedgehog Kunfudh
Hell ^Hell
Hemerology Ikhtiyarat
Hemp Hashish
Hempseed Shahdanadj
Henbane Bandj
Henna Hinna'
Heraldry -»• Heraldry
Herbs -»• Cuisine.food
Hereafter -> Eschatology
Heresy -> Heresy
Hippopotamus [in Suppl.] Faras al-Ma'
Hire, contract of -> Law.law of
obligations
Historiography -»• Literature.
historical
Holiness Kadasa
Holy places -> Sacred Places
Holy War Djihad
Homeland Watan
Homicide Katl
Homonym Addad
Homosexuality Liwat
Honour 'Ird
Hoopoe Hudhud
Horn Buk
Horse Faras
Horseback rider Faris
LIST OF ENTRIES
Horseback riding Furusiyya
Horticulture -»■ Architecture.
MONUMENTS.GARDENS; FLORA
Hostelry -> Hostelry
Houris Hur
House see Dwelling
Humour -> Humour
Hunting -> Hunting
Hydrology -> Hydrology
Hydromancy Istinzal
Hyena [in Suppl.] Dabu'
Hymn Nashid
Hyperbole Mubalagha
Hypnotism Simiya'. 1
Hypocrisy Riya'
Ice-seller Thalladj
Iconography -»■ Art
Idol -»■ Idolatry.idols
Idolatry -► Idolatry
Illness ->■ Illness
Illumination -> Art
Image Sura
Imagination [in Suppl.] Wahm.2
Impurity Djanaba; Hadath
Incubation Istikhara
Independence Istiklal
Indigo Nil
Individual Shakhs
Industry -»■ Industry
Infanticide Wa'd al-Banat
Infantryman Yaya
Infidel Kafir
Inflection Imala
Inheritance -»■ Inheritance
Inimitability (of Qur'an) I'djaz
Injustice Zulm
Ink Midad
Ink-holder [in Suppl.] Dawat
Inner dimension al-Zahir wa '1-Ba
Innovation Bid c a
Inscriptions -> Epigraphy
Insects -> Animals
Insignia ->■ Military.decorations;
MONARCHY.ROYAL INSIGNIA
Inspection (of troops) Istirad
Instrument Ala
Instrument, musical -> Music
Insulting the Prophet [in Suppl.] Shatm
Insulting verse Hidja'
Intellect c Akl
Intercession Shafa'a
Intercourse, sexual Bah
Intercourse, unlawful sexual Zina
Interdiction Hadjr
Interest, bank Riba
Interpolation (astronomical) al-Ta'dil
bayn al-Satrayn
Interpreter Tardjuman
Interrogation Istifham
Interruption Kat'
Introduction Ibtida 5 ; Mukaddima
Inventions -»■ Inventions
Invocation Du'a'
Ipseity Huwiyya
Iris Susan
Iron al-Hadid
Irrigation -> Irrigation
Islam -> Islam
Ivory Adj
Jackal Ibn Awa
Jade Yashm
Janissaries Yeni Ceri
Japan(ese) al-Yabani
Jasmine Yasamin
Javelin Djerid
Jerboa YarbO'
Jewelry -► Jewelry
Jews Banu Isra'il; Yahud
Journalism -> Press
Judaism -> Judaism
Judge Kadi
Jujube 'Unnab
Juncture Wasl
Jurisconsult -»■ Law.jurist
Jurisprudence -*■ Law
LIST OF ENTRIES
Jurist -> Law
King Malik; Shah
Kingdom Mamlaka
Kinship Karaba
Kitchen Matbakh
Knowledge 'Ilm; Ma'rifa
Kohl al-Kuhl
Koran ->■ Quran
Kurdish -> Kurds
Labour see Trade union
Labourers ->■ Professions.craftsmen
AND TRADESMEN
Lakes -> Geography.physical
GEOGRAPHY. WATERS
Lamentation ->■ Lamentation
Lamp Siradj
Land -> Land
Landowner Zamindar
Language ->• Languages
Largesse coins Yadgar
Law -> Law
Leader Za'im
Leasing Kira'
Leather Djild
Legacy Wasiyya
Legatee Wasi
Legend ->■ Legends
Lemon Narandj
Lemon balm Turundjan
Leprosy [in Suppl.] Djudham
Lesbianism Sihak
Letter(s) Harf; Huruf al-Hidja'; and for
letters of the alphabet ->■ Alphabet
Lexicography ->■ Lexicography
Library ->■ Education, libraries
Lice Kami
Licorice Sus
Life -> Life Stages
Light NOr
Lighthouse -> Architecture.monu-
MENTS
Lily Susan
Linen Kattan; Khaysh
Linguistics ->■ Linguistics
Lion al-Asad
Literature -> Literature
Lithography Matbaa
Liver Kabid
Lizard Dabb
Locust Djarad
Lodge Zawiya
Logic ->• Philosophy
Longevity Muammar
Louse see Lice
Love -> Love
Lute Saz; c Ud
Lyre Kithara
Mace Durbash
Madman Madjnun
Magic ->• Magic
Magnet Maghnatis. 1
Maintenance [in Suppl.] Nafaka
Make-up -> Cosmetics
Malachite al-Dahnadj
Malaria Malarya
Man Insan
Man-of-war Ustul
Mandrake Siradj al-Kutrub; Yabruh
Manichaeism -> Religion.dualism
Manifestation Tadjalli
Manners -> Cuisine; Etiquette; Virtues
and Vices
Manumission ->■ Slavery
Manuscript Nuskha
Map Kharita
Marble [in Suppl.] Rukham
Marches al-Thughur; Udj
LIST OF ENTRIES
Market Suk
Market inspector Hisba
Marquetry Zalidj
Marriage -> Marriage
Martyr Shahid
Martyrdom ->• Martyrdom
Marxism Mark(i)siyya
Masonry Bina 5
Mathematics ->• Mathematics
Matter Hayula; Tina
Mausoleum -> Architecture.
MONUMENTS.TOMBS
Maxims, legal [in Suppl.] Kawa'id
Fikhiyya
Mayor Ra'is
Measurements -> Weights and
Measurements
Mechanics ->• Mechanics
Mediation Shafa'a
Medicine ->• Medicine
Melilot [in Suppl.] Iklll al-Malik
Melissa Turundjan
Melody [in Suppl.] Lahn
Memorandum Tadhkira
Menstruation Hayd
Merchants ->• Professions.craftsmen
AND TRADESMEN
Mercury Zibak
Messenger Rasul
Messiah al-Masih
Metallurgy ->• Metallurgy
Metalware ->• Art
Metamorphosis ->• Animals.trans-
FORMATION INTO
Metaphor Istiara
Metaphysics ->• Metaphysics
Metempsychosis Tanasukh
Meteorology ->• Meteorology
Metonymy Kinaya
Metre Wazn.2
Metrics ->• Metrics
Migration ->• Emigration
Militancy ->• Reform.politico-
RELIGIOUS.MILITANT
Military ->• Military
Military rule [in Suppl.] Nizam 'Askari
Milky Way al-Madjarra
Mill Tahun
Miller Tahhan
Millet [in Suppl.] Djawars
Minaret Manara
Mineralogy ->• Mineralogy
Miniatures ->• Art.painting
Mint [in Suppl.] Fudhandj
Mint (money) Dar al-Darb
Miracle ->• Miracles
Mirage Sarab
Mirror Mir'at
"Mirror for princes" see Furstenspiegel
Misfortune Shakawa
Misrepresentation (in law) Tadlis. 1
Mistakes, writing Tashlf
Modernism ->• Reform
"Moderns", the [in Suppl.] Muhdathun
Modes, musical Makam: [in Suppl.] Lahi
Molluscs ->• Animals
Monarchy ->■ Monarchy
Monastery ->• Christianity; Mysticism
Monasticism Rahbaniyya
Money ->• Numismatics
Money-changer [in Suppl.] Sarraf
Money-changing [in Suppl.] Sarf
Mongols ->• Mongolia
Mongoose Nims
Monk Rahib
Monkey Kird
Monogram, imperial Tughra
Monotheism Tawhid
Months -> Time
Moon Hilal; al-Kamar
Morphology Sarf; Tasrif
Mosaics ->• Art
Mosque ->• Architecture.monuments
Mountain ->• Mountains
Mountain goat Ayyil
Mulberry Tut
Mule Baghl
Municipality Baladiyya
Murder Katl
Music ->• Music
Musk Misk
Mussel Sadaf
Myrobalanus [in Suppl.] Haliladj
Myrtle [in Suppl.] As
Mystic ->• Mysticism
Mysticism ->• Mysticism
Myths ->• Legends
LIST OF ENTRIES
Name Ism
Narcissus Nardjis
Narcotics ->■ Drugs
Nationalisation Ta'mim
Nationalism -► Nationalism
Natron [in Suppl.] Bawrak
Natural science -> Natural
Science
Nature -> Agriculture; Botany;
Flora; Literature.poetry.
nature
Navigation -> Navigation
Navy -> Military
Nephrite Yashm
New World -► New World
Newspaper Djarida
Nickname Lakab
Night Layl and Nahar
Night watch 'Asas
Nightingale Bulbul
Nilometer Mikyas
Nobility (of character) [in Suppl.] Karam
Nomadism -► Nomadism
Nomen unitatis see Noun of unity
Notables, tribal [in Suppl.] Mala'
Noun Ism
Noun of unity Wahda. 1
Nourishment ->■ Cuisine
Novel Kissa
Nullity Fasid wa Batil
Number -► Number
Numerals -► Number
Numismatics ->■ Numismatics
Nunation Tanwin
Oak 'Afs
Oasis Waha
Oath Kasam; Yamin
Obedience (to God) Ta'a
Obelisk -^ Architecture.monuments
Oboe Ghayta
Obscenity -► Obscenity
Observatory ->■ Astronomy
Obstetrics ->■ Medicine
Ocean -► Oceans and Seas
Octagon Muthamman
Oil ->■ Cuisine.food; Oil
Olive Zaytun
Olive oil Zayt
Omen Fa'I
Oneirocriticism [in Suppl.] Ta'bir al-
Ru'ya
Oneiromancy -> Dreams
Oneness Wahda.2
Oneness of being Wahdat al-Wudjud
Oneness of witnessing Wahdat al-
Shuhud
Onomastics -^ Onomastics
Onomatomancy Huruf, c Ilm al-
Ophthalmology ->■ Medicine
Opium Afyun
Opposites Addad; Didd
Optics -^ Optics
Orange Narandj
Orchestra Mehter; and see Band
Order, military -► Military.decorations
Order, mystical -^ Mysticism
Organ Urghan
Organs, body ->■ Anatomy
Orientalism Mustashrikun
Ornament Zakhrafa
Ornithomancy c Iyafa
Orphan Yatim
Orthodoxy Sunna
Oryx Lamt; Mahat
Ostentation Riya'
Ostrich Na'am
Ottoman Empire ->■ Ottoman Empire
Outward meaning Zahir; al-Zahir wa '1-
Batin
Ownership Milk
LIST OF ENTRIES
Paediatrics -> Life Stages
Paganism -> Pre-Islam
Painting ->■ Art
Palace -> Architecture.monuments
Palaeography -> Epigraphy; Writing
Palanquin Mahmal
Paleography see Palaeography
Palm Nakhl
Palmoscopy Ikhtiladj
Panarabism -> Panarabism
Pandore Tunbur
Panegyric Madih
Panislamism -> Panislamism
Pantheism -> Religion
Panther Namir
Panturkism -> Panturkism
Paper Kaghad
Paper seller Warrak
Papyrology -> Papyrology
Papyrus Papyrus
Paradise -> Paradise
Parakeet Babbagha'
Parasol Mizalla
Parchment Rakk
Parliament Madjlis
Paronomasia Muzawadja; Tadjnis
Parrot Babbagha'
Partnership Sharika
Party, political -> Politics
Passion play Ta'ziya
Past Madi
Pastimes -> Recreation
Pasture Mar'a
Pastures, summer Yaylak
Pastures, winter Kishlak
Patriotism Wataniyya
Patronymic Kunya
Pauper Fakir; Miskin
Pavilion -> Architecture.monuments
Pay -> Payments
Peace Sulh
Peacock Tawus
Peacock throne Takht-i Tawus
Pearl al-Durr; Lu'lu'
Pedagogy Tarbiya
Pediatrics see Paediatrics
Pen Kalam
Pen-name Takhallus
Penal law -> Law
People Kawm; Sha'b
Performers -> Professions.craftsmen
AND TRADESMEN
Perfume -> Perfume
Periodicals -»■ Press
Persian -> Languages.indo-
european.iranian; Linguistics
Person Shakhs
Personal status -*■ Law
Petroleum -> Oil
Pharmacology -> Pharmacology
Philately -> Philately
Philology -> Linguistics
Philosophy -> Philosophy
Phlebotomist [in Suppl.] Fassad
Phonetics -> Linguistics
Photography -► Art
Physician -> Medicine
Physics [in Suppl.] Tabi'iyyat
Physiognomancy Kiyafa
Physiognomy -> Physiognomy
Pickpocket Tarrar
Piety Wara'; [in Suppl.] Takwa
Pig Khinzir
Pigeon Hamam
Pilgrimage -> Pilgrimage
Pillar Rukn
Pillars of Islam -> Islam
Piracy -> Piracy
Pirate -> Piracy
Plagiarism [in Suppl.] Sarika
Plague ->■ Plague
Planet -> Astronomy
Plants -> Flora
Plaster Djiss
Platonic love ->■ Love
Pleasure-garden -> Architecture.
monuments.gardens
Pledge Rahn
Plough Mihrath
Plural Djam c
Poem -> Literature.genres.
poetry
Poet Sha'ir
Poetry -> Literature
Poison Summ
Pole al-Kutb
Police -> Military
Politics -> Politics
LIST OF ENTRIES
Poll-tax Djizya
Polytheism Shirk
Pomegranate blossom [in Suppl.]
Djullanar
Porcupine Kunfudh
Port Mina'
Porter Hammal
Portmaster Shah Bandar (and [in Suppl.]
Shahbandar)
Possession (by spirits) Zar
Postal history ->■ Philately
Postal service -»• Transport
Potash al-Kily
Pottery -»■ Art
Powers, balance of Tawazun al-Sulutat
Prayer ->• Prayer
Prayer direction Kibla
Prayer niche Mihrab
Pre-emption Shu fa
Pre-Islam -»• Pre-Islam
Preacher Wa'iz
Precious stones ->■ Jewelry
Predestination -> Predestination
Preface Mukaddima
Pregnancy -»• Life Stages.childbirth
Presentation issues (coinage) Yadgar
Press -»• Press
Primary school Kuttab
Principles of grammar Usui
Principles of jurisprudence Usui al-Fikh
Principles of religion Usui al-Dln
Printing Matba'a
Printing, block ->■ Writing.manuscripts
AND BOOKS
Prison Sidjn
Prisoner -»■ Military
Procedure, legal -»■ Law
Processions Mawakib
Profession of faith Shahada
Professions -»■ Professions
Profit Kasb
Prologue Ibtida'
Property -»■ Property
Property owner see Landowner
Prophecy ->■ Prophethood
Prophet ->■ Muhammad, the Prophet;
Prophethood
Prophethood -»• Prophethood
Prose ->■ Literature
Proselytism, Christian Tabshir
Proselytism, Islamic -*■ Islam
Prosody ->■ Literature.poetry; Metrics;
Rhyme
Prostitution [in Suppl] Bigha'
Protection Himaya; Idjara
Proverb -»• Literature; Proverbs
Pulpit Minbar
Punishment -»• Law.penal law; Punish-
ment
Punning Tadjnis
Purity Tahara
Pyramid Haram
Qat Kat
Quadrant Rub'
Quail Salwa
Queen mother Walide Sultan
Quicksilver Zibak
Quiddity Mahiyya
Quotation Tadmin
Qur'an -»• QurXn
Rabies see Dog
Radicalism Tatarruf
Raid -»• Raids
Railway -»• Transport
Rain prayer Istiska'
Rain stone Yada Tash
Rainbow Kaws Kuzah
Raisins Zabib
Ransoming [in Suppl.] Fida'
Reading (Qur'anic) -»• QurXn
Rebel [in Suppl.] Marid
Rebellion ->• Rebellion
Recitation ->• Qur'an. reading
Reconnaissance force Tali'a
Records ->• Administration
Recreation ->• Recreation
14
LIST OF ENTRIES
Reed Kasab
Reed-pen Kalam
Reed-pipe Ghayta; Mizmar
Reflection Fikr
Reform ->■ Reform
Register ->■ Administration.records
Religion -► Religion
Relinquishment (of a right) [in Suppl.]
Iskat
Renewal Tadjdid
Renewer Mudjaddid
Renunciation Zuhd
Repentance Tawba
Representation, legal Wilaya. 1
Reptiles ->■ Animals
Republic Djumhuriyya
Repudiation Talak
Resemblance Shubha
Resettlement [in Suppl.] Siirgiin
Resurrection Kiyama
Retaliation Kisas
Retreat Khalwa
Revelation Ilham; Wahy
Revolt Thawra
Revolution Thawra
Rhapsodomancy Kur'a
Rhetoric ->■ Rhetoric
Rhinoceros Karkaddan
Rhyme ->■ Rhyme
Rice al-Ruzz
Riddle Lughz
Ritual (Islamic) 'Ibadat
Rituals ->■ Rituals
River -► Rivers
Road ->■ Transport
Robbery, highway Sarika
Robe of honour Khil'a
Rock-crystal Billawr
Rod 'Asa; Kadib
Rodents -> Animals
Rooster see Cock
Roots Usui; Usui al-Din; Usui al-Fikh
Rosary Subha
Rose Gul; Ward
Rose-water [in Suppl.] Ma' al-Ward
Ruby Yakut
Rug -► Art.tapestry
Sacred places ->■ Sacred Places
Sacrifices -► Sacrifices
Saddle, horse Sardj
Saffron Zafaran
Saint ->• Sainthood
Sal-ammoniac al-Nushadir
Salamander Samandal
Sale, contract of ->• Law.law of obliga-
tions
Salt Milh
Salt flats ->■ Geography.physical
GEOGRAPHY
Sand Rami
Sandal, the Prophet's [in Suppl.] al-Nai
al-Sharif
Sandalwood Sandal
Sandgrouse Kata
Sappan wood Bakkam
Satire Hidja'
Saturn Zuhal
Scanning Wazn.2
Scapulomancy Katif
Scholars 'Ulama'
School, legal [in Suppl.] Madhhab
School, primary Kuttab
Science ->■ Science
Scorpion 'Akrab
Scribe Katib; Yazidji; [in Suppl.] Dabir
Scripts -► Writing
Scripture Zabur
Scripture, tampering with Tahrif
Scrupulousness Wara'
Sea -+ Oceans and Seas
Seafaring -► Navigation
Seal Khatam; Muhr
Secret [in Suppl.] Sirr
Secretary Katib; [in Suppl.] Dabir
Sectarianism Ta'ifiyya
Sects ->• Sects
Sedentarisation [in Suppl.] Iskan
Sedentarism -► Sedentarism
Semitic languages Sam. 2
Sense Hiss; Mahsusat
Sermon Khutba
Sermoniser Kass
Servant Khadini
LIST OF ENTRIES
Sesame Simsim
Seven Sab'
Seveners ->■ Shhtes.branches
Sex Djins
Sexuality ->■ Sexuality
Shadow play Karagoz; Khayal al-Zill
Shawm Zurna
Sheep [in Suppl.] Ghanam
Sheep-herder Shawiya
Shell Wada'2
Shiism ->■ Shiites
Ship -i- Navigation
Shoemaker [in Suppl.] Iskaf
Shoewear -> Clothing
Shrine Zawiya
Shroud [in Suppl.] Kafan
Sickness -> Illness
Siege warfare Hisar
Siegecraft Hisar; Mandjanlk
Signature of ruler Tawki'
Silk Harir
Silver Fidda
Silver coinage Warik
Simile Tashbih
Sin Khati'a: [in Suppl] Ithm; Kabira
Singer -> Music.song
Singing -> Music.song
Skin blemish Shama
Slander Kadhf
Slaughterer [in Suppl.] Djazzar
Slave Abd
Slavery - 1 - Slavery
Snail Sadaf
Snake Hayya
Snake-charmer Hawi
Snipe Shunkub
Soap Sabun
Socialism Ishtirakiyya
Society DJam'iyya
Soda al-Kily; and see Natron
Sodium Natrun; and see Natron
Sodomy Liwat
Son Ibn
Song -> Music
Sorcery -> Magic
Soul Nafs
Sphere Falak; al-Kura
Spices -!• Cuisine.food
Spider Ankabut
Spoils (of war) -> Military.booty
Sport -!• Animals.sport; Recreation
Spouse Zawdj
Springs -> Geography.physical
geography
Spy Djasus
Squares, magical Wafk
Stable Istabl
Stamps -i- Philately
Standard Sandjak; Sandjak-i Sherif
Star -> Astronomy
Statecraft Siyasa
Stone Hadjar
Stone, rain Yada Tash
Stool Kursi
Story Hikaya
Storyteller Kass; Maddah
Straits -^ Geography.physical
GEOGRAPHY. WATERS
Street Shari c
Stronghold ->■ Architecture.monuments
Substance Djawhar
Succession (to the caliphate) Wali al-'Ahd
Successors (of the Companions) Tabi'un
Suckling -> Life Stages
Sufism -> Mysticism
Sugar Sukkar
Sugar-cane Kasab al-Sukkar
Suicide Intihar
Sulphur al-Kibrit
Sultan-fowl [in Suppl.] Abu Barakish.2
Summer quarters Yaylak
Sun Shams
Sundial Mizwala
Sunshade Mizalla
Superstition -> Superstition
Surety-bond Kafala
Surgeon Djarrah
Swahili -> Kenya
Sweeper Kannas
Syllable reduction Zihaf
Symbolism Ramz.3
Syntax Tasrif
LIST OF ENTRIES
Tablet Lawh
Tailor Khayyat
Talisman Tamima, Tilsam
Tambourine Duff
Tampering (with Scripture) see Scripture
Tanner [in Suppl.] Dabbagh
Tapestry -> Art
Tar Mumiya 5
Tattooing al-Washm
Taxation -> Taxation
Tea Cay
Tea-house [in Suppl.] Cay-khana
Teaching -> Education
Teak Sadj
Teeth -> Medicine.dentistry
Temperament [in Suppl.] Mizadj
Tent Khayma
Tenth see Tithe
Textiles ->■ Art; Clothing.
MATERIALS
Thankfulness Shukr
Theatre ->■ Literature.drama
Theft Sarika
Theology -> Theology
Theophany Mazhar; Tadjalli
Thief Liss
Thistle Shuka'a
Thought Fikr
Tide al-Madd wa 'l-Djazr
Tiles ->• Art
Tiller Mihrath
Time ->• Time
Timekeeping ->■ Time
Tithe TJshr
Titulature ->■ Onomastics.titles
Tobacco ->■ Drugs.narcotics
Tomb -> Architecture.monuments
Toothbrush Miswak
Tooth-pick Miswak
Torah Tawrat
Tower Burdj
Town Karya; Kasaba
Toys -> Recreation.games
Trade ->• Finance.commerce; Industry;
Navigation
Trade union Nikaba
Tradition -> Literature.tradition-
literature
Transcendentalism Tashbih wa-Tanzih
Transition (in poetry) Takhallus
Transitivity Taaddi
Translation -> Literature
Transport -»■ Transport
Travel ->• Travel
Treasury ->■ Treasury
Treaty ->■ Treaties
Trees ->■ Flora
Triangle Muthallath
Tribal chief Sayyid
Tribe ->• Tribes
Tribute ->■ Treaties
Trinity, divine Tathlith
Trope Madjaz
Trousers Sirwal
Trumpet Buk
Trust, charitable Wakf
Tuareg Tawarik
Turban Tulband
Turkic languages ->■ Languages
Turquoise Firuzadj
Turtle Sulahfa
Twelvers ->■ Shiites.branches
Twilight al-Shafak
Tyranny Zulm
Uncle Khal
Underground chamber Sardab
University Djamia
Uprising Thawra
Urban milieux ->■ Urbanism
Usurpation Ghasb
Usury Riba
Utterance [in Suppl.] Lafz. 1
Utterances, mystical [in Suppl.] Malfuzat
LIST OF ENTRIES
Vehicle -»• Transport, wheeled
vehicles
Veil -»• Clothing.headware
Ventilation -»• Architecture.urban
Venus Zuhara
Verb Fil
Vernacular -»• Languages.afro-
asiatic.arabic.arabic dialects;
Literature.poetry.vernacular
Verse Aya
Versifying [in Suppl.] Nazm. 1
Veterinary science -»■ Medicine
Vices -»• Virtues and Vices
Vigils, night Tahadjdjud
Vikings al-Madjus
Villa, seashore Yali
Village Karya
Vine Karm
Viol Rabab
Viper Afa
Virtues -»• Virtues and Vices
Vizier Wazir
Volcanoes -»• Geography.physical
GEOGRAPHY
Vow Nadhr
Voyage -»• Travel
Vulture Huma; Nasr
Wadis -> Geography.physical geogra-
phy
Wagon see Cart
Walnut [in Suppl.] Djawz
War Harb
Wardrobe -»• Clothing
Washer [in Suppl.] Ghassal
Washing -»• Ablution
Washing (of the dead) Ghusl
Water Ma'
Water-carrier Sakka'
Waterhouse -> Architecture.
MONUMENTS
Waterways -> Geography.physical
GEOGRAPHY
Waterwheel Na'ura
Weapon -> Military
Weasel Ibn c Irs
Weather -»• Meteorology
Weaver al-Nassadj; [in Suppl.] Ha'ik
Weaver-bird [in Suppl.] Abu Barakish.l
Weaving -> Art.textiles
Wedding c Urs
Week ->■ Time
Weighing (of coinage) Wazn. 1
Weights -»• Weights and Measure-
ments
Welfare Maslaha
Well -»• Architecture.monuments
Werewolf Kutrub
Wheat Kamh
Wild Wahsh;Wahshi
Wind -»• Meteorology
Wine -»• Wine
Winter quarters Kishlak
Wisdom Hikma
Witness Shahid
Wolf Dhi'b
Women -»• Women
Wood Khashab
Wool Suf
World Alam
Wormwood Afsantin
Wrestling Pahlawan; Zurkhana
Writing -> Writing
Yoghourt Yoghurt
Young Ottomans Yeni Othmanlilar
Young Turks -> Turkey.ottoman period
LIST OF ENTRIES
Zaydis -► Shiites.branches
Zero al-Sifr
Zodiac Mintakat al-Burudj
Zoology -> Zoology
Zoroastrianism -> Zoroastrians
INDEX OF SUBJECTS
The Muslim world in the Index of Subjects is the world of today. What once was the greater
realm of Persia is given here under Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Afghanistan, just as part of
the region once governed by the Ottoman Empire is covered by individual countries in Eastern
Europe and in the Near East. States established in the past century, such as Jordan and Leba-
non, are given right of place. Countries with a long history of Islam, e.g. Egypt and Syria, have
a subsection "modern period", where Encyclopaedia articles covering the 19th and 20th centu-
ries have been brought together.
The milddi year of death has been used for dating purposes. Thus, when an individual is
listed as "15th-century", the dating refers to his/her year of death C.E. This method of dating is
precise but regrettably unhelpful in some cases, as e.g. when an individual died in the very first
years of a new century or when a person's major works date from the previous century.
References in regular typeface are to Encyclopaedia articles; those printed in boldface type
indicate the main article. Entries in capitals and following an arrow refer to lemmata in the
Index of Subjects itself. Thus, in the case of
Bedouins Badw; Bi'r; Dawar; Ghanima; Ghazw; al-Hidjar; Iha'r
see also Liss; 'Urf.2.1; and -> Law. customary; Nomadism; Saudi Arabia;
Tribes.arabian peninsula
Badw; Bi'r; Dawar; Qhanlma; Qhazw; al-Hidjar, Tha'r refer to articles in the Encyclopaedia
that deal primarily with Bedouins, Badw being the article on Bedouins; Liss and c Urf.2.I refer
to an article or section of an article in the Encyclopaedia that contains information of interest
relating to Bedouins; and Law.customary; Nomadism; Saudi Arabia; Tribes.arabian pen-
insula refer the reader to analogous entries in the Index of Subjects.
The notation "(2x)" that follows an article — for example: Lar (2x) — indicates that there are
two separate articles in the Encyclopaedia under the same entry that have reference to the
indexed subject. Duplicate articles — on one rare occasion, triplicates — of one and the same
Encyclopaedia entry, usually under different entry headings and thus passing through unno-
ticed by the Editors, as well as sections of larger articles added at a later date in the Supplement
and lacking a reference in the main text, are indexed by the second occurrence of the article
following the first in parentheses with the connective and, as, for example: Muhammad Bey
'Uthman Djalal (and [in Suppl.] Muhammad 'Uthman Djalal).
Below is the Index of Subjects proper, in which all Encyclopaedia articles are grouped under
one or more general entries. For facility in finding an article on a specific word or topic (e.g.
"abstinence" or "sports"), the reader is referred to the List of Entries on p. 1.
Ablution Ghusl; Istindja 3 ; Istinshak; al-Mash c ala '1-Khuffayn; Tayammum; Wudu'
see also Djanaba; Hadath; Hammam; Hawd; Hayd; Tahara
20 ADMINISTRATION AFGHANISTAN
Administration Band; Bayt al-Mal; Daftar; Diplomatic; Diwan; Djizya; Katib; [in Suppl.]
Demography. I
see also al-Kalkashandl. 1 ; al-SulI; c Umar (I) b. al-Khattab;/or specific caliphates or dynas-
ties -> Caliphate; Dynasties; Ottoman Empire; and -»■ Andalusia; Egypt; India; Iran
diplomatic -> Diplomacy
financial c Ata"; Bayt al-Mal; Daftar; Dar al-Darb; Kanun.ii and iii; Kasb; Khazin; Khaznadar:
Makhzan; Musadara.2; Mustawfi; Ruznama; Siyakat; Zimam
see also Dhahab; Fidda; Hisba; Tadbir. 1 ; Wakf; and -»■ Numismatics; Ottoman Em-
pire.administration; Payments
fiscal -»■ Taxation
functionaries 'Amil; Amin; Amir; Amir al-Hadjdj; 'Arlf; Dawadar; Djahbadh; Hisba; Ishlk-
akasi; Kalantar; Katib; Khazin: Muahir; Mushrif; Mustakhridj; Mustawfi; Parwanaci;
Ra'is; Sahib al-Madina; Wall; Wazir; [in Suppl.] Dabir
see also Band; Consul; Fatwa; Fuyudj; Kotwal; Malik al-Tudjdjar; Mawla; Muwada c a.2;
Wazlfa.l; and -»■ Law.offices; Military.offices; Ottoman Empire
geography -»■ Geography.administrative
legal -> Law
military -> Military
Mongol -»■ Mongolia.mongols
Ottoman -»■ Ottoman Empire
records Daftar.I; Kanun.iii
and -»■ Documents; Ottoman Empire.administration
archives Dar al-Mahfuzat al- c Umumiyya; Geniza
and -»■ Ottoman Empire.administration
Adoption [in Suppl.] e Ar; [in Suppl.] c Ar; Tabannin
see also 'Ada. iii; Yatim.2.iii; [in Suppl.] Istilhak
Adultery Kadhf; Li'an; Zina
see also al-Mar'a.2
punishment of Hadd
Afghanistan Afghan; Afghanistan
architecture -»■ Architecture.regions
dynasties Ahmad Shah Durrani; Ghaznawids; Ghurids; Kart
see also Zunbil; and -> Dynasties.afghanistan and india
historians of Sayfl Harawi; [in Suppl.] Isfizari
language -> Languages.indo-iranian.iranian
modern period Djami'a; Dustur.v; Khaybar: Madjlis.4.B; Matba'a.5; [in Suppl.] Taliban
see also Muhadjir.3
statesmen c Abd al-Rahman Khan; Ayyub Khan; Dust Muhammad; Habib Allah Khan:
Muhammad Dawud Khan: Shir c Ali; [in Suppl.] Aman Allah
see also [in Suppl] Fakir of Ipi
physical geography Afghanistan.!
mountains Hindu Kush; Kuh-i Baba; Safld Kuh
see also Afghanistan.!
waters Dehas; Hamun; Harl Rud; Kabul. 1 ; Kunduz. 1 ; Kurram; Murghab; Pandjhir; [in
Suppl.] Gumal
see also Afghanistan.i; Zirih
population Abdali; Cahar Aymak; Durrani; Ghalca; Ghalzay; Moghols; Mohmand;
Tiirkmen.3; [in Suppl.] Demography .III; Hazaras; Kakar
AFGHANISTAN — AFRICA 21
see also Afghan.i; Afghanistan.ii; Khaladj; Ozbeg.l.d; Waziris; [in Suppl.] Djirga
toponyms
ancient Bushandj; Bust; Dihistan; Djuwayn.3; Farmul; Firuzkuh.l; Khost; Khudjistan;
Marw al-Rudh; al-Rukhkhadj; Talakan.l; Tukharistan; Walwalidj; Zabul; Zamln-
dawar
present-day
districts Andarab.l; Badghis; Farwan; Kuhistan.3; Lamghanat
regions Badakhshan; Dardistan; Djuzdjan; Ghardjistan; Ghur; Kafiristan; Khost;
Nangrahar; Sistan; Zabul; [in Suppl.] Hazaradjat
see also Pandjhir; Turkistan.2
towns Andkhuy ; Balkh; Bamiyan; Djam; Farah; Faryab. 1 ; Gardiz; Ghazna; Girishk;
Harat; Kabul.2; Kandahar; Karukh; Khulm; Kunduz.2; Maymana; Mazar-i Sharif;
Rudhbar. 1; Sabzawar.2; Sar-i Pul; Shibarghan; Talakan.3; [in Suppl.] Djalalabad;
Ishkashim
Africa Lamlam; Zandj
Central Africa Cameroons; Congo; Gabon; [in Suppl.] Cad
see also Muhammad Bello; al-Murdjibi; Wakf.VIII; [in Suppl.] Demography.V
for individual countries -> Chad; Congo; Zaire
literature Hausa.iii; Kano; Sha c ir.5 and 6; Shi c r.7; Ta'rikh.II.5
physical geography
deserts Sahil.2
population Kanuri; Kotoko; Shuwa; Tawarik; Tubu; Zaghawa
East Africa Djibuti; Eritrea; Habesh; Kenya; Kumr; Madagascar; Mafia; Somali; Sudan;
Tanzania; Uganda; Zandjibar; [in Suppl.] Malawi
see also Emin Pasha; Musahib; Nikah.II.5; al-Nudjum; Shirazi; Zandj. 1; Zar.l; [in Suppl.]
Djarida.viii
for individual countries -> Djibouti, republic of; Ethiopia; Kenya; Madagascar;
Malawi; Somalia; Sudan; Tanzania
architecture Manara.3; Masdjid.VI; Mbweni; Minbar.4
see also Shungwaya
festivals Mawlid.2; Nawruz.2
languages Eritrea.iv; Habash.iv; Kush; Nuba.3; Somali.5; Sudan.2; Swahili; Yao
see also Kumr; Madagascar
literature Mi c radj.3; Somali.6; Ta'rikh.II.e (and [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.S)
see also Kitabat.6; and -+ Kenya. swahili literature
mysticism Tarika.II.3; Ziyara.10
physical geography
waters Atbara; Bahr al-Ghazal. 1; Shebelle
see also Bahr al-Hind; Bahr al-Zandj
population 'Ababda; c Amir; Antemuru; Bedja; Beleyn; Bisharin; Dankali; Dja'aliyyun;
Galla; Marya; Mazru'i; Oromo; Somali. 1; Yao; [in Suppl.] Demography.V
see also Diglal; Lamlam; al-Manasir
North Africa Algeria; Ifrikiya; Libiya; Maghariba; al-Maghrib (2x); Masharika; Tunisia
see also al- c Arab.v; c Arabiyya.A.iii.3; Badw.II.d; Djaysh.iii; Ghuzz.ii; Hawz; Kharbga;
Kitabat.4; Lamt; Leo Africanus; Libas.ii; Mahalla; Manu; Saff.3; Sipahi.2; c Urf.2.I.B;
Wakf.II.3; [in Suppl.] c Ar; Mawlid; and -+ Dynasties.spain and north Africa
for individual countries -> Algeria; Libya; Morocco; TuNisiA;/or Egypt -+ Egypt
architecture -> Architecture.regions
history [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II. 1 .(e)
and -> Dynasties.spain and north Africa
22 AFRICA ALBANIA
modern period Baladiyya.3; Djama'a.ii; Djarida.B; Hilal; Kawmiyya.ii; Sihafa.2
and -> Algeria; Libya; Morocco; Tunisia
mysticism Tarika.II.2; Wall.2; Zawiya.2
see also Ziyara.4; and -> Mysticism.mystics
physical geography Atlas; Reg; Rif; Sabkha; al-Sahra 3 ; Shatt; Tall; Tasili; Wadi.2
and -► the section Physical Geography under individual countries
population Ahaggar; Berbers; Dukkala; Khult; al-Ma'kil; Shawiya.l; Tawarik; Tubu; [in
Suppl.] Demography .IV
see also Khumayr; Kumiya; al-Manasir; Mandil; Moors; and -► Berbers
Southern Africa Mozambique (and [in Suppl.]); South Africa
see also [in Suppl.] Djarida.ix
for individual countries -► Mozambique
West Africa Cote dTvoire; Dahomey; Gambia; Ghana; Guinea; Liberia; Mali; Muritaniya;
Niger; Nigeria; Senegal; Sierra Leone; Togo
see also Azalay; Kitabat.5; Kunbi Salih; al-Maghili; Malam; Muridiyya; Sudan (Bilad
al-).2; Sultan.3; Tadmakkat; Takfir.2; Takidda; Takrur; 'Ulama'.?; Wakf.VIII
for individual countries -> Benin; Guinea; Ivory Coast; Mali; Mauritania; Niger;
Nigeria; Senegal; Togo
architecture Kunbi Salih; Masdjid.VII
empires Mande; Oyo; Songhay.3
see also Muhammad b. Abi Bakr; Samori Ture; Takrur; 'Uthman b. Fudi
languages Hausa.ii; Nuba.3; Shuwa.2; Songhay.l; Sudan (Bilad al-).3
see also Fulbe; Kanuri; Senegal. 1 ; and -► Languages.afro-asiatic.arabic
literature -► Africa.central africa
mysticism Wali. 9; Zawiya.3; Ziyara.9
and -+ Mysticism.mystics.african
physical geography
deserts Sahil.2
mountains Futa Djallon; Tibesti
oases Waha.2
waters Niger
population Fulbe; Hartani; Hausa.i; Ifoghas; Kunta; Songhay.2; Tawarik; Tukulor;
Wangara; Yoruba; [in Suppl.] Demography.V
see also Lamlam; Mande; Takrur
Agriculture Filaha; Mar'a; Ra'iyya
see also Mazra'a; Mugharasa; Musakat; Muzara'a; Takdir.2; Takwim.2; [in Suppl.] Akkar;
and -> Botany; Flora; Irrigation
agricultural cooperatives Ta'awun
products Kahwa; Kamh; Karm; Kasab al-Sukkar; Khamr.2; Kutn; Nakhl; Narandj; al-Ruzz;
Sha'ir; [in Suppl.] Djawars; Hindiba'
see also Harir; and ->■ Cuisine.foods
terms Agdal; Ba c 1.2.b; Ciftlik; Ghuta: Matmura
tools Mihrath
treatises on Abu '1-Khayr al-Ishbili; Ibn Wafid; Ibn Wahshiyya; al-Tighnari
Albania Arnawutluk; Iskender Beg; Kara Mahmud Pasha
see also Muslimun.l.B.4; Sami; and -► Ottoman Empire
toponyms Ak Hisar.4; Awlonya; Delvina; Drac; Elbasan; Ergiri; Korea; Kruje; Lesh; Tiran;
[in Suppl.] Ishkodra
ALCHEMY — ALPHABET 23
Alchemy Dhahab; Fidda; al-Iksir; al-Kibrit; al-Kimiya'; Zfbak
see also Karun; Ma'din; al-Nushadir; Takwin; and -»• Metallurgy; Mineralogy
alchemists Djabir b. Hayyan; Ibn Umayl; Ibn Wahshiyya; al-Razi, Abu Bakr; al-Tughra'i;
[in Suppl.] Abu '1-Hasan al-Ansari; al-Djildaki
see also Hirmis; Khalid b. Yazld b. Mu'awiya; [in Suppl.] al-Djawbari, 'Abd al-Rahim;
Findiriski; Ibn Dakik al- c Id
equipment al-Anbik; al-Uthal
terms Rukn.2; Tabi'a.3; Zuhal; Zuhara
Algeria Algeria
see also 'Arabiyya.A.iii.3; 'Arsh; Halka; Zmala.3; and -»• Berbers; Dynasties.spain and
NORTH AFRICA
architecture -»■ Architecture.regions.north Africa
dynasties c Abd al-Wadids; Fatimids; Hammadids; Rustamids
and ->■ Dynasties.spain and north Africa
literature Hawfl; Malhun
modern period Djami'a; Djarida.i.B; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iv; Ma'arif.2.B; MadjlisAA.xx;
Sihafa.2.(i); [in Suppl.] Mahkama.4.xi
reform Ibn Badis; (al-)Ibrahimi; Salafiyya. 1 (b)
see also Fallak
Ottoman period (1518-1830) c Abd al-Kadir b. Muhyi al-Din; Algeria.ii.(2); c Arudj; Hasan
Agha; Hasan Baba; Hasan Pasha; al-Husayn; Husayn Pasha, Mezzomorto; Khayr al-
Din Pasha
see also Sipahi.2
physical geography Algeria. i
mountains c Amur; Atlas; Awras; Biban; Djurdjura; Kabylia; Wansharis
see also Tasili
salt flats Taghaza
population Ahaggar; Algeria.iii; Berbers; Zmala. 1
see also Kabylia; and -»■ Berbers
religion Algeria.iii; Shawiya.l
mystical orders 'Ammariyya; Rahmaniyya
see also Darkawa; Ziyaniyya; and ->■ Mysticism.mystics.north African
toponyms
ancient Arshgul; Ashir; al-Mansura; Sadrata; [in Suppl.] Hunayn
present day
oases Biskra; Kantara. 1 ; al-Kulay c a.2. 1 ; Laghouat; Suf; Wargla; [in Suppl.] Gourara
regions Hudna; Mzab; Sahil.l.b; Tuwat; Zab
towns Adrar.l; al- c Annaba; Arzaw; c Ayn Temushent; Bidjaya; Biskra; Bulayda;
Colomb-Bechar; al-Djaza J ir; Djidjelli; Ghardaya: Kal'at Bani c Abbas; Kal c at
Huwwara; al-Kulay'a.2.2; Kustantina; Laghouat; al-Madiyya; Masila; Milyana;
al-Mu'askar; Mustaghanim; Nadruma; Sa'ida; Sharshal; Sidi Bu 'l-'Abbas;
Tadallis; Tahart; Tanas; Tebessa; Tilimsan; Tinduf; Tubna; Tuggurt; Wahran;
Wargla
Alms Khayr; Sadaka; Zakat
see also Wakf
Alphabet Abdjad; Harf; Hisab; HurQf al-Hidja'
see also Djafr; Khatt: [in Suppl.] Buduh; and ->■ Writing.scripts
for the letters of the Arabic and Persian alphabets, see Dad; Dal; Dhal; Djim; Fa 3 ; Ghayn;
ANDALUSIA
Ha'; Ha'; Hamza; Kaf; Kaf; Kha': Lam; Mim; Nun; Pa'; Ra'; Sad; Sin and Shin; Ta' and
Ta'; lha'; Waw; Ya'; Za'; Zay
secret -»■ Cryptography
Anatomy Djism; Katif; Tashrih; [in Suppl.] Aflimun
see also Ishara; Khidab; Kiyafa; Shama; [in Suppl.] Dam
body
chest Sadr
eye 'Ayn; al-Kuhl; Manazir; Ramad
see also Za'faran.2; [in Suppl] Ma' al-Ward; and -»■ Medicine.ophthalmology;
Optics
hair c Afs; Afsantin; Hinna'; Lihya-yi Sherif; Sha'r
see also [in Suppl.] Hallak
limb Yamin
organs Kabid; Kalb
teeth -»■ Medicine.dentistry
treatises on
Turkish Shani-zade
and -»■ Medicine.medical handbooks/encyclopaedias
Andalusia al-Andalus; Gharb al-Andalus; Moriscos; Mozarab; Mudejar; Shark al-Andalus
see also Kitabat.3; Libas.ii; Ma'.7; al-Madjus; Moors; Muwallad.l; Safir.2.b; Sa'ifa.2; al-
Thughur.2; and -»■ Dynasties.spain and north africa; Spain
administration Diwan.iii; Kumis; Sahib al-Madina; Zahir
see also Fata; Wakf.II.4
architecture -»■ Architecture.regions
art al-Andalus. ix
conquest of al-Andalus.vi. 1 ; Musa b. Nusayr; Tarik b. Ziyad
dynasties al-Murabitun.4; al-Muwahhidun; Umayyads.In Spain; Zirids.2; [in Suppl.] c Azafi
see also al-Andalus.vi; (Banu) Kasi; Tawil, Banu; c Umar b. Hafsun; and -»■ Dynasties.
SPAIN AND NORTH AFRICA
reyes de taifas period (11th century) c Abbadids; Aftasids; 'Amirids; Dtju '1-Nunids;
Djahwarids; Hammudids; Hudids; Muluk al-Tawa'if.2; Razin, Banu; Tahirids.2;
Tudjib; [in Suppl.] Sumadih
see also Balansiya; Daniya; Gharnata; Ibn Ghalbun; Ibn Rashik, Abu Muhammad;
Ishbiliya; Kurtuba; Mudjahid, al-Muwaffak; Parias; al-Sid; Zuhayr
governors until Umayyad conquest ' Abd al-Malik b. Katan; c Abd al-Rahman al-Ghafiki; Abu
'1-Khattar; al-Hurr b. c Abd al-Rahman al-Thakafi; al-Husam b. Dirar; Tudjib; 'Ubayd
Allah b. Habhab; Yusuf b. c Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri
see also al-Andalus.vi.2; Kalb b. Wabara; Musa b. Nusayr; al-Sumayl
literature Aljamia; c Arabiyya.B .Appendix; Fahrasa
and -»■ Andalusia.scholars.historians; Literature.poetry.andalusian
mysticism ->■ Mysticism.mystics.andalusian
physical geography -»■ Spain
scholars
astronomers Abu '1-Salt Umayya (and Umayya, Abu '1-Salt); al-Bitrudji; Djabir b. Aflah;
Ibn al-Saffar; Ibn al-Samh; al-Madjriti; Muhammad b. c Umar; al-Zarkali
see also Zidj.iii.4
grammarians Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati; al-Batalyawsi; Djudi al-Mawruri; Ibn al- c Arif,
al-Husayn; Ibn c Asim; Ibn al-Iflili; Ibn Khatima; Ibn al-Kutiyya; Ibn Mada'; Ibn
Malik; Ibn Sida; al-Rabahi; al-Shalawbin; al-Shantamari; al-Sharif al-Gharnati; al-
ANDALUSIA — ANIMALS 25
Sharishi; al-Zubaydi; [in Suppl.] Ibn Hisham al-Lakhmi
see also al-Shatibi, Abu Ishak; and -*■ the section Lexicographers below
geographers Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri; Ibn c Abd al-Mun c im al-Himyari; Ibn Ghalib; al-Idrisi;
al- c Udhri; al-Warrak, Muhammad; al-Zuhri, Muhammad
historians al-Dabbi, Abu Dja'far; Ibn al-Abbar, Abu 'Abd Allah; Ibn 'Abd al-Malik al-
Marrakushi; Ibn Bashkuwal; Ibn Burd.I; Ibn al-Faradl; Ibn Ghalib; Ibn Hayyan; Ibn
c Idhari; Ibn al-Khatib; Ibn al-Kutiyya; Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi; al-Makkari; al-Rushati;
al-Warrak, Muhammad
see also al-Shakundi; al-'Udhri; [in Suppl.] al-Suhayli; and -> Dynasties.spain and
NORTH AFRICA
jurists al-Badji; al-Dani; al-Humaydi; Ibn Abi Zamanayn; Ibn 'Asim; Ibn al-Faradi; Ibn
Habib, Abu Marwan; Ibn Hazm, Abu Muhammad; Ibn Kuzman.III and IV (and [in
Suppl.] Kuzman.3 and 4); Ibn Mada'; Ibn Rushayd; c Isa b. Dinar; c Iyad b. Musa; al-
Kalasadi; al-Kurtubi, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Kurtubi, Yahya; (al-)Mundhir b. Sa'id;
Shabtun; al-Julaytuli; al-Turtushi; al- c Utbi, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Wakkashi; Yahya
b. Yahya al-Laythi; [in Suppl.] Ibn Rushd; al-Nubahi
see also al-Khushani; Malikiyya; Sa'id al-Andalusi; Shura.2; Shurta.2: [in Suppl.]
Ibn al-Rumiyya
lexicographers Ibn Sida; al-Zubaydi
toponyms -> Spain
Angelology Malaika; [in Suppl.] MalaM
see also 'Adhab al-Kabr; Dik; Iblis; Karin; Ruhaniyya; Sihr
angels c Azazil; Djabra'il; Harut wa-Marut; Israfil; 'Izra'il; Mikal; Munkar wa-Nakir; Ridwan
see also al-Zabaniyya
Animals Dabba; Hayawan
see also Badw; (Djazirat) al- c Arab.v; Farw; Hind.i.l; Khasi; Marbat; [in Suppl.] Djazzar;
and -> Zoology
and art al-Asad; Fahd; Fil; Hayawan.6; Karkaddan; Ma'din; Namir and Nimr; [in Suppl.] Arnab
see also Zakhrafa
and proverbs Hay aw an. 2; Mathal
and see articles on individual animals, in particular Af a; Dhi'b; Fahd; Ghurab; Kata;
Khinzir; Kird; Lamt; Naml; Yarbu 1
animals
antelopes Ghazal; Lamt; Mahat
arachnoids c Akrab; 'Ankabut
bats Watwat
birds Babbagha 1 ; Dadjadja; Dik; Ghurab; Hamam; Hudhud; Huma; Kata; Na c am; Nasr;
Nuham; al-Rukhkh; Salwa; Shunkub; al-Ta'ir; Tawus; Toghril; c Ukab; Wakwak.4;
[in Suppl.] Abu Barakish
see also Bayzara; Bulbul; 'Iyafa; al-Ramadi; Sonkor; Timsah
camels Ibil
see also (Djazirat) al- c Arab.v; Badw.II.c and d; Karwan; Rahil; Wasm; [in Suppl.]
Djammal; and -> Transport.caravans
canines Dhi'b; Fanak; Ibn Awa; Kalb; Saluki; Tha'lab; [in Suppl.] Dabu 1
crustaceans Sarafan
domesticated Bakar; Fil; Ibil; Kalb; Khinzir; Nims; [in Suppl.] Djamus; Ghanam
see also Shawiya.2; and -> Animals.equines
equines Badw.II; Baghl; Faras; Himar; Khayl
see also Faris; Furusiyya; Hazin; Ibn Hudhayl; Ibn al-Mundhir; Istabl; Marbat;
26 ANIMALS ARCHITECTURE
Maydan; Mir-Akhur; Sardj
felines 'Anak; al-Asad; Fahd; Namir and Nimr; Sinnawr
fish Samak
see also al-Ta'ir
insects Dhubab; Djarad; Kami; Nahl; Naml; Namus.2; al-Ta'ir
molluscs Sadaf
reptiles Af a; Dabb; Hayya; Hirba'; Samandal; Sulahfa; Timsah
see also Adam; Almas
rodents Yarbu'; [in Suppl.] Fa'r
sport Bayzara; Fahd; Furusiyya; Hamam; Khinzir; Mahat; [in Suppl.] Dabu'
see also Cakirdji-bashi; Doghandji; Kurds.iv.C.5; and ->■ Hunting
transformation into Hayawan.3; Kird; Maskh
wild in addition to the above, see also Ayyil; Fanak; Fil; Ibn 'Irs; Karkaddan; Kird; Kunfudh;
Zarafa; [in Suppl.] Arnab; Faras al-Ma 5
see also Wahsh; and ->■ Hunting
Anthropomorphism Hashwiyya; Karramiyya; Tashbih wa-Tanzih
see also Bayan b. Sam'an al-Tamimi; Djism; Hisham b. al-Hakam; Hulmaniyya; al-
Mukanna'; [in Suppl.] al-Mufaddal b. Salama
Apostasy Mulhid; Murtadd
see also Katl; [in Suppl.] al-Ridda; and -► Heresy
Arabian Peninsula -> Bahrain; Kuwait; Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; United Arab
Emirates; Yemen; and the section Arabian Peninsula under Architecture.regions;
Dynasties; Pre-Islam; Tribes
Archaeology -► Architecture.regions; Epigraphy; and the section Toponyms under in-
dividual countries
Turkish archaeologists 'Othman Hamdi
Architecture Architecture; Bina'
see also Kitabat; Wakf; and -+ Military
architects Kasim Agha; Khayr al-Din; Sinan
decoration Fusayfisa'; Kashi; Khatt: Parcin-kari; Tughra.2(d)
materials Djiss; Labin; [in Suppl.] Rukham
see also Bina'
monuments
aqueducts Kantara.5 and 6
see also Fakir; Sinan
baths Hammam; Hammam al-Sarakh
bridges Djisr; Djisr Banat Ya'kub; Djisr al-Hadid; Djisr al-Shughr
see also Dizful; Kantara; Sayhan
churches -+ Christianity
dams Band
see also Dizful; Sawa.2.i; Shushtar; [in Suppl.] Abu Sinbil; and ->■ Hydrology
gardens Bustan; Ha'ir
see also Bostandji; Gharnata.B; Hawd; MaM2; Srinagar.2; Yali; and -> Flora;
Literature.poetry.nature
gates Bab; Bab-i Humayun; Harran.ii.d
granaries [in Suppl.] Kasr.2.B
ARCHITECTURE 27
lighthouses Manar; al-Nazur
mausolea -> Architecture.monuments.tombs
mills Tahun
monasteries -> Christianity; Mysticism
mosques Hawd; Kiilliyye; Manara; Masdjid; Mihrab; Minbar
see also 'Anaza; Bab.i; Bahw; Balat; Dikka; Khatib; Musalla.2; Zawiya.l
individual mosques Aya Sofya; al-Azhar; Harran.ii.(b); Husayni Dalan; Ka'ba; al-
Karawiyyin; Kubbat al-Sakhra; Kutb Minar; al-Masdjid al-Aksa; al-Masdjid al-
Haram; Zay tuna. 1
see also Ankara; Architecture; Bahmanis; Dhar.2; Djam; Edirne; Hamat; Hims;
Kazimayn; Kazwin; Ma'arrat al-Nu'man; Makka.4; Sinan
obelisks Misalla
palaces Saray; [in Suppl.] Kasr.2.A
see also Balat
individual palaces Ciraghan; Kasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi; Kasr al-Hayr al-Sharki;
Kaykubadiyya; Khirbat al-Mafdjar; Khirbat al-Minya; Kubadabad; Mahall; al-
Mushatta; Topkapi Sarayi; al-Ukhaydir; Y!ld!z Sarayi; [in Suppl.] Djabal Says;
Kasr al-Mushash; Kasr Tuba; Kastal; al-Khuld
see also Gharnata.B; Khirbat al-Bayda'; Kubbat al-Hawa J ; Lashkar-i Bazar
pavilions Koshk
see also Yali
strongholds Burdj; Hisar; Hisn; Kasaba; Sur; [in Suppl.] Kasr.2
see also al-'Awasim; Bab.ii; al-Kal c a; Ribat; al-Thughur; Udj
individual strongholds Abu Safyan; Agra; Alamut.i.; Alindjak; 'Amadiya; Anadolu
Hisari; Anamur; Anapa; Asirgarh; Atak; Bab al-Abwab; Bala Hisar; Balatunus;
Barzuya; Baynun; Bhakkar; Canderi; Cirmen; al-Darum; Dja'bar; al-Djarba';
Gaban; Gawilgafh; Ghumdan: Gok Tepe; Golkonda; Hadjar al-Nasr; Hansi;
Harran.ii.(a); Hisn al-Akrad; Hisn Kayfa; Istakhr; Kakhta; Kal'at Nadjm; Kal'at
al-Shakif; Kalawdhiya; Kal c e-i Sefid; Kandahar; Kanizsa; al-Karak; Kawkab al-
Hawa 1 ; Kharana; Khartpert; Kherla; Khotin; Khunasira; Kilat-i Nadiri; Koron;
Koyul Hisar; Lanbasar; Luleburgaz; Mandu; Manohar; al-Markab; Mudgal:
Narnala; Parenda; al-Rawandan; Rohtas; Rum Kal'esi; Rumeli Hisari; Sahyun;
Shalbatarra; Softa; al-Subayba; Umm al-Rasas; Yeni KaFe; [in Suppl.] Badiya;
Bubashtru; al-Dikdan; Firrim; Nandana
see also Ashir; Bahmanis; Bidar; Dawlatabad; Diyar Bakr; Hims; Kawkaban.2;
Khursabad; Mahall; Mahur; Thadi
tombs Kabr; Kubba; Makbara; Mashhad; Turba
see also Muthamman; Wali.4, 5 and 8; Zawiya; Ziyara
individual buildings Baki c al-Gharkad; Golkonda; Harran.ii.(c); Makli; Nafisa;
Radkan; Sahsaram; Tadj Mahall
see also Abarkuh; Abu Ayyub al-Ansari; Abu Madyan; Agra; Ahmad al-Badawi;
Ahmad Yasawi; Bahmanis; Barid Shahis.II; Djahangir; Ghazi Miyan; Gunbadh-
i Kabus; Hims; Imamzada; Karak Nuh; Karbala'; Kazwin; al-Khalil; Kubbat al-
Hawa'; Ma'arrat al-Nu c man; al-Madina; Sultaniyya.2; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.a.A
water-houses Sabil.2
fire-pumps Tulumbadji
fountains Shadirwan
wells Ba'oli; Bi'r; BPr Maymun; Zamzam
see also Hawd
regions
Afghanistan and Indian subcontinent Agra; Bahmanis; Barid Shahis.II; Bharoc; Bidar;
28 ARCHITECTURE ART
Bidjapur; Bihar; Campaner; Dawlatabad; Dihll.2; Djunagafh; Ghaznawids; Ghurids:
Golkonda; Hampi; Hansi; Haydarabad; Hind.vii; Husayni Dalan; Kutb Mlnar; Lahore;
Lakhnaw; Mahall; Mahisur; Mandu.2; Mughals.7; Multan.2; Nagawr; Sind.4:
Srinagar.2; Tadj Mahall; Tughlukids.2; Ucch.2; [in Suppl.] Nandana; f hatta.2
see also Burdj.iii; Bustan.ii; Imam-bara; Lashkar-i Bazar; Ma\12; Makbara.5; Makli;
Manara.2; Masdjid.H; Mihrab; Minbar.3; Mizalla.5; Muthamman; Parcin-kari;
Pishtak
Africa -*■ Africa; for North African architecture, see below
Andalusia al-Andalus.ix; Burdj.II; Gharnata; Ishbiliya; Kurtuba; Nasrids.2
see also al-Nazur
Arabian peninsula al-Hidjr; Ka'ba; al-Masdjid al-Haram
see also Makka.4; San'a 5 ; Tahirids.3.2
Central Asia Bukhara; Hisn.iii; Ilkhans; Samarkand. 2; Timurids.3.b
see also Mihrab
Egypt Abu '1-Hawl; al-Azhar; Haram; al-Kahira; Mashrabiyya. 1 ; Nafisa; [in Suppl.]
Mamluks
see also Mihrab; Misalla; Misr; Sa'id al-Su'ada 3 ; al-Uksur; [in Suppl.] Abu Sinbil
Fertile Crescent Baghdad; Dimashk; Harran.ii; Hims; 'Irak.vii; Kubbat al-Sakhra; al-Kuds;
Ma'arrat al-Nu'man; al-Markab.3; al-Masdjid al-Aksa; al-Rakka; al-Ukhaydir; [in
Suppl.] Badiya; Dar al-Hadith.I
see also Kasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi; Kasr al-Hayr al-Sharki; Khirbat al-Mafdjar; Mihrab;
al-Rawandan; [in Suppl.] Kasr al-Mushaah; Kasr Tuba; Kastal
Iran Hisn.ii; Isfahan.2; Istakhr; Kazwin; Khursabad; Mashrabiyya.2; Radkan; al-Rayy.2;
Safawids.V; Saldjukids.VI; Samanids.2(b); Sultaniyya.2; Tabriz.2; Tihran.IJ.b.ii;
Tus.2; Waramin.2; Zawara; [in Suppl.] Iran.viii.(b)
see also Kasr-i Shirin; Mihrab; Ribat-i Sharaf; Yazd.l; [in Suppl.] Makbara.4
North Africa Fas; Fatimid Art; Hisn.i; Kal'at Bani Hammad; al-Karawiyyin; Zaytuna.l;
[in Suppl.] Kasr.2
see also 'Anaza; Bidjaya; Mihrab
Southeast Asia Hisn.iv; Indonesia.v; Masdjid.III-V
Turkey Adana; Ankara; Aya Sofya; Diwrigi; Diyar Bakr; Edirne; Harran.ii; Hisn Kayfa;
Istanbul; Konya.2; Laranda; 'Othmanli.V; [in Suppl.] Istanbul.VIII
see also Kaplidja; Kasim Agha; Khayr al-Din; Kbshk; Mihrab; Rum Kal'esi; Sinan;
Yali
terms c Amud; c Anaza; Bahw; Balat; Iwan; Mukarbas; Mukarnas; Muthamman; Pishtak;
Riwak; Saray; Sardab; Shadirwan; Tiraz.3
urban Bab; Dar; Funduk; Hammam; Iwan; Kaysariyya; Khan.II; Madrasa.III; Masdjid;
Musalla.2; Rab'; Selamlik; Shari'; Suk; Sur
see also Kanisa; Saray; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.a.B; and -> Sedentarism; Urbanism
fountains -+ Architecture.monuments.water-houses
ventilation Mirwaha; [in Suppl.] Badgir
see also Khaysh; Sardab; Sind.4
Armenia Arminiya; Rewan; Shimshat
and ->■ Caucasus
Art Arabesque; Fann; Fusayfisa 5 ; Kashi; Khatt; Khazaf; Kitabat; Lawn; Ma c din.4; Parcin-
kari; Rasm; Taswir; Tiraz; Zakhrafa; Zalidj; Zudjadj
see also Architecture; Billawr; Dhahab; Fidda; 'Ilm al-Djamal; Khatam; Muhr; Sura; and
-> Animals.and art; Architecture; Writing.manuscripts and books
calligraphy Khatt (and [in Suppl.]); Tughra
ART ASCETICISM 29
see also 'Ali; inal; Kum(m)I; Murakka'; Nuskha; Tazwir; Timurids.3.a; and -► Writing
calligraphers 'All Rida-i 'Abbasi; Hamza al-Harrani; Ibn al-Bawwab; Ibn Mukla;
Muhammad Husayn Tabriz!; Mustakim-zade; Yakut al-Musta'simi
ceramics -> Art.pottery
decorative 'Adj; al-Asad; Djiss; Fahd; Hayawan.6; Hilal.ii; Ilkhans; al-Kamar.II; Mashrabiyya;
Parcin-kari; Shams.3; Tawrik; Tiraz; 'Unwan.2; Yashm.2; Zakhrafa
see also Kashi; Ma'din.4; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.b
drawing Rasm
glass al-Kily; 'Othmanli.VII.d; Samanids.2(a); Zudjadj; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.b.C
handicrafts Kalamkari; [in Suppl.] Bisat; Dawat
see also Haifa 3
illumination 'Unwan.2; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.b.D; and ->■ Writing
metalware Bidar; Ilkhans; Ma'din.4; 'Othmanli.VII.b; Samanids.2(a); Timurids.3.d; [in Suppl.]
Ibrik; Mamluks.iii.b.A
mosaics Fusayfisa'; Kashi; Zalidj
painting Taswir. 1
miniatures Ilkhans; Mughals.9; Nakkash-khana; 'Othmanli.VIII
see also Fil; Kalila wa-Dimna.16; Mandu.3; Mi'radj.5; al-Mizan.3; Murakka';
Rustam.2; Saki.3; Timurids.3.a; [in Suppl.] Djawhar; and ->■ Animals.and art;
Art.drawing
miniaturists Bihzad; Mansur; Matrakc!; Nakkash Hasan (Pasha); Rida 'Abbasi;
Rida'i; Siyah-kalem; [in Suppl.] Lewni
see also 'Ali; Lukman b. Sayyid Husayn
modern painting Taswir. 3
and ->■ Art.drawing
painters Djabran Khalil Djabran; 'Othman Hamdi; Sipihri; [in Suppl.] Dinet;
Eyyuboghlu, Bedri
photography Taswir.2
pottery Anadolu.iii.6; al-Andalus.ix; Fakhkhar; Ilkhans; Iznik; Kallala; Khazaf; Mina'i;
'Othmanli.VII.a; Samanids.2(a); Sini; Timurids.3.c; Tin.2; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.b.B;
Oren Kal'e
regional and period al-Andalus.ix; Berbers. VI; Fatimid Art; Ilkhans; 'Irak.vii; Mughals.8
and 9; 'Othmanli.VII; Saldjukids.VI; Samanids.2(a); TimQrids.3.a; [in Suppl.]
Iran.viii.(a); Khatt.vi; Mamluks.iii.b
silhouette-cutting Fakhri
tapestry Anadolu.iii.6; 'Othmanli.VI; Sadjdjada.2; 'Ushak.2; [in Suppl.] Bisat
see also Karkaddan; Mafrushat; Mifrash; Milas.2
textiles Harir; Kumash; Tiraz; [in Suppl.] Ha'ik
see also Kalamkari; Kasab; Kattan; Kurkub; Mandil; al-Nassadj; and ->■ Clothing.
MATERIALS
production centres al-Andalus.ix; al-Bahnasa; Dabik; Tinnis
see also Bursa; Ilkhans; Mughals.8; 'Othmanli.VI; al-Rayy.2; Samanids.2(a); Yazd.l;
and ->■ Art.tapestry
tiles Kashi
see also Anadolu.iii.6
Asceticism Bakka 3 ; Malamatiyya; Zuhd
see also Khalwa; Manakib; [in Suppl.] Asad b. Musa b. Ibrahim; Salat-i Ma'kusa;/or ascet-
ics ->■ Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood
poetry Zuhdiyya
30 ASIA — ASTRONOMY
Asia Almaligh; Baikal
see also Baraba; Mogholistan
Central -> Central Asia
East Cam; Djawi; Indochina; Indonesia; Kimar; Malay Peninsula; Malaysia; Patani; Philip-
pines; al-Shila; al-Sin; Singapore; Thailand; Tubbat; al-Yabani; [in Suppl.] Brunei
see also Kitabat.8; Sanf; Shah Bandar.2; <Ulama\5; Wakf.VII.ii-vi; Wakwak; Wall.7;
Zabadj; [in Suppl.] Demography. VIII; al-Mar'a; and -* Architecture.
REGIONS.SOUTHEAST ASIA; LAW.IN SOUTHEAST ASIA; ONOMASTICS.TITLES; PRE-ISLAM.IN
SOUTHEAST ASIA
for individual countries -> China; Indonesia; Malaysia; Mongolia; Philippines;
Thailand; for Japan, see al-Yabani;/or Tibet, see Tubbat
Eurasia -> Europe
South Bangala; Burma; Ceylon; Hind; Laccadives; Maldives; Mauritius; Minicoy; Nepal;
Nicobars; Pakistan; Seychelles
see also Ruhmi; Wakf.VII.i
for individual countries -> Bangladesh; Burma; India; Nepal; Pakistan; Sri Lanka
Assyria Khursabad; Nimrud; Ninawa.l; Zindjirli; [in Suppl.] Athur
Astrology Ikhtiyarat; Kaws Kuzah; al-Kayd; Kiran; Mintakat al-Burudj; Munadjdjim;
Nudjum (Ahkam al-); al-Tasyir
see also Khatt; Za'irdja; Zidj; and -► Astronomy.celestial objects
astrologers Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi; al-Biruni; Ibn Abi T-Ridjal, Abu '1-Hasan; Ibn al-Khasib.
Abu Bakr; al-Kabisi; al-Khayyat, Abu c Ali; Masha' Allah; 'Utarid b. Muhammad; [in
Suppl.] Yazidji
see also Batlamiyus; and -> Astronomy; Divination
terms al-Djawzahar; Hadd; Kat c ; Muthallath; Sa c d wa-Nahs (and al-Sa'dan'; Shakawa); al-
Sahm.l.b; al-Tali c .2; al-Tinnin
Astronomy Anwa 3 ; Asturlab; Falak; Hay'a; 11m al-Hay'a; al-Kamar.I; al-Kayd; Kusuf; al-
Kutb; al-Madd wa T-Djazr; al-Madjarra; al-Manazil; Mintakat al-Burudj; al-Nudjum; Zidj
see also Djughrafiya; Kibla.ii; al-Kubba; al-Kura; Makka.4; Mikat.2; Mizwala
astronomers c Abd al-Rahman al-Sufl; Abu T-Salt Umayya (and Umayya, Abu '1-Salt); 'Ali
al-Kushdji; al-Badi c al-Asturlabi; al-Battani; al-Biruni; al-Bitrudji; Djabir b. Aflah; al-
Djaghmini; al-Farghani; Habash al-Hasib al-Marwazi; Ibn Amadjur; Ibn al-Banna' al-
Marrakushi; Ibn Trak; Ibn al-Saffar; Ibn al-Samh; Ibn Yunus; al-Kashi; al-Kh w arazmi.
Abu DjaTar; al-Khazin; al-Khazini; al-Khudjandi: Kushiyar b. Laban; Kutb al-Din
Shirazi; al-Madjriti; al-Mardini; al-Marrakushi; Muhammad b. Tsa al-Mahani;
Muhammad b. 'Umar; al-Nayrizi; al-Shayzari; Taki al-Din; Thabit b. Kurra; al-Tusi,
Nasir al-Din; c Umar Khayyam; 'Utarid b. Muhammad; al-Zarkali; [in Suppl.] 'Abd al-
Salam b. Muhammad; Kadi-zade Rumi; al-Kuhi
see also Batlamiyus; al-Falaki; Falaki Shirwani; Ibn al-Haytham; Kusta b. Luka;
Sindhind; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Adjdabi; and -> Astrology
celestial objects
comets al-Nudjum.III.b
planets al-Kamar.I; al-Mirrikh; al-Mushtari; al-Nudjum. II; c Utarid; Zuhal; Zuhara
see also Mintakat al-Burudj; Ru'yat al-Hilal; al-Sa c dan'; Takwim.l; al- c Uzza; Zidj
stars and constellations 'Akrab; c Anak; al-Asad; Dadjadja; Fard.e; Kalb; Kird; Mahat;
Mintakat al-Burudj; Muthallath; Na'am; Nasr; al-Nudjum; Radif.l; al-Sahm.l.c;
Samak.9; Saratan.6; Shams.2; al-Shi'ra; Tadj; lha c lab; al-Tinnin; c Ukab; Zarafa; [in
Suppl.] Arnab; Ghanam
ASTRONOMY — BERBERS 31
see also al-Kayd; Sa'd wa-Nahs {and al-Sa c dan'; Sriakawa); al-Sak; Sulahfa; al-Ta'ir
chronology Ta'rikh.1.2
observatory Marsad
see also Udjdjayn; Ulugh Beg; 'Umar Khayyam
terms al-Djawzahar; Istikbal; al-Matali'; al-Matla c ; al-Mayl; Mukabala. 1 ; Mukantarat; Nisf
al-Nahar; Radif.l; Rub c ; Ru'yat al-Hilal; al-Sak; al-Samt; Shakkaziyya; Tabi c a.4; al-
Ta'dll; al-Ta c dil bayn al-Satrayn; Ta'dll al-Zaman; Takwim.l; al-Tali c .l; Zldj
Austria Bee; Nemce
see also Muslimun.2.ii
Babism -> Sects
Bahais Bab; Babis; Baha 5 Allah; Bahais; Mashrik al-Adhkar; Nakd al-MIthak; Shawkl Efendi
Rabbani
see also Lawh; Mazhar; [in Suppl.] Ansari
Bahrain al-Bahrayn; al-Khalifa; Madjlis.4.A.x; Mahkama.4.ix; Sihafa. 1 .(xii)
see also Karmati; 'Usfurids; 'Utub
toponyms al-Manama; al-Muharrak; Yabrln
see also al-Mushakkar
Balkans Balkan; Rumeli; al-Sakaliba
see also Tarika.II.6; Wali.4; Wardar; Woyvoda; and -* Europe.eastern Europe
and Ottoman military Eflak; Martolos; Woynuk
and -* the section Toponyms under Balkan states; Military.ottoman
Bangladesh Bangala; Madjlis.4.C
see also Bengali; Nadhr al-Islam; Satya Pir; [in Suppl.] Djarida.vii
literature -* Literature.in other languages
toponyms Bakargandj; Bangala; Bogra; Chittagong; Dhaka; Dinadjpur; Djassawr; Faridpur;
Satga'on; Silhet; Sundarban
see also Ruhmi; Sonarga'on
Basques al-Bashkunish
see also Ibn Gharsiya
Bedouins Badw; Bi 5 r; Dawar; Ghanima; Ghazw; al-Hidjar; lha'r; [in Suppl.] Khuwwa
see also Liss; 'Urf.2.I; Wasm; and -+ Law.customary; Nomadism; Saudi Arabia;
Tribes.arabian peninsula
writings on Rzewuski
Benin Kandi; Kotonou; Kouande
Berbers Berbers; Judaeo-Berber
see also Kallala; Kissa.8; Libas.ii; Mafakhir al-Barbar; [in Suppl.] Siba; and -* Algeria
y law 'Ada.ii; Kanun.iv
see also c Urf
32 BERBERS — BULGARIA
customs Himaya.ii.il; Leff; Litham; Saff.3
dynasties c Abd al-Wadids; c Ammar; Marinids; Midrar; al-Murabitun; al-Muwahhidun; Razln,
Banu; Zlrids
language -»■ Languages.afro-asiatic
music Imzad
religion al-Badjali; Berbers.III; Ha-Mim; Salih b. Tarif
resistance Berbers. I. c; al-Kahina; Kusayla; Maysara
rulers al-Irdjanl; [in Suppl.] Ziri b. 'Atiyya
tribes al-Baranis; Barghawata; Birzal; al-Butr; Djazula; Ghaniya; GhubrinI; Ghumara: Glawa:
Gudala; Haha; Hargha; Hawwara; Hintata; Ifoghas; Ifran; Iraten; Kutama; Lamta;
Lamtuna; Lawata; Maghlla; Maghrawa; Malzuza; Masmuda; Massa; Matghara:
Matmata; Mazata; Midyuna; Misrata; al-Nafusa; Nafza; Nafzawa; Sanhadja; Tawarik;
Zanata; [in Suppl.] Awraba
see also Shawiya.l; Sufriyya.2
Bible Indjil; Tawrat
and -»■ Christianity; Judaism
biblical personages Adam; 'Amalik; Ayyub; Azar; c Azazil; Baram; Bilkis; Binyamin; Bukht-
nas(s)ar; Daniyal; Dawud; Djabra'H; Djalut; Fir'awn; Habil wa-Kabil; Ham; Haman;
Harun b. c Imran; Harut wa-Marut; Hawwa'; Hizkil; Ibrahim; Ilyas; 'Imran; Irmiya; 'Isa;
Ishak; Isma'il; Kan'an; Karun; Kitfir; Kush; Lamak; Lazarus; Lut; Maryam; al-Masih;
Musa; Namrud; Nuh; Rahil; Sam. 1 ; al-Samiri; Sara; Shamsun: Shamwil; Sha'ya; Shith;
Sulayman b. Dawud; Talut; c Odj; Yafith; Yahya b. Zakariyya 5 ; Ya'kub; Yunus; Yusha c
b. Nun; Yusuf; Zakariyya'
see also Dhu '1-Kifl; al-Fayyum; Hud; Idris; Yadjudj wa-Madjudj; and -»■ Prophethood
biblical toponyms Sihyawn
see also Djudi; and -»■ Palestine/Israel
translations
into Arabic Faris al-Shidyak; Sa'adya Ben Yosef; al-Yazidji. 1 ; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani.2
see also c Arabiyya.A.ii.l; Judaeo-Arabic.iii.B; Tawrat
into Persian Abu '1-Fadl c Allami
see also Judaeo-Persian.i.2
Bosnia -+ (former) Yugoslavia
Botany Adwiya; al- c Ashshab; Nabat
and -+ Agriculture; Flora; Medicine; Pharmacology
botanists Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri; al-Dinawari, Abu Hanifa; Ibn al-Baytar; al-Tighnari; [in
Suppl.] al-Ghafiki; Ibn al-Rumiyya
see also Abu '1-Khayr al-Ishbili; Filaha; Nikula'us; al-Suwaydi
Buddhism Bakhshi; Budd; Sumaniyya
see also Bamiyan; al-Baramika. 1 ; Bilawhar wa-Yudasaf; Tafiri
Bulgaria Bulgaria; Pomaks
see also Kiiciik Kaynardja; Muhadjir.2; Muslimun.l.B.5
physical geography
waters Meric
toponyms Burgas; Deli-Orman; Dobrudja; Filibe; Hezarghrad; KUstendil; Newrokop; Nikbuli;
c Othman Pazar; Plewna; Ruscuk; Selwi; Shumnu; Sofya; Tatar Pazarcik; Tirnowa;
Warna; Widin; Zishtowa
BURMA — CALIPHATE 33
Burma Arakan; Burma; Mergui; Rangoon; Zerbadis
Byzantine Empire Bitrik; Kaysar; Rum
see also Anadolu.iii.l and 2; Hiba.i; Iznik; Kalawdhiya; Kubrus; (al-)Kustantiniyya; al-
Massisa; Mu'ta; Nauplion.l; Saracens; Umur Pasha; Wenedik; al-Zahir li-Fzaz Din Allah;
and ->• Greece; Palestine/Israel; Syria; Turkey, in particular the section Toponyms
allies Djaradjima; Djarrahids; Ghassan; al-Harith b. Djabala; Kinda.l; Sallh; [in Suppl.]
Djabala b. al-Harith
and ->• Tribes
military Alay; Lamas-su; Malazgird.2; Naft.2; Tourkopo(u)loi; [in Suppl.] Dhat al-Sawari
see also al- c Awasim; Cilicia; Sa'ifa.l; Sayf al-Dawla; al-Thughur.l
battles Yarmuk.2
Caliphate Ahl al-Hall wa 'l-'Akd; Bay'a; Hadjib.i; Harb.ii; Hiba.i; Imama; Kadib; Katib.i;
Khalifa; Libas.i; Madjlis.l; Marasim.l; Mawakib.l; Shura.l; Wali al- c Ahd; Wazir
see also Amir al-Mu'minin; Ghulam.i; Khil c a.ii; Lakab.2; Mai al-Bay c a; and ->• Court
Ceremony
'Abbasids (750-1258) c Abbasids; Baghdad; Diwan.i; Hadjib.i; Khalifa.i.B; Marasim.l;
Mawakib.l; Musadara.2; Musawwida; Nakib.l; Nakib al-Ashraf.l; Samarra 5 ; Wazir.I.l
see also al-Abna'.III; c Ali b. c Abd Allah b. al- c Abbas; c Alids; Architecture.1.3; Dariba;
Hashimiyya; al-Hashimiyya; Lakab.2; Libas.i.4; Rida.2; al-Shu c ubiyya; Sikka.2; Wali
al- c Ahd; [in Suppl.] al-Khuld; Sha'ir.l.B; and ->■ Dynasties.persia
caliphs Abu 'l-'Abbas al-Saffah; al-Amin; al-Hadi ila '1-Hakk; Harun al-Rashid; al-Kadir
bi 'llah; al-Kahir bi 'llah; al-Ka J im bi-amr Allah; al-Mahdi; al-Ma'mun; al-Mansur;
al-Muhtadi; al-Muktadi; al-Muktadir; al-Muktafi bi-llah; al-Muktafi li-Amr Allah;
al-Muntasir; al-Mustadi 1 ; al-Musta c in (I); al-Musta c in (II); al-Mustakfi; al-Mustandjid
(I); al-Mustandjid (II); al-Mustansir (I); al-Mustansir (II); al-Mustarshid; al-Musta c sim
bi 'llah; al-Mustazhir bi 'llah; al-Mu c tadid bi 'llah; al-Mu c tamid c ala 'llah; al-Mu c tasim
bi 'llah; al-Mutawakkil c ala 'llah; al-Mu c tazz bi 'llah; al-Muti c li 'llah; al-Muttaki li
'llah; al-Nasir li-Din Allah, Abu 'l- c Abbas; al-Radi bi 'llah; al-Rashid; al-Ta'i c li-
Amr Allah; al-Wathik bi 'llah; al-Zahir bi-Amr Allah
see also c Abd Allah b. c Ali; Buran; al-Khayzuran bint c Ata' al-Djurashiyya;
Muhammad b. c Ali b. c Abd Allah; al-Muwaffak; al-Rusafa.2
viziers Abu c Abd Allah Ya c kub; Abu Salama al-Khallal; Abu c Ubayd Allah; c Adud al-
Din; c Ali b. c Isa; al-Baramika.3; al-Baridi; al-Djardjara'i.1-3; al-Fadl b. Marwan; al-
Fadl b. al-Rabi c ; al-Fadl b. Sahl b. Zadhanfarukh; al-Fayd b. Abi Salih; Hamid;
Hibat Allah b. Muhammad; Ibn al-Alkami; Ibn al-Baladi; Ibn al-Furat; Ibn Hubayra;
Ibn Khakan.2 and 3; Ibn Makhlad; Ibn Mukla; Ibn al-Muslima; Ibn al-Zayyat; al-
Iskafi, Abu '1-Fadl; al-Iskafi, Abu Ishak; Isma c il b. Bulbul; al-Khasibi; al-Rabf b.
Yunus; Rabib al-Dawla; al-Rudhrawari; Wahb, Banu; al-Zaynabi
see also al-Djahshiyari; Hilal al-Sabi 1 ; Khatam; Wazir.I.l
secretaries Ahmad b. Abi Khalid al-Ahwal; Ahmad b. Yusuf; c Amr b. Mas'ada; al-Hasan
b. Sahl; Ibn al-Djarrah; Ibn Khakan.l and 4; Ibn al-Mashita; al-Muriyani
see also Wahb, Banu; [in Suppl.] Sha'ir.l.B.ii
historians of al-Djahshiyari; Ibn Abi '1-Dam; Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur; Ibn al-Djawzi; Ibn al-
Nattah; Ibn al-Sa c i; Ibn al-Tiktaka; al-Mada'ini; Sabi'.(3).4; c Ubayd Allah b. Ahmad
b. Abi Tahir; al-Ya c kubi
see also al-Zubayr b. Bakkar
34 CALIPHATE
other personages al-'Abbas b. c Amr al-Ghanawi; al-'Abbas b. al-Ma'mun; al-'Abbas b.
Muhammad; c Abd Allah b. 'All; ' Abd al-Djabbar b. 'Abd al-Rahman; c Abd al-Malik
b. Salih; Abu 'Awn; Abu Muslim; 'All al-Rida; Badjkam; Badr al-Kharshani; Bugha
al-Kabir; Bugha al-Sharabi; Dulafids; al-Fath b. Khakan; Harthama b. A'yan; al-
Hasan b. Zayd b. al-Hasan; Hatim b. Harthama; Humayd b. 'Abd al-Hamid; Ibn Abi
'1-Shawarib; Ibn Buhlul; Ibn al-Djassas.II; Ibn Hamdun; Ibn Mahan; Ibn al-Mudabbir;
Ibn al-Mu'tazz; Ibn Ra'ik; Ibn Thawaba; Ibrahim b. c Abd Allah; 'Isa b. Musa; 'Isa b.
al-Shaykh; Kahtaba; al-Kasim b. 'Isa; Ma'n b. Za'ida; al-Mubarka'; Muhallabids;
Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah (al-Nafs al-Zakiyya); Muhammad b. Tughdj al-Ikhshid;
Muhammad b. Yakut; Mu'nis al-Fahl; Mu'nis al-Muzaffar; al-Muwaffak; Nasr b.
Shabath; al-Natik bi '1-Hakk; al-Nushari; Rafi c b. Harthama; Rafi c b. al-Layth b.
Nasr b. Sayyar; al-Rawandiyya; Rawh b. Hatim; Sadjids; Salih b. c Ali; al-Sarakhsi,
Abu 'l- c Abbas; al-Sari; Shabib b. Shayba; Sulayman b. c Ali b. c Abd Allah; Sunbadh;
al-lhaghri; 'Udjayf b. c Anbasa; Ustadhsis; al-Walid b. Tarif; al-Wathiki; Yahya b.
c Abd Allah; Yahya b. Aktham; Yusuf al-Barm; Zawakil; Ziyad b. Salih al-Khuza'i;
Zubayda bt. Dja'far; [in Suppl.] Abu Mansur b. Yusuf; Aytakh al-Turki; Badr al-
Mu'tadidi; al-Damaghani, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Damaghani, Abu '1-Hasan; al-Ghitrif
b. c Ata 3 ; Ibn Dirham; Sallam al-Tardjuman; Tughdj
Fatimids (909-1171) Diwan.i and ii.(2); Fatimids; Hadjib.iv; Hidjab.II; al-Kahira; Khalifa.i.D;
Libas.i.5; Marasim.l; Mawakib.l; Wazir.1.2
see also Lakab.2; Sahib al-Bab; Sitr; Wasita; al-Wazir al-Saghir; Zimam
caliphs Abu c Abd Allah al-Shi'I; al-'Adid li-Din Allah; al-Amir; al-'Aziz bi 'llah; al-Hafiz;
al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah; al-Ka'im; al-Mahdi c Ubayd Allah; al-Mansur bi 'llah; al-
Mu c izz li-Din Allah; al-Musta'li bi 'llah; al-Mustansir (bi 'llah); al-Zafir bi-A c da 3
Allah; al-Zahir li-Pzaz Din Allah
see also al-Walid b. Hisham
viziers 'Abbas b. Abi '1-Futuh; al- c Adil b. al-Salar; al-Afdal b. Badr al-Djamali; al-Afdal
(Kutayfat); Badr al-Djamali; Bahram; al-Bata'ihi; Dirgham; Djabr Ibn al-Kasim; al-
Djardjara'i.4; Ibn Killis; Ibn Masai; Ruzzik b. Tala'i 1 ; Shawar; Shirkuh; Tala'i c b.
Ruzzik; Yanis; al-Yazuri; [in Suppl.] Ibn Khalaf.2
see also Wazir.1.2
secretaries Ibn Mammati; Ibn al-Sayrafi; [in Suppl.] Ibn Khalaf, Abu '1-Hasan
historians of Ibn al-Tuwayr; al-Makrizi; al-Musabbihi
see also Djawdhar
other personages Abu Yazid al-Nukkari; Bardjawan; Djawdhar; Djawhar al-Sikilli; Khalaf
b. Mula'ib al-Ashhabi; al-Kirmani; Nizar b. al-Mustansir; al-Nu'man; Sitt al-Mulk;
Tamim b. al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah; [in Suppl.] al-Ramli
see also al-Farghani; Zafir al-Haddad
Rightly-Guided Caliphs (632-661) Khalifa.i.A;Shura.l; [in Suppl.] al-Khulafa' al-Rashidun
caliphs Abu Bakr; c Ali b. Abi Talib; 'Umar (I) b. al-Khattab; c Uthman b. c Affan
see also Harura 3 ; Ibn Muldjam; Khalifa.i.A; al-Sakifa; al-Siddik; Tahkim; c Uth-
maniyya; Wufud; [in Suppl.] al-Ridda; and ->■ MiLiTARY.BATTLES.633-660
other personages Aban b. c Uthman; c Abd Allah b. al- c Abbas; c Abd Allah b. c Amir; c Abd
Allah b. Sa c d; c Abd Allah b. Salam; c Abd Allah b. Wahb; c Abd al-Rahman b. c Awf;
c Abd al-Rahman b. Samura; Abu '1-Aswad al-Du'ali; Abu Ayyub al-Ansari; Abu '1-
Dunya; Abu c Ubayda al-Djarrah; al-Ahnaf b. Kays; al-Akra c b. Habis; c Amr b. al-
c As; al-Ash c ari, Abu Musa; al-Ash'ath; al-Ashtar; al-Bahili; Habib b. Maslama; al-
Ka'ka' b. c Amr; Khalid b. al-Walid; Muhammad b. Abi Bakr; al-Muthanna b. Haritha;
Sa c id b. al- c As; Sulayman b. Surad; Usama b. Zayd; Yazid b. Abi Sufyan; Zayd b.
lhabit; al-Zibrikan b. Badr
and ->■ Muhammad, the Prophet.companions of and family of
CALIPHATE — CAUCASUS 35
Umayyads (661-750) Dimashk; Diwan.i; Hadjib.i; Khalifa.i.A; Mawla.2.b; Umayyads; [in
Suppl.] Badiya
see also Architecture.1.2; Kays 'Aylan; Libas.i.4; Marwanids; Sufyanids; Umayya b.
'Abd Shams; Umayyads.In Spain; c Uthmaniyya.4; Wufud; and -> Dynasties.spain and
NORTH AFRICA.UMAYYADS
caliphs c Abd al-Malik b. Marwan; Hisham; Marwan I b. al-Hakam; Marwan II; Mu'awiya
I; Mu'awiya II; Sulayman b. <Abd al-Malik; 'Urnar (II) b. <Abd al- c Aziz; al-Walid;
Yazid (I) b. Mu'awiya; Yazid (II) b. <Abd al-Malik; Yazid (III) b. al-Walid
see also Busir; al-Rusafa.3; al-Sham.2(a); Tahkim
historians of 'Awana b. al-Hakam al-Kalbi; al-Azdi
see also al-Ya'kubi
secretaries c Abd al-Hamid; Yazid b. Abi Muslim; Ziyad b. Abihi
other personages 'Abbad b. Ziyad; al-'Abbas b. al-Walid; 'Abd Allah b. 'Abd al-Malik;
'Abd Allah b. Hammam; 'Abd Allah b. Hanzala; 'Abd Allah b. Khazim; 'Abd Allah
b. Muti'; 'Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr; c Abd al- c Aziz b. al-Hadjdjadj; 'Abd al- c Aziz b.
Marwan; c Abd al- c Aziz b. al-Walid; c Abd al-Rahman b. Khalid; 'Amrb. Sa'id; Asad
b. 'Abd Allah; al-Asamm.l; Baldj b. Bishr; Bishr b. Marwan; Bishr b. al-Walid;
Bukayr b. Mahan; Bukayr b. Wishah; Busr; al-Dahhak b. Kays al-Fihri; al-Djarrah
b. 'Abd Allah; al-Djunayd b. 'Abd Allah; al-Hadjdjadj b. Yusuf; Hanzala b. Safwan
b. Zuhayr; al-Harith b. Suraydj; Hassan b. Malik; Hassan b. al-Nu'man al-Ghassani:
al-Hurrb. Yazid; al-Husayn b. Numayr; Ibn al-Ash'ath; Ibn al-Hadrami; Ibn Hubayra;
Khalid b. c Abd Allah al-Kasri; Khalid b. Yazid b. Mu'awiya; Kulthum b. c Iyad al-
Kushayri; Kurra b. Sharik; Kutayba b. Muslim; Ma'n b. Zalda; Masami'a; Maslama
b. 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan; Maymun b. Mihran; Mu c awiya b. Hisham; al-Mughira
b. Shu'ba; Muhallabids; Muhammad b. al-Kasim; Muslim b. c Ukba; Nasr b. Sayyar;
al-Nu'man b. Bashir; Rawh b. Zinba'; Salm b. Ziyad b. Abihi; Shabib b. Yazid;
Sulayman b. Kathir; Talhat al-Talahat; Tawwabun; al-Thakafi, Yusuf b. 'Umar;
'Ubayd Allah b. Abi Bakra; c Ubayd Allah b. Habhab; 'Ubayd Allah b. 'Umar; 'Ubayd
Allah b. Ziyad; c Ukba b. Nafi 1 ; Zayd b. c Ali b. al-Husayn; Ziyad b. Abihi; [in Suppl.]
c Adi b. Artat; Radja 3 b. Haywa; Said b. Djubayr; Shamir b. Dhi '1-Djawshan
see also al-Battal; Iyas b. Mu'awiya; [in Suppl.] al-Sufyani; Talib al-Hakk
treatises on al-Kalkashandi. 1
Cartography Kharita
and -> Geography; Navigation
cartographers al-Falaki; Ibn Sarabiyun; Mehmed Re'is; Piri Re'is
Caucasus Adharbaydjan.ii; Arminiya; Daghistan; al-Kabk (and [in Suppl.]); al-Kurdj
see also Djarida.iv; Kara Bagh; Muhadjir.2; Shirwan Shah
mysticism Tarika.II.5; Wali.4
physical geography
mountains al-Kabk; [in Suppl.] Shah Dagh
waters Alindjak; Gokce-tengiz; Kara Deniz; Kizil-iizen; Kuban; Kur; al-Rass; Safld Rud;
Terek
population Abkhaz.2; Alan; Andi; Arci; Avars; Balkar; Cecens; Cerkes; Darghin; Dido;
Ingush; Kabards; Kapuca; Karacay; Karata; Kaytak; Khaputs; Khemshin; Khinalug;
Khunzal; Khvarshi; Kriz; Kubaci; Kwanadi; Lak; Laz; Lezgh; Noghay; Ossetians; Rus;
Rutul; Tsakhur; Ubykh; [in Suppl.] Demography.VI
see also Kumuk
e to Russian conquest Hamza Beg; Shamil; Ushurma, Mansur
see also Hizb.iv; [in Suppl.] al-Kabk.3.d
36 CAUCASUS — CENTRAL ASIA
toponyms
ancient Alindjak; Arran; Badjarwan.l; Balandjar; Baylakan; Dwin; Saray; Shammakha:
Shimshat; Shlrwan; Shiz
present-day Akhiskha; Astrakhan; Bab al-Abwab; Baku; Bardha'a; Batumi; Derbend;
Gandja; Kubba; Lankoran; Makhac-kal'e; Mukan; Nakhciwan; Shakkl; Tabarsaran;
Talish; Tiflis; [in Suppl.] Djulfa.I; Oren Kal'e
Central Asia Badakhshan; Caghaniyan; Kh w arazm; Ma wara' al-Nahr; Mogholistan
see also Hayatila; Isma'il b. Ahmad; Kara Khitay ; Kazak; Nizak, Tarkhan; Timurids; Wakf.V;
[in Suppl.] Atalik; Djulfa.I; Kh w adjas; and -> Dynasties.mongols; Mongolia; Onomas-
tics
for former republics of the USSR -> the section Toponyms below
architecture -»■ Architecture.regions
belles-lettres Tadjiki.2; and -> Literature.drama and poetry.turkish.in eastern Turkish
former Soviet Union al-'Arab.iii.Appendix; Basmacis; Djarida.iv; Fitrat; Hizb.v; Khodjaev;
Sadr al-Din c Ayni; [in Suppl.] Demography.VI
and -> the section Toponyms below
historians of c Abd al-Karim Bukhari
see also Haydar b. C A1I
mysticism -> Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood.saints
physical geography
deserts Karakum; Kizil-kum
mountains Ala Dagh; Altai; Balkhan; Pamirs
see also Copan-ata
waters Ak Su; Amu Darya; Aral; Bahr al-Khazar; Balkhash; Caghan-rud; Cu; Hi; issik-
kul; Kara-kol; Murghab; Sir Darya; Taraz; Turgay; Wakhsh; Zarafshan
see also Su; [in Suppl.] MaMO
population Baluc; Cawdors {and [in Suppl.] Cawdor); Emreli; Gagauz; Karakalpak; Khaladj:
Kungrat; Kurama; Ozbeg; Tarancis; Tiirkmen.3; Yaghma; [in Suppl.] Demography.VI;
Yomut
see also Altaians; al- c Arab.iii. Appendix; Ghalca; Qhuzz; Karluk; Kazak; Kipcak; Kirgiz;
Kuman; Kumidjis; Kun; Sart; Tadjik; [in Suppl.] Ersari
reformism [in Suppl.] Islah.v
toponyms
ancient Abaskun; Abiward; Akhsikath; Ardjish; Balasaghun; Banakat; Farab; Firabr;
Gurgandj; Kath; Kayalik; Marw al-Rudh; Marw al-S_hahidjan; Mashhad-i Misriyan;
Nakhshab; Pishpek; Sayram; Shuman; Sighnak; al-Sughd; Suyab; Taraz; Utrar; Yeti
Su; Zamakhshar; Zamm; [in Suppl.] Dandankan; Djand; Ilak; Isfidjab; Ishtikhan
present-day
districts Atek; Karatigin; Shughnan; Wakhsh; [in Suppl.] Ura-tepe
see also Akhal Tekke
regions Farghana; Kh w arazm; Khuttalan; Labab; Mangishlak; Usrushana; Wakhan;
[in Suppl.] Dasht-i Kipcak
republics Tadjikistan; Turkistan.l; Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan. 2; [in Suppl.]
Kazakstan; Kirgizstan
towns Ak Masdjid.2; Alma Ata; Amul.2; Andidjan; 'Ashkabad; Awliya Ata;
Bayram c Ali; Bukhara; Cimkent; Djalalabad; Ghudjduwan; Hazarasp; Hisar;
Kash; Khiwa; Khokand; Khudjand(a); Kish; Kubadhiyan; Marghinan; Mayhana;
Ordubad; Ozkend; Pandjdih; Samarkand; Tashkent; Tirmidh; Tokmak; Turgay;
Turkistan.3; Urgenc; [in Suppl.] Ura-tepe
CHAD — CHRISTIANITY 37
Chad Abeshr; Bagirmi; Borkou; Kanem; Kanuri; Wadai; Zaghawa; [in Suppl.] Cad
and -► Africa.central africa
Charms Afsun; Hidjab.IV; Kabid.4; Masha' Allah; Tamima; Tilsam; [in Suppl.] Buduh
see also Kahruba; Karwasha; and ->• Magic
Childhood ->• Life Stages
China Djarida.v; Masdjid.V; al-Sin
see also Bahadur; Khokand: Sini; Tibb.2; c Ulama\6; Ziyad b. Salih al-Khuza'i
calligraphy [in Suppl.] Khatt.vi
dynasties Kara Khitay
see also Faghfur; Gurkhan; Ya'kub Beg; [in Suppl.] Kh w adjas
literature [in Suppl.] aI-Sin.5
literary figures Liu Chih; Ma Huan; Wang Tai-yu
mysticism Tasawwuf.8
see also al-Sin.4; Ma Hua-lung; Ma Ming-hsin; T'ien Wu; Wali.8
personages
officials P'u Shou-keng
scholars c Ulama\6
see also Tibb.2
warlords Wu Ma
for leaders in uprisings, see the section Uprisings below, for belle trists, see the section
Literature above
physical geography
waters Ak Su; Hi; Tarim
population Salar; Tarancis; Tungans; Yunnan.2
toponyms
ancient Bishbalik; Khansa; Shul.l: [in Suppl.] Koco
present-day Ak Su; Alti Shahr; Kansu; Kashghar; Khanbalik; Khanfu; Khotan; Kuldja;
Ning-hsia; Shansi; Shen-si; Sinkiang; Szechuan; Tubbat; Turfan; Yarkand; Yunnan;
[in Suppl.] Komul
see also Sandabil; Sin (Cin) Kalan; Turkistan.l; Zaytun
treatises on 'Ali Akbar Khita'i
see also [in Suppl.] Sallam al-Tardjuman
uprisings Panthay
see also Tunganistan
leaders Ma Chung-ying; Ma Hua-lung; Ma Ming-hsin; Pai Yen-hu; T'ien Wu; Tu Wen-
hsiu; Yulbars Khan
Christianity Ahl al-Kitab; Dayr; Daysaniyya; c Isa; Kanisa; Maryam; Nasara; Rahib; al-
Salib; Tathlith; [in Suppl.] Tabshir
see also Dhimma; Djizya; al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah; Ifrandj; Karshuni; Kumis; Lahut and
Nasut.2; Ma'althaya; [in Suppl.] Dawiyya and Isbitariyya; Fida 5 ; and -> Bible; Crusade(r)s;
Europe; Languages.afro-asiatic.arabic.christian Arabic; Nubia
apologetics Ibn Zur'a; al-Kindi, c Abd al-Masih
churches Kanisa; Sihyawn
see also Masdjid.I.B.3
Anadolu.iii.4; al-Andalus.iv; Istanbul.vii.b; Mozarab; al-Sham.2(a) (271b-2a);
Tur 'Abdin.3
see also Fener
38 CHRISTIANITY CLOTHING
denominations Kibt; Nasturiyyun; Ya'kubiyyun; [in Suppl.] Markiyuniyya; Maruniyya
see also Djaradjima; and -> Judaism.jewish sects
Catholics Bashir Shihab II; Ishak, Adlb; Sabundji; Sayigh, Fath Allah; Shaykhu, Luwls;
Zakhir; [in Suppl.] Butrus Karama; Matar
Copts Ibn al-'Assal; Ibn Mammati; Ibn al-Mukaffa'; Kibt; al-Makin b. al-'Amid; Mariya;
al-Mufaddal b. Abi '1-Fada'il; [in Suppl.] Ibn Kabar; Ibn al-Rahib
see also Sullam; Ta'rikh .I.l.vi; Ziyara.3; [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l.tg); and -> Egypt,
toponyms; Nubia
Greek orthodox Gagauz
see also Patrik; Zakhir
Jacobites al-Akhtal; Ibn al-'Ibri; Ibn Zur'a; al-Kutami; Yahya b. 'Adi; Yahya al-Nahwi;
Ya'kubiyyun
see also al-Kindi, 'Abd al-Masih; Patrik; Tur 'Abdin.3
Marcionites [in Suppl.] Markiyuniyya
Maronites Farhat; Istifan al-Duwayhi; al-Rayhani; Salim al-Nakkash; Tanyus, Shahin;
al-Yazidji; Yusuf Karam; [in Suppl.] Abu Shabaka; al-Bustani; Maruniyya
see also Bsharra; Duruz.ii; Patrik; and -> Lebanon
Melkites Abu Kurra; al-Antaki; Mikha'il al-Sabbagh; al-Mukawkis; Sa c id b. al-Bitrik; al-
Turk, NikQla; Yahya b. al-Bitrik; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Kuff
see also Mashaka; Patrik; [in Suppl.] Ta 3 rikh.II.l.(g)
Monophysites ->• the sections Copts, Jacobites and Nestorians under this entry
Nestorians Bukhtishu'; Hunayn b. Ishak al-'Ibadi; Ibn Butlan; Ibn al-Tayyib; al-Kindi,
'Abd al-Masih; Matta b. Yunus; Nasturiyyun; Sabur b. Sahl; Yuhanna b. Sarabiyun;
[in Suppl.] Prester John
see also al-Tabari, c Ali b. Rabban; Tur 'Abdin.3; Urmiya.3
Protestants Faris al-Shidyak; Mashaka; Sarruf; Sayigh, Tawfik; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani.2
see also Nimr
unspecified Bahdal; Ibn al-Tilmidh; al-Masihi; Petrus Alfonsi; Ukaydir b. c Abd al-Malik;
[in Suppl.] Hubaysh b. al-Hasan al-Dimashki; Ibn al-Suka'i
historiography [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II. 1 .(g)
monasteries Dayr; Dayr al-Djathalik; Dayr Ka'b; Dayr Kunna; Dayr Murran; Dayr Sam'an;
al-Tur.l
see also Khankah; Rahib; Tur 'Abdin.3
writings on al-Shabushti
persecutions Ghiyar; al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah; Shi'ar.4; Zunnar
polemics Ahl al-Kitab; Tahrif
anti-Jewish Petrus Alfonsi
Christian-Muslim al-Su c udi, Abu '1-Fadl; al-Tabari, c Ali b. Rabban
see also Zaynab bt. Djahsh
pre-Islamic Abraha; c Adi b. Zayd; c Amr b. c Adi; c Amr b. Hind; Bahira; Bahram
see also Ghassan; Lakhmids
saints Djirdjis; Djuraydj
20th-century al-Khuri; Sarruf; Shaykhu, Luwis; [in Suppl.] Abu Shabaka; Abyad; Matar
see also al-Ma'luf; [in Suppl.] Tabshir
Circumcision Khafd: Khitan
see also c Abdi; c Ali; Kurds.iv.A.i; Mawakib.4.1 1; Wehbi Sayyidi
Clothing Banika; Djallab; Farw; Kumash; Libas; Sirwal
see also Ghiyar; Ihram; Khayyat; Khil c a; Kurds.iv.C. 1 ; Shi c ar.4; Tiraz; Zeybek; Zunnar; [in
Suppl.] Kafan; and -> Mysticism.dress
CLOTHING — CROATIA 39
accessories Mandil; Mirwaha
see also Shadd
headwear Kawuklu; Tadj; Tulband; [in Suppl.] Kalansuwa
see also Sharif.(5)
veils Hidjab.I; Litham
materials Farw; Harir; Kattan; Khaysh; Kutn; Suf; Tafta
see also Fanak; Kalamkari; Kumash; Lubud; Mukhattam; and -► Art.textiles
shoewear [in Suppl.] al-Na'l al-Sharif
see also [in Suppl.] Iskaf
Colour Lawn; Musawwida
and ->• Dyeing
colours Asfar
see also Sharif.(5)
Commonwealth of Independent States -»■ Caucasus; Central Asia; Communism;
europe.eastern europe
Communications Barid; Hamam; Manar
see also Anadolu.iii.(5); and -> Transport
Communism Hizb.i; Shuyu'iyya
see also Lahuti; [in Suppl.] Sultan c Ali Ughli
Congo Congo; al-Murdjibi
Copts ->• Christianity.denominations
Cosmetics Hinna'; al-Kuhl; al-Washm
see also Khidab; and ->■ Perfume
Cosmography 'AdjaHb; 'Alam; Falak; Kaf; SamaM
see also Djughrafiya; al-Khadir: Kharita; al-Kura; Makka.4; and ->■ Astrology; Astron-
omy; Geography
treatises on al-Dimashki; al-Kazwini, Zakariyya'; al-Kharaki
see also Kitab al-Djilwa
Court Ceremony Marasim; Mawakib (and [in Suppl.])
see also Mizalla; Nakkara-khana; Sitr; Yadgar; and ->■ Monarchy.royal insignia
bestowal of gifts Hiba; Khil'a; Nithar
ranks [in Suppl.] Martaba
Creation Ibda c ; Khalk
see also Huduth al- c Alam; Insan; Takwin; Tawallud; Tin. 1
Crete Ikritish
see also Abu Hafs c Umar al-BallQti; Wenedik
toponyms
towns Kandiya
Croatia ->■ (former) Yugoslavia
CRUSADE(R)S — CYPRUS
Crusade(r)s Crusades; Tourkopo(u)loi; [in Suppl.] Dawiyya and Isbitariyya
see also al-'Adil. 1 ; al-Afdal b. Badr al-Djamali; (Sirat) ' Antar; Ayyubids; Balak; Baybars
I; Fatimids.5; Ifrandj; Kalawun; Kilidj Arslan I; Nur al-Din Mahmud b. Zanki; Salah al-
Dln; al-Sham.2(a); Tughtigin; Wenedik; and -*■ the section Toponyms under Palestine/
Israel and Syria
battles al-Mansura; Mardj al-Suffar; Nikbuli
castles al-Darum; Harim; Hisn al-Akrad; Kal'at al-Shakif; Safitha
conquests 'Akka; Anadolu.iii.l; 'Askalan; Ayla; Ghazza; Hayfa; Kaysariyya; al-Khalil:
Kubrus.2; al-Kuds.10; Ludd; Ma'arrat al-Nu'man
historians of Ibn al-KalanisI
see also al-Nuwayri, Muhammad
Cryptography Muamma: Ramz.2
see also Kitabat.5; al-Sim
Cuisine Matbakh; Tabkh
drinks Cay; Kahwa; Khamr; Kumis; Mashrubat; Nabidh; Sherbet
see also Nahl; Thalladj; Turundjan; Yoghurt; [in Suppl.] Cay-khana
food Ghidha'; Kabid.5; Khubz; Kuskusu; Mishmish; Nakhl; Narandj; al-Ruzz; al-Samn;
Sawik; Sha'ir; Sikbadj; Sukkar; Ta'am; Tin; Tuffah; Yoghurt; Zabib; Zayt; Zaytun [in
Suppl.] Basbas; Djawz; Hays; Hindiba 1
see also Filaha; Kamh; Madira; Milh; Nahl; Pist; Simsim; Tin.3; [in Suppl.] Ibn Shakrun
al-Miknasi
fruit Mishmish; Nakhl; Narandj; Tin; Tuffah
see also [in Suppl.] Hays
dried fruit Tammam; Zabib
grains Kamh; Kuskusu; al-Ruzz; Sha'ir
see also Filaha; Khubz; Sawik; for granaries -> Architecture.monuments
herbs Shibithth; Turundjan; [in Suppl.] Basbas
see also Shih; Timsah
meat Kabid.5
stews Sikbadj
oils al-Samn; Zayt
spices Kammun; Karanful; [in Suppl.] Afawih; Dar Sini
see also Karimi; Kus; Milh; Za'faran.l
professions Bakkal; Tabbakh; Tahhan; Tammar
prohibitions Ghidha'.iii and iv.7; Kahwa; Khamr; Mashrubat; Mayta; Nabidh
see also Dhabiha.l; Hayawan.4; Nadjis; and -> individual articles under Animals
table manners Ta'am
Custom 'Ada; Adab; 'Urf
see also Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi; 'AshuraMI; Hiba; Hidjab.I; Idjara; Khira; Mandil; c Urs.2;
and -> Law.customary law
tribal customs 'Ababda; al-Dhunub, Dafn; Khawa; Muwaraba; Tha'r; al-Washm; [in Suppl.]
c Ar
see also Idjara; Tahannuth; Zmala.2; [in Suppl.] Mala'. 2
Cyprus Kubrus; Madjlis.4.A.xxiv
see also Wenedik; [in Suppl.] Maruniyya
toponyms
towns Lefkosha; Maghosha
CZECHOSLOVAKIA -
(former) Czechoslovakia [in Suppl.] Ceh
Death Djanaza; Hinata; Intihar; Kabr; Makbara; Mawt; Niyaha; [in Suppl] Ghassal; Kafan
see also Gha'ib; Ghusl; Katl; Marthiya; Shahid; Takbir; Tasnim.2; and ->■ Architecture.
MONUMENTS.TOMBS; ESCHATOLOGY
Deserts al-Ahkaf; Biyabanak; al-Dahna'; Karakum; K!zil-kum; Nafud; al-Nakb; al-Rub c al-
Khali; Sahil; al-Sahra'; Sina'; al-Tih
see also (Djazirat) al- c Arab.ii; Badw.II; Harra; Khabra'; Reg; Samum; and - 1 - Geography.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.OASES; NOMADISM
Dictionary Kamus
see also Faris al-Shidyak; Sullam; and -► Lexicography
Diplomacy Imtiyazat; Mubadele; Tardjuman
see also Aman; Balyos; Beratli; Daftar; Hiba; Insha'; Katib; Kawwas; Mandates
diplomatic accounts Ahmad Rasmi; Ibn Fadlan; Mehmed Yirmisekiz; Wasif; [in Suppl.] al-
Ghazzal; Ibn c Uthman al-Miknasi
see also Subhi Mehmed
diplomats Consul; Elci; Safir.2
see also Zahir
Divination Kihana
see also Djafr; Ibn Barradjan; Malahim; Nudjum (Ahkam al-); Shama; and ->■ Astrology;
Dreams
diviners c Arraf; Kahin
practices Fa'l; Firasa; Ghurab; Hisab al-Djummal; Huruf; Ikhtiladj; Istiksam; 'Iyafa; al-Kaff;
Katif; Khatt; Khawass al-Kur'an; Kiyafa; Kur c a; MaM; Riyafa; Wada c .3; Za'irdja
see also Bukala; Ikhtiyarat; Mir'at
treatises on Fal-nama; Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi; Malhama; [in Suppl.] Ibn c Azzuz
see also Djafr; Nudjum (Ahkam al-)
Divorce Bara'a.I; Faskh; Sukna; al-Suraydjiyya; Talak
see also c Abd.3; c Ada; Gha'ib: Hadana; Ibn Suraydj; 'Idda; c Iwad; Kasam; Li'an; al-Mar 3 a.2;
Rapak; [in Suppl.] Nafaka; and -► Marriage
Djibouti, republic of Djibuti; Tadjurra
and -!• Africa.east africa
Documents c Alama; Diplomatic; Farman; Insha'; Katib; Manshur; Papyrus; Sidjill; Tawki c . 1 ;
Wakf.I.2.d; Wathika; Zahir; [in Suppl.] Dabir
see also Bara'a.I; Kat c ; Shart. 1 ; Tughra; c Unwan; Yarllgh; and -► Administration.records;
Writing
Ottoman c Ard Hal; Berat; Diplomatic. iv; Farman.ii; Irade; Khatt-S Humayun and Khatt-S
Sherif; Sidjill.3; Telkhls
see also Tughra.2.(b); and - 1 - Ottoman Empire.administration
Dreams Ru'ya; [in Suppl.] Ta c bir al-Ru'ya
DYNASTIES, Afghanistan and India
see also Istikhara; Nubuwwa
for dream interpretations, see individual articles on animals, in particular Ayyil; Baghl;
Dabb; Fll; Ghurab; Saratan.5; Tha'lab; 'Ukab; Watwat; Yarbu'
writings on al-DInawari, Abu Sa'id; Ibn Ghannam; Ibn Shahin al-Zahiri; Ibn Sinn; al-Wahrani
Drugs Adwiya; [in Suppl.] Anzarut
see also Kahruba; al-Kuhl; Tibb; and -► Medicine; Pharmacology
narcotics Afyun; Bandj; Hashish; Kat; Shahdanadj
see also Filaha.iii; [in Suppl.] al-Zarkashi
tobacco Baha'i Mehmed Efendi; Tutun
Druzes al-Darazi; Duruz; Hamza b. c Ali; al-Muktana; Shakib Arslan; al-Tanukhi, Djamal
al-Din; [in Suppl.] Binn
see also Hadd; MahkamaAii, iii and v; Ma'n; [in Suppl.] Dawr; Hinn; and -► Lebanon
historians of Salih b. Yahya
Dyeing c Afs; Hinna'; Kalamkari; Khidab; Nil; Wars; Za'faran
see also Sha'r. 1
dyer Sabbagh
Dynasties Dawla; Hadjib; Mushir; Sultan
see also Cashna-gir; Khadim al-Haramayn; Lakab; Libas.i; Malik; Marasim; Mashwara;
Mawakib; Padishah; Parda-dar; TawkiM; Wall al-'Ahd; Zulm; [in Suppl.] Khal 1 ; and ->■
Administration; Onomastics.titles
Afghanistan and India 'Adil-Shahs; Arghun; Bahmanis; Barid Shahis; Dihli Sultanate;
Farukids; Ghaznawids; Ghurids; Hindu-shahis; 'Imad Shahi; Kart; Khaldjis; Kutb Shahi;
Lodis; Mughals; Nizam Shahis; Sayyids; Sharkis; Surs; Tughlukids; [in Suppl.]
Banidjurids
see also Afghanistan.v.2 and 3; Awadh; Dawudpotras; Diwan.v; Hind.iv; Kh w adja-i
Djahan; Lashkar; Marasim.5; Mawakib.5; Nithar; Rana Sanga; Samma; Tipu Sultan;
Zunbil; and ->■ Architecture. regions; Military. indo-muslim; Onomas-
TICS.TITLES.INDO-MUSLIM
'Adil-SMhs (1490-1686) 'Adil-Shahs; Bidjapur; Hind.vii.ix
see also Talikota
rulers Muhammad b. Ibrahim II
historians of Shirazi, Rail' al-DIn
Awadh Nawwabs (1 722-1856) Awadh
rulers Burhan al-Mulk; Ghazi '1-DIn Haydar; Sa'adat 'Ali Khan; Safdar Djang;
Shudja' al-Dawla
viziers Mahdi 'Ali Khan
Bahmanids (1347-1527) Bahmanis; Hind.vii.vii
see also Bidar; Gulbarga; Peshwa
rulers Humayun Shah Bahmani; Mahmud Shihab al-Din; Muhammad I; Muham-
mad II; Muhammad III
other personages Khalil Allah; Mahmud Gawan
Barakzays (1819-1973) Afghanistan.v.3.B
kings c Abd al-Rahman Khan; Dust Muhammad; Habib Allah Khan; Shir c Ali; [in
Suppl.] Aman Allah
Bengal Nawwabs
rulers 'Ali Werdi Khan; Dja'far; Siradj al-Dawla
see also Murshidabad
DYNASTIES, Afghanistan and India 43
Bengal Sultans (1336-1576)
sultans Dawud Khan Kararani; Fakhr al-DIn Mubarakshah; Husayn Shah; Mahmud;
Radja Ganesh; Rukn al-DIn Barbak Shah; Sikandar Shah
historians of [in Suppl.] 'Abbas Sarwani
Dihli Sultans (1206-1555) Dariba.6.a; Dihli Sultanate; Dlwan.v; Khaldjis; Lodis; Na'ib.l;
Naklb.2; Sayyids; Surs; Tughlukids
see also Burdj.III.2; Ulugh Khan
sultans FIruz Shah Tughluk; Ghiyath al-DIn Tughluk I; Ghiyath al-DIn Tughluk
Shah II; Iltutmish; Kaykubad; Khidr Khan; Kutb al-DIn Aybak; Mahmud; Ibrahim
LodI; Mubarak Shah; Muhammad b. Tughluk; Muhammad Shah I Khaldji;
Radiyya; Shir Shah Sur; [in Suppl.] Balban; Dawlat Khan LodI
viziers Kafur (and Malik Kafur); Khan-i Djahan Makbul; Mi'an Bhu'a
historians of Barani; al-Djuzdjanl; Nizami (and [in Suppl.] Hasan NizamI); Shams
al-DIn-i Siradj c Afif
other personages Mallu Ikbal Khan; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Wahhab Bukharl; 'Ayn
al-Mulk MultanI; Darya Khan Nohani; Ikhtisan
see also 'All Mardan; Hulagu; Khaldjis; Samma
Durrdnis (1747-1842) Afghanistan.v.3
kings Ahmad Shah Durrani
historians of 'Abd al-Karlm Munshi
other personages Kamran Shah Durrani
Fdrukids (1370-1601) Farukids
rulers MIran Muhammad Shah I
Ghaznawids (977-1186) 'Amid; Dlwan.v; Ghaznawids
see also Hisar.iii
rulers Alp Takin; Bahram Shah; Isma'Il b. Sebuktigin; Mahmud b. Sebuktigin;
Mas'ud b. Mahmud; Mawdud b. Mas'Qd; Muhammad b. Mahmud b. Sebuktigin;
Sebuktigin
viziers Ahmad b. Muhammad; Altuntash; al-Fadl b. Ahmad al-Isfara'ini; Hasanak;
Maymandi
historians of Bayhaki; al- c Utbi.3
see also al-Kashanl; Shabankara'i; [in Suppl.] Fakhr-i Mudabbir
other personages Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khaldji; Shah Malik
Ghurids (ca. 1000-1215) Ghurids
rulers Djahan-suz; Muhammad b. Sam; Sayf al-DIn
see also Nizami
governors Tadj al-Din Yildiz
Gudjardt Sultans (1391-1583) Gudjarat.c
see also Ulugh Khan
sultans Bahadur Shah Gudjarati; Mahmud
historians of [in Suppl.] Hadjdji al-Dablr
other personages Malik Ayaz
Kalpi Sultans Kalpi
sultans Mahmud Khan
Kashmir Sultans (1346-1589) Kashmlr.i.4
sultans Sikandar (But-Shikan); Zayn al- c Abidin; [in Suppl.] Caks
see also [in Suppl.] Gul Khatun
historians of [in Suppl.] Haydar Malik
other personages [in Suppl.] Bayhaki Sayyids
Khaldjis -> the section Dihli Sultans above
Langah dynasty ofMultan (1437-1526) Multan
44 DYNASTIES, Afghanistan and India — Anatolia and the Turks
sultans Husayn Shah Langah I; Husayn Shah Langah II
Lodls ->• the section Dihli Sultans above
Madura Sultans (1334-1377) [in Suppl.] Madura
sultans Djalal al-Dln Ahsan
Mdlwd Sultans (1401-1531) Malwa
sultans Dilawar Khan; Hushang Shah Ghuri; Mahmud
see also Baz Bahadur
viziers MedinI Ra'i
other personages Malik Mughith
Mughals (1526-1858) Dariba.6.b and c; Diwan.v; Mansab; Mughals; [in Suppl.] Ilahi Era
see also Fawdjdar; Kotwal; Matbakh.4; Nithar; Sadr.5; Suba; Subadar; Sufiyana;
Sulh-i kull; Suwar; Takht-i Tawus; Zamindar; [in Suppl.] Dagh u tashiha; 'Ibadat
Khana; Sarkar. 1 ; Ta'alluk
emperors Ahmad Shah.I; Akbar; Awrangzib; Babur; Bahadur Shah I; Bahadur Shah
II; Djahandar Shah; Djahangir; Farrukh-siyar; Humayun; Muhammad Shah; Shah
'Alam II; Shah Djahan; [in Suppl.] Rafi' al-Daradjat
see also Darshan; Mumtaz Mahall; Nur Djahan; Tadj Mahall; Tuzuk; [in Suppl.]
Muhammad Hakim Mirza
viziers Ttimad al-Dawla
secretaries Abu '1-Fadl c Allami; Muhammad Kazim
historians of 'Abd al-Hamid Lahawri; Abu '1 Fadl c Allami; Bakhtawar Khan;
Djawhar; Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba'i; 'Inayat Allah Khan: Isar-das; Kh w afi
Khan: Muhammad Kazim; Muhammad Sharif; Musta'idd Khan; Mu'tamad Khan:
Ni'mat Allah b. Habib Allah Harawi; Nur al-Hakk al-Dihlawi; [in Suppl.] 'Akil
Khan Razi; Muhammad Salih Kanbo Lahawri
see also Azfari; Bada'uni; Mahathir al-Umara'
other personages 'Abd al-Rahim Khan; 'Ali Werdi Khan; Asaf Khan; Bakhtawar
Khan: Bayram Khan: Burhan al-Mulk; Daniyal; Ghulam Kadir Rohilla; Hindal;
Ttibar Khan; Ftikad Khan; c Iwad Wadjih; Kamran; Khan Djahan Lodi; Khusraw
Sultan; Mahabat Khan; Makhdum al-Mulk (and [in Suppl.] c Abd Allah
Sultanpuri); Man Singh; Mir Djumla; Mirza c Askari; Mirza c Aziz "Koka"; Murad;
Murad Bakhsh; Murshid Kuli Khan; Nizam al-Mulk; Shafi'a Yazdi; Shah Mansur
Shirazi; Sharif Amuli; al-Siyalkuti; Tipu Sultan; f odar Mai; Yusuf Khan Ridwi;
Yusufi; [in Suppl.] Akbar b. Awrangzib; 'Akil Khan Razi; Ghazi Khan: Guran;
'Inayat Khan (2x); Kasim Arslan; Muhammad Zaman Mirza
see also Bara Sayyids (and [in Suppl.] Barha Sayyids); Marathas
Nizam Shahids (1491-1633) Nizam Shahis
see also Ahmadnagar; Talikota
rulers Husayn Nizam Shah; Malik Ahmad Bahri
other personages Malik c Ambar
Sayyids -► the section Dihli Sultans above
Sharki Sultans ofDjawnpur (1394-1479) Sharkis
sultans Husayn Shah; Ibrahim Shah Sharki; Mahmud Shah Sharki; Malik Sarwar
Suris -> the section Dihli Sultans above
Tughlukids -► the section Dihli Sultans above
Africa Fundj; Gwandu; Shirazi
see also Bu Sa'id; Dar Fur; Kilwa; Songhay; Wadai.l; Zaghawa.(a)
Anatolia and the Turks Artukids; Aydin-oghlu; Danishmendids; Dhu '1-Kadr; Eretna:
Germiyan-oghullari; Hamid Oghullari; Inal; Isfendiyar Oghlu; Karaman-oghullari:
Karasi; Menteshe-oghullari; 'Othmanli; Saltuk Oghullari; Sarukhan; Shah-i Arman;
Teke-oghullari
DYNASTIES, Anatolia and the Turks 45
see also Burids; Derebey; Mangits; Mengucek; Ramadan Oghullari; and ->■ Onomas-
TICS.TITLES
Artukids (1102-1408) Artukids
rulers Ilghazi; Nur al-DIn Muhammad; Timurtash b. Il-Ghazi
Aydin-oghlu (1308-1425) Aydin-oghlu
amirs Djunayd
Ottomans (1281-1924) Othmanli
see also 'Othman I; and -> Documents.ottoman; Military.ottoman; Ottoman
Empire; Turkey.ottoman period
sultans 'Abd al-'Aziz; c Abd al-Hamid I; 'Abd al-Hamid II; <Abd al-Madjid I; 'Abd
al-Madjid II; Ahmad I; Ahmad II; Ahmad III; Bayazid I; Bayazid II; Ibrahim;
Mahmud; Mehemmed I; Mehemmed II; Mehemmed III; Mehemmed IV;
Mehemmed V Reshad; Mehemmed VI Wahid al-Din; Murad I; Murad II; Murad
III; Murad IV; Murad V; Mustafa I; Mustafa II; Mustafa III; Mustafa IV; Orkhan;
'Othman I; 'Othman II; 'Othman III; Selim I; Selim II; Selim III; Siileyman;
Siileyman II
see also Bab-i Humayun; Djem; Ertoghrul; Khadim al-Haramayn; Khalifa.i.E;
Mashwara; Muhr.l; Mustafa. 1 and 2; Muteferrika; Rikab; Shehzade; Solak;
Topkapi Sarayi; Yeni Ceri.3; [in Suppl.] Kafes; Lala
women of Khasseki; Khurrem; Kosem Walide; Nilufer Khatun; Nur Banu;
Safiyye Walide Sultan; Turkhan Sultan; Walide Sultan
grand viziers Sadr-i A'zam
see also Bab-i 'Ali; Basvekil; Kapi; c Othman-zade; Telkhisdji; Wazir.III
14th century c Ali Pasha Candarli-zade; Djandarli
15th century Ahmad Pasha Gedik; Dawud Pasha, Kodja; Djandarli; Khalil
Pasha Djandarli; Mahmud Pasha; Mehmed Pasha, Karamani; Mehmed Pasha,
Rum; Sinan Pasha, Khodja. 1 ; Zaghanos Pasha
16th century Ahmad Pasha, Kara; c Ali Pasha Khadim; c Ali Pasha Semiz; Ay as
Pasha; Cighala-zade Sinan Pasha; Derwish Pasha; Ferhad Pasha; Hersek-zade;
Ibrahim Pasha; Ibrahim Pasha, Damad; Khadim Hasan Pasha Sokolli; Khadim
Siileyman Pasha; Lala Mehmed Pasha (and Mehmed Pasha, Lala, Shahinoghlu);
Lutfi Pasha; Mehmed Pasha, Lala, Melek-Nihad; Mesih Mehmed Pasha; Mesih
Pasha; c Othman Pasha; Piri Mehmed Pasha; Riistem Pasha; Sinan Pasha, Khadim;
Sinan Pasha, Khodja. 2; Siyawush Pasha. 1; Sokollu Mehmed Pasha
17th century 'AH Pasha 'Arabadji; c Ali Pasha Guzeldje; c Ali Pasha Surmeli;
Dawud Pasha, Kara; Derwish Mehmed Pasha; Dilawar Pasha; Hafiz Ahmed
Pasha; Husayn Pasha; Ibrahim Pasha, Kara; Ipshir Mustafa Pasha; Isma'il Pasha,
Nishandji; Kara Mustafa Pasha; Kemankesh; Khalil Pasha Kaysariyyeli; Khosrew
Pasha, Bosniak; Kopriilu.I-III; Mehmed Pasha, Cerkes; Mehmed Pasha, Elmas;
Mehmed Pasha, Gurdjii, Khadim; Mehmed Pasha, Giirdjii II; Mehmed Pasha,
Okiiz; Mehmed Pasha, Sultan-zade; Mehmed Pasha, Tabaniyassi; Murad Pasha,
Kuyudju; Nasuh Pasha; Redjeb Pasha; Siyawush Pasha.2; Siileyman Pasha,
Malatyali; Yemishdji Hasan Pasha
18th century c Abd Allah Pasha; c Ali Pasha Corlulu; c Ali Pasha Damad; c Ali
Pasha Hakim-oghlu; Derwish Mehmed Pasha; Hamza Hamid Pasha; Hamza
Pasha; (Damad) Hasan Pasha; (Seyyid) Hasan Pasha; (Sherif) Hasan Pasha;
Ibrahim Pasha, Nevshehirli; Kahya Hasan Pasha; Khalil Pasha Hadjdji Arnawud;
Koprulii.V; Mehmed Pasha, Baltadji; Mehmed Pasha, c Iwad; Mehmed Pasha,
Melek; Mehmed Pasha, Muhsin-zade; Mehmed Pasha Rami (and Rami Mehmed
Pasha); Mehmed Pasha, Tiryaki; Mehmed Pasha, Yegen, Giimrukcu; Mehmed
Pasha, Yegen, Hadjdji; Raghib Pasha; Sa'id Efendi; Topal 'Othman Pasha. 1
DYNASTIES, Anatolia and the Turks
1 9th century and on Ahmad Waflk Pasha; c AH Pasha Muhammad Amln; Damad
Ferld Pasha; Derwish Mehmed Pasha; Djawad Pasha; Fu'ad Pasha; Husayn 'Awni
Pasha; Husayn Hilmi Pasha; Ibrahim Edhem Pasha; Ibrahim Hakki Pasha; c Izzet
Pasha; Keciboynuzu; Khayr al-DIn Pasha; Khosrew Pasha, Mehmed; Kiiciik Sa'Id
Pasha; Mahmud Nedlm Pasha; Mahmud Shewkat Pasha; Mehmed Sa'Id Ghalib
Pasha; Midhat Pasha; Mustafa Pasha, Bayrakdar; Reshld Pasha, Mustafa; Tal'at
Bey; [in Suppl.] Es'ad Pasha
grand muftis Shaykh al-Islam.2
see also Bab-i Mashlkhat; Fatwa.ii
15th century Fenarl-zade; GuranI; Khosrew
16th century Abu '1-Su'ud; Bostanzade.2; Ciwi-zade; Djamali; Kemal Pasha-
zade; Khodja Efendi
17th century Baha'I Mehmed Efendi; Es'ad Efendi, Mehmed; Kara-Celebi-
zade.4; Sun' Allah; [in Suppl.] Yahya
18th century Celebi-zade; Durrizade.1-4; Es c ad Efendi, Mehmed (2x); Hayati-
zade.2; Mehmed Salih Efendi; PIri-zade
19th century c Arif Hikmet Bey; Durrizade.5; Es'ad Efendi, Ahmed; Hasan Fehmi
Efendi
20th century Djamal al-DIn Efendi; Diirrizade, c Abd Allah; Mustafa Khayri
Efendi
high admirals 'All Pasha Guzeldje; Cighala-zade Sinan Pasha; Dja'far Beg;
Djeza'irli GhazI Hasan Pasha; Hasan Pasha; Husayn Pasha; Ken'an Pasha; Khalil
Pasha Kaysariyyeli; Khayr al-DIn Pasha; Piyale Pasha; 'Uludj 'All; Zaghanos
Pasha; [in Suppl.] Kaplan Mustafa Pasha
see also Ra'Is.3
historians of 'Abdl; 'Abdl Efendi; 'Abdl Pasha; Ahmad Djewdet Pasha; Ahmad
RasmI; 'All; 'All Amirl; 'Ashik-pasha-zade; 'Asim; 'Ata J Bey; al-Bakrl.l; Bidllsl;
Bihishti; Celebi-zade; Ceshmlzade; Djalalzade Mustafa Celebi; Djalalzade Salih
Celebi; Enwerl; Es'ad Efendi, Mehmed; Hasan Bey-zade; 'Izzi; Kara-celebi-
zade.4; Katib Celebi; Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Kemal Pasha-zade; Khayr Allah
Efendi; Lukman b. Sayyid Husayn; Lutfl Efendi; Matrakci; Mehmed Hakim
Efendi; Mehmed Khalife b. Huseyn; Mehmed Pasha, Karamani; Mehmed Za'Im;
Muhyi '1-DIn Mehmed; Na'ima; 'Othman-zade; Pecewi; Ramadan-zade; Rashid,
Mehmed; Ruhi; Selanlkl; Shefik Mehmed Efendi; Shem'danl-zade; Sheref, c Abd
al-Rahman; Silahdar, Findiklili Mehmed Agha; Solak-zade; Subhl Mehmed;
Ta'llkl-zade; Tashkopriizade.2 and 3; Thiireyya; Tursun Beg; Urudj; 'Ushshakl-
zade, Ibrahim; Wasif; Wedjlhl; Yakhshi Faklh; [in Suppl.] Kantimlr, Demetrius
see also Hadidl; Shahnamedji; Waka'-niiwls
other personages
see also Shehzade; Yazidji
13th century Sawdji. 1
14th century 'Ala' al-DIn Beg; Badr al-DIn b. Kadi Samawna; Kasim.l;
Sawdji.3; Shahin, Lala; Siileyman Pasha
see also Torghud
15th century Ahmad Pasha Kha'in; Ewrenos; Ewrenos Oghullari; Fenari-zade;
Ibn 'Arabshah; Kasim.2 and 3; Kasim Pasha, Djazari; Musa Celebi; Mustafa. 1
and 2; Suleyman Celebi; TImurtash Oghullari; Turakhan Beg; [in Suppl.] Khodja-
zade
16th century Bostanzade; Ciwi-zade; Derwish Pasha; Dja'far Celebi; Djalalzade
Mustafa Celebi; Feridun Beg; Hamon; Kasim.4; Kasim Agha; Kasim Pasha;
Kemal Rels; Khosrew Pasha; Korkud b. Bayazld; Mahmud Pasha; Mahmud
DYNASTIES, Anatolia and the Turks — Arabian Peninsula 47
Tardjuman; Mehmed Pasha, Biyikli; Mustafa.3; Mustafa Pasha, Kara Shahin;
Mustafa Pasha, Lala; Mustafa Pasha al-Nashshar; Ozdemir Pasha; Pertew Pasha.I;
PIri Re'Is; Ramadan-zade; Ridwan Pasha; Sari KUrz; Selman Re'Is; Shah Sultan;
Shahin. Al; Sidi C AH Re 'Is; Sinan; Tashkopruzade. 1 ; Torghud ReMs; 'Ushshaki-
zade.l; Uweys; [in Suppl.] Kha'ir Beg; Yemenli Hasan Pasha
1 7th century Abaza; Hay dar-oghlu, Mehmed; Husayn Pasha; Kasim.5; Katirdji-
oghli Mehmed Pasha; Ma'n-zada; Mehmed Khalife b. Hiiseyn; 'Othman Pasha,
Yegen; Shahin, Al; Tifli; 'Ushshaki-zade. 1 ; Warwari c Ali Pasha; [in Suppl.]
Ahmad Pasha Kiiciik; Coban-oghullari
18th century Abaza; Ahmad Pasha; Ahmad Pasha Bonneval; Ahmad Rasmi;
Djanikli Hadjdji c Ali Pasha; Mehmed Hakim Efendi; Mehmed Yirmisekiz;
Paswan-oghlu; Patrona Khalil; Sari Mehmed Pasha; 'Ushshaki-zade. 1
19th century Ahmad Djewdet Pasha; 'All Pasha Tepedelenli; Ayyub Sabri
Pasha; Bahdjat Mustafa Efendi; Dawud Pasha (2x); D^awad Pasha; Fadil Pasha;
Halet Efendi; Husayn Pasha; Ibrahim Derwish Pasha; Kabakci-oghlu Mustafa;
Kozan-oghullarl; Mustafa Pasha, Bushatli; Pertew Pasha.II; Ridwan Begovic;
Sadik Rif at Pasha; Shebsefa Kadin; Topal c Othman Pasha.2; [in Suppl.] Camondo
20th century c Abd al-Hakk Hamid; Djawid; D^emal Pasha; Enwer Pasha; Fehim
Pasha; Hasan Fehmi; c Izzet Pasha; Kazim Kadri; Kazlm Karabekir; Mukhtar
Pasha; MUnif Pasha; [in Suppl.] Isma'il Hakki, Manastirli; c Izzet Holo
Saldiuks of Rum (1077-1307) Saldjukids
rulers Kayka'us; Kaykhusraw; Kaykubad; Kilidj Arslan I; Kilidj Arslan II; Kilidj
Arslan III; Kilidj Arslan IV; Malik-Shah.4; Sulayman b. Kutulmish; Toghril Shah
historians of Ibn Bibi
other personages Ashraf Oghullari; Mu'in al-Din Sulayman Parwana; Sa c d al-Din
Kopek
Arabian Peninsula Bu Sa'id; Hamdanids; Hashimids (2x); al-Khalifa; Mahdids; Nadjahids;
Rashid, Al; Rasulids; Sabah, Al; Sulayhids; Su'ud, Al; Tahirids.3; al-Ukhaydir, Banu;
'Usfurids; 'Uyunids; Wahidi; Ya'rubids; Yu'firids; Ziyadids; Zuray c ids; [in Suppl.]
Djabrids; Kathiri; Ku'ayti
AlSa c ud(1746- ) Suud, Al
rulers [in Suppl.] c Abd al-'Aziz; Faysal b. c Abd al- c Aziz
see also Muhammad b. Su c ud
Bit Sa'id (1741- ) Bu Sa'id
sultans Barghash; Sa'id b. Sultan
Carmathians (894-end 11th century) Karmati
rulers al-Djannabl, Abu Sa'id; al-Djannabi, Abu Tahir
Hashimids (1908-1925) Hashimids
rulers Husayn (b. C A1I)
see also c Abd Allah b. al-Husayn; Faysal I; Faysal II
other personages Zayd b. al-Husayn b. 'All
Rasulids (1229-1454) Rasulids
see also Zabid
historians of al-Khazradji
other personages [in Suppl.] Ibn Hatim
see also al-Sharif Abu Muhammad Idris
Tahirids (1454-1517) Tahirids.3
rulers 'Amir I; 'Amir II
Zaydis (860- ) Rassids; Zaydiyya.3
imams al-Mahdi li-DIn Allah Ahmad; al-Mansur bi 'llah, 'Abd Allah; al-Mansur
bi 'Hah, al-Kasim b. 'AM; al-Mansur bi 'llah, al-Kasim b. Muhammad; al-Mu'ayyad
48 DYNASTIES, Arabian Peninsula — Egypt and the Fertile Crescent
bi 'Hah Muhammad; Muhammad al-Murtada li-Din Allah; al-Mutawakkil 'ala
'llah, Isma'Il; al-Mutawakkil c ala 'llah, Sharaf al-DIn; al-Nasir li-Din Allah.II;
al-Nasir li-Din Allah, Ahmad; al-Rassi; Yahya b. Hamza al-'Alawi; Yahya b.
Muhammad; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Fath al-Daylami; al-Hadl ila '1-Hakk; al-Mahdi
li-Din Allah, al-Husayn
see also Imama; al-Yaman.3.a
for Zaydi imams of the Caspian ->■ Shiites.branches.zaydiyya
other personages al-Mutahhar; al-Nasir li-Din Allah.II; al-Sharif Abu Muhammad
Idris
Zuray'ids (1080-1173) Zuraylds
viziers Bilal b. Djarir al-Muhammadi
Egypt and the Fertile Crescent 'Abbasids; 'Annazids; Ayyubids; Baban; Burids; Fatimids;
Hamdanids; Hasanwayh; Mamluks; Marwanids; Mazyad; Mirdas; Tulunids; 'Ukaylids;
Umayyads; Zangids
see also c Ammar; Begteginids; Djalili; Sadaka, Banu; and -> Egypt.modern
PERIOD.MUHAMMAD c ALl's LINE; ONOMASTICS.TITLES.ARABIC
'Abbdsids (750-1258) -^ Caliphate
Ayyubids (1169-end 15th century) Ayyubids
see also Rank
rulers al- c Adil; al-Afdal; Bahram Shah; al-Kamil; al-Mu'azzam; al-Nasir; Salah
al-Din; (al-Malik) al-Salih 'Irnad al-Din; (al-Malik) al-Salih Nadjm al-DIn Ayyub;
Turanshah b. Ayyub; al-Zahir Ghazi
see also Diwan.ii.(3)
viziers Ibn al- c Adim; Ibn al-Athir.3; Ibn Matruh
see also Wazir.1.3
secretaries 'Imad al-Din; al-Kadi al-Fadil
historians of Abu '1-Fida; Abu Shama; Ibn Shaddad; 'Irnad al-Din; al-Makrizi; al-
Mansur, al-Malik
see also [in Suppl.] Karatay
other personages Abu '1-Fida; Aybak; Ibn al- c Assal; Karakush, Baha' al-Din;
Karakush, Sharaf al-DIn; al-Muzaffar, al-Malik
Burids (1104-1154) Burids; Dimashk
rulers Tughtigin
Fatimids (909-1 171) -> Caliphate
Hamdanids (905-1004) Hamdanids
rulers Nasir al-Dawla; Sayf al-Dawla; [in Suppl.] Abu Taghlib
other personages Husayn b. Hamdan; Lu'lu'
Ikhshidids (935-969)
rulers Kafur
viziers Ibn al-Furat.5
other personages al-Sayrafi
Mamluks (1250-1517) Dhu '1-Fakariyya; Diwan.ii.(4); Hadjib.iv; Hiba.ii; Khadim al-
Haramayn; Khaznadar; Mamluks (and [in Suppl.]); Mashwara; Na'ib.l; Ustadar
see also Harfush; Kumash; Mamluk; Manshur; Rank; Za'im; [in Suppl.] Mawakib;
and -> MlLITARY.MAMLUK
sultans Barkuk; Barsbay; Baybars I; Baybars II; Cakmak; Faradj; Hasan; Inal al-
Adjrud; Ka'it Bay; Kalawun; Kansawh al-Ghawri; Khalil; Khushkadam; Kutuz;
Ladjin; al-Mu'ayyad Shaykh; al-Nasir; (al-Malik) al-Salih; Sha'ban; Shadjar al-
Durr; Tuman Bay
administrators Fadl Allah; Ibn c Abd al-Zahir; Ibn Fadl al- c Umari; Ibn Ghurab; Ibn
Hidjdja; Ibn al-Sadid (Ibn al-Muzawwik); Ibn al-Sadid, Karim al-DIn; al-
DYNASTIES, Egypt and the Fertile Crescent — Mongols 49
Kalkashandi.l; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Suka'; Kha'ir Beg
historians of Abu '1-Mahasin b. Taghribirdi; Baybars al-Mansuri; Ibn c Abd al-Zahir;
Ibn Dukmak; Ibn Habib, Badr al-DIn; Ibn Iyas; Ibn Shahln al-Zahirl; al-MakrizI;
al-Mufaddal b. Abi '1-Fada'il; al-Nuwayri, Shihab al-DIn; al-Safadi, al-Hasan;
Shafi' b. 'All; al-Shudja'I; [in Suppl.] Karatay
other personages Abu '1-Fida; al- c Ayni; Ibn Djama'a; Ibn al-Mundhir; Tankiz
Marwdnids (983-1085) Marwanids
rulers Nasr al-Dawla
Mazyadids (ca. 961-1150) Mazyad; Sadaka, Banu
rulers Sadaka b. Mansur
Mirddsids (1023-1079) Mirdas
see also Asad al-Dawla
Tulunids (868-905) Tulunids
rulers Ahmad b. Tulun; Khumarawayh
see also Ibn al-Mudabbir. 1
historians of al-Balawi; Ibn al-Daya
other personages [in Suppl.] al- c Abbas b. Ahmad b. Tulun
'Ukaylids (ca. 990-1169) 'Ukaylids
rulers Muslim b. Kuraysh
Umayyads (661-750) -► Caliphate
Zangids (1127-1222) Zangids
rulers Mas'Qd b. Mawdud b. Zangi; Mawdud b. c Imad al-DIn ZankI; Nur al-Din
Arslan Shah; Nur al-Din Mahmud b. Zanki; Zangi
viziers al-Djawad al-Isfahani
see also Begteginids; Karim Khan Zand; Lulu', Badr al-Din
historians of Ibn al-Athir.2
other personages Shirkuh
Mongols Batu'ids; Caghatay Khanate; Cingizids; Djanids; Giray; Ilkhans; Kara Khitay;
Mongols; Shibanids
see also Cubanids; Kazan; Ordu.2; Soyurghal; Tlmurids; [in Suppl.] Agahi; Diwan-
begi; Djamal Karshi; Yurtci; and -► Law.mongol; Mongolia.mongols; Onomastics.
T1TLES.MONGOLIAN
Batu'ids (1236-1502) Batu'ids
see also Saray
rulers Batu; Berke; Mangu-tlmur; Toktamish
other personages Mas'udBeg
Caghatayids (1227-1370) Caghatay Khanate
rulers Burak Khan; Caghatay Khan; Tughluk Temiir
historians of Haydar MIrza
Djanids (1598-1785) Djanids
rulers Nadhr Muhammad
see also Bukhara
Giray Khdns (ca. 1426-1 792) Giray
rulers Dawlat Giray; Ghazi Giray I; Ghazi Giray II; Ghazi Giray III; Hadjdji Giray;
Islam Giray; Kaplan Giray I; Kaplan Giray II; Mehmed Giray I; Mengli Giray I;
Sahib Giray Khan I; Selim Giray I
see also Kalghay; Mehmed Baghcesarayi; Mehmed Giray; Thabit
Great Khdns (1206-1 634) Cingizids
rulers Cinghiz Khan; Kubilay; Mongke; Ogedey
other personages Kaydu; Mahmud Yalawac; Tarabi, Mahmud; Toluy; Toregene
Khatun
50 DYNASTIES, Mongols — Persia
Ilkhanids (1256-1353) Ilkhans
see also Sadr.2; Tuman
rulers Baydu; Gaykhatu; Qhazan; Hulagu; Oldjeytu; Tegiider; Togha Temiir
viziers Rashid al-Din Tabib; Sa'd al-Dawla
historians of Djuwayni, 'Ala 5 al-Din; Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Kazwini; Rashid
al-Din Tabib; Wassaf
other personages Djuwayni, 'Ala' al-DIn; Kutlugh-Shah Noyan
Shaybdnids (1500-1598) Shibanids
rulers c Abd Allah b. Iskandar; Abu '1-Khayr; Shibani Khan; [in Suppl.] Iskandar
Khan b. Djani Beg; c Ubayd Allah Sultan Khan
historians of Abu '1-Ghazi Bahadur Khan; [in Suppl.] Hafiz Tanlsh
Persia Afrasiyabids; Afshar; Ahmadilis; Ak Koyunlu; Badusbanids; Bawand; Buwayhids;
Djalayir; Dulafids; Fadlawayh; Farighunids; Hasanwayh; Hazaraspids; Ildenizids; Ilek-
Khans; Ilyasids; Indju; Kadjar; Kakuyids; Kara-koyunlu; Karinids; Kawus; Kh w arazm-
shahs; Kutlugh-khanids; Lur-i Buzurg; Lur-i Kucik; Mangits; Mar'ashis; Muhtadjids;
Musafirids; Musha'sha'; Muzaffarids; Rawwadids; Sadjids; Safawids; Saffarids;
Saldjukids; Salghurids; Samanids; Sarbadarids; Sasanids; Shaddadids; Shirwan Shah;
Tahirids.l; Timurids; Zand; Ziyarids
see also Ardalan; Atabak; 'Awfi; Cashna-gir; Daylam; Diwan.iv; Djalayir; Ghulam.ii;
Hadjib.iii; Harb.v; al-Hasan b. Zayd b. Muhammad; Hiba.iv; Hisar.iii; Ilkhans; Iran.v;
Kayanids; Marasim.3; Mawakib.3; Pishdadids; Shahi; Wakf.III; Wazir.II; and -*
Legends.legendary dynasties; Onomastics.titles.persian
Afshdrids (1 736-1 795) Afshar
rulers Nadir Shah Afshar
see also Takht-i Tawus
historians of 'Abd al-Karim Kashmiri; Mahdi Khan Astarabadi
Ak Koyunlus (1378-1508) Ak Koyunlu
rulers Uzun Hasan
Buwayhids (932-1062) Buwayhids
rulers Abu Kalidjar; 'Adud al-Dawla; Bakhtiyar; Djalal al-Dawla; Fakhr al-Dawla;
c Imad al-Dawla; Khusraw Firuz (and al-Malik al-Rahim); Madjd al-Dawla;
Mu'ayyid al-Dawla; Mu'izz al-Dawla; Rukn al-Dawla; Samsam al-Dawla; Shams
al-Dawla; Sharaf al-Dawla; Sultan al-Dawla; [in Suppl.] Baha 5 al-Dawla wa-
Diya' al-Milla
viziers al-'Abbas b. al-Husayn; Ibn 'Abbad; Ibn al-'Amid; Ibn Bakiyya; Ibn
Makula.l and 2; al-Muhallabi, Abu Muhammad; Sabur b. Ardashir; [in Suppl.]
'Abd al-'Aziz b. Yusuf; Ibn Khalaf.l; Ibn Sa'dan
secretaries Hilal al-Sabi' (and Sabi'.(3).9); Ibn Hindu; Sabi\(3).7
historians of S&b\\0).l
other personages al-Basasiri; Fasandjus; Hasan b. Ustadh-hurmuz; Ibn Hadjib al-
Nu'man; 'Imran b. Shahin; al-Malik al-'Aziz; [in Suppl.] Ibrahim Shirazi
Dabuyids (660-760)
rulers Dabuya
DJaldyirids (1340-1432) Djalayir
rulers Uways
other personages Salman-i Sawadji
Ildenizids (1137-1225) Ildenizids
rulers Ildeniz; Ozbeg b. Muhammad Pahlawan; Pahlawan
Ilek-Khdns (992-1211) Ilek-Khans
see also Yaghma
Kadjar s (1779-1924) Kadjar; Mushir al-Dawla
DYNASTIES, Persia
see also Ka'im-makam-i Farahani; Madjlis al-Shura; and -+ Iran.modern period
rulers Agha Muhammad Shah; Fath 'Ali Shah; Muhammad c Ali Shah Kadjar;
Muhammad Shah; Muzaffar al-DIn Shah Kadjar; Nasir al-Din Shah
see also Takht-i Tawus
other personages 'Abbas Mirza; [in Suppl.] Amir Nizam; Hadjdji Ibrahim Khan
Kalantar; Mirza Shafi 1 Mazandarani
Khanate ofKhiwa Khiwa
rulers Abu '1-Ghazi Bahadur Khan
historians Mu'nis; [in Suppl.] Agahi
Kjrarazm-Shahs (ca. 995-1231) Kh w arazm-shahs
rulers Atsiz b. Anushtigin; Djalal al-Din Kh w arazm-shah: Ma'mun b. Muhammad;
Tekish
historians of Djuwayni; al-Nasawi
other personages Burak Hadjib; Terken Khatun
Muzaffarids (1314-1393) Muzaffarids
rulers Shah-i Shudja'
historians of Mu'in al-Din Yazdi
Pahlawis (1926-1979) Pahlawi
and -+ Iran.modern period
rulers Muhammad Rida Shah Pahlawi; Rida Shah
Sddjids (ca. 856- ca. 930) Sadjids
rulers Abu '1-Sadj; Muhammad b. Abi i-Sadj; Yusuf b. Abi '1-Sadj Diwdad
Safawids (1501-1732) Barud.v; Ishik-akasi; Ttimad al-Dawla; Kurci; Libas.iii; Safawids
see also Haydar; Klzll-bash; Nuktawiyya; Sadr.4; Sadr al-Din Ardabili; Sadr al-Din
Musa; Safi al-Din Ardabili; Soyurghal; Takkalu; Tiyul
rulers c Abbas I; Husayn (and Sultan Husayn); Isma'il I; Isma'il II; Sulayman (Shah);
Tahmasp
historians of Hasan-i Rumlu; Iskandar Beg; Kum(m)i; Tahir Wahid
see also [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Bazzaz al-Ardabili
other personages Alkas Mirza; Hamza Mirza; al-Karaki; Madjlisi
see also [in Suppl.] Lala; Mihman; Shahbandar
Saffdrids (867 -ca. 1495) Saffarids
rulers c Amr b. al-Layth; Ya'kub b. al-Layth
Saldjuks (1038-1194) Amir Dad; Arslan b. Saldjuk; Atabak; Saldjukids
see also Saraparda; an d ~* Dynasties. anatolia and the turks. saldjuks of rum
rulers Alp Arslan; Bahram Shah; Barkyaruk; Mahmud b. Muhammad b. Malik-
Shah; Malik-Shah. 1-3; Mas'ud b. Muhammad b. Malik-Shah; Muhammad b.
Mahmud b. Muhammad b. Malik-Shah; Muhammad b. Malik-Shah; Ridwan;
Sandjar; Toghril (II); Toghril (III); Tutush (I) b. Alp Arslan
see also Caghri-beg; Silahdar; Toghril; Toghril (I) Beg
viziers Anushirwan b. Khalid; Djahir; al-Kunduri; Madjd al-Mulk al-Balasani; al-
Maybudi.3; Nizam al-Mulk; Rabib al-Dawla; [in Suppl.] Ibn Darust
historians of al-Bundari; Tmad al-Din; Nishapuri; Rawandi; [in Suppl.] al-Husayni
other personages Ak Sunkur al-Bursuki; Arslan-arghun; Ayaz; al-Basasiri; Buri-
bars; Bursuk; Buz-abeh; Kawurd; Khalaf b. Mula'ib al-Ashhabi; Khass Beg;
Kurbuka; Nizamiyya; Terken Khatun; al-Tughra J i; [in Suppl.] Ekinci
Salghurids (1148-1270) Salghurids
rulers Sa c d (I) b. Zangi
Sdmdnids (819-1005) Samanids
rulers Isma'il b. Ahmad; Isma'il b. Nuh; Mansur b. Nuh; Nasr b. Ahmad b. Isma'il;
Nuh (I); Nuh (II)
52 DYNASTIES, Persia — Spain and North Africa
viziers BaFami; al-Mus'abi; al-'Utbi.l and 2; [in Suppl.] al-Djayhani
historians of Narshakhi
see also al-Sallami
other personages Arslan b. Saldjuk; Simdjurids; [in Suppl.] al-Djayhani
Tahirids (821 -873) Tahirids. 1
rulers c Abd Allah b. Tahir; Muhammad b. Tahir; Tahir b. al-Husayn
historians of Ibn al-Dayba c
other personages Muhammad b. 'Abd Allah (b. Tahir)
Timurids (1370-1506) Timurids
see also Sadr.3; Soyurghal; Tuzuk
rulers Abu Sa'id b. Timur; Baykara; Bay songhor; Husayn; Shah Rukh; Timur Lang;
Ulugh Beg
see also Khan-zada Begum
historians of Ibn 'Arabshah; Kh w afi Khan; Shami, Nizam al-Dln; Sharaf al-Din
'Ali Yazdi
other personages Mir 'Ali Shir Nawa'i; Miranshah b. Timur; 'Umar-Shaykh Mirza
Zands (1750-1794) Zand
rulers Karim Khan Zand; Lutf 'Ali Khan
see also Lak
Ziydrids (931 -ca. 1090) Ziyarids
rulers Kabus b. Wushmagir b. Ziy ar; Kay Ka'us b. Iskandar; Mardawidj; Wushmgir
b. Ziyar
Spain and North Africa 'Abbadids; 'Abd al-Wadids; Aftasids; Aghlabids; c Alawis; 'Amirids;
'Ammar; Dhu '1-Nunids; ^ahwarids; Hafsids; Hammadids; Hammudids; Hudids;
Husaynids; Idrisids; (Banu) Khurasan; Marinids; Midrar; al-Murabitun; al-Muwahhidun;
Nasrids; Razin, Banu; Rustamids; Sa'dids; Tahirids.2; Tudjib; Umayyads.In Spain;
Wattasids; Zirids; [in Suppl.] Sumadih
see also 'Alama; Diwan.iii; Hadjib.ii and v; Hiba.iii; Hisar.ii; al-Hulal al-Mawshiyya;
Karamanli; Khalifa.i.C andD; Lakab.3; Marasim.2; Mawakib.2; Parias; ShurafaM .III;
Tawil, Banu; Wazir.1.4; Zahir; and -> Andalusia.conquest of and governors un-
til umayyad conquest; Caliphate.fatimids
'Abbddids (1023-1091) 'Abbadids; Ishbiliya
rulers al-Mu'tadid bi 'llah; al-Mu'tamid ibn 'Abbad
see also al-Rundi
viziers Ibn 'Ammar, Abu Bakr
c Abd al-Wddids (1236-1550) c Abd al-Wadids
rulers Abu Hammu I; Abu Hammu II; Abu Tashufin I; Abu Tashufin II; Abu Zayyan
I; Abu Zayyan II; Abu Zayyan III; Yaghmurasan
historians of Ibn Khaldun, Abu Zakariyya'; al-Tanasi
Aftasids (1022-1094) Aftasids
rulers al-Mutawakkil 'ala 'llah, Ibn al-Aftas
secretaries Ibn 'Abdun; Ibn Kabturnu (and [in Suppl.] Kabturnuh); Ibn Kuzman.II
(and [in Suppl.] Kuzman.2)
Aghlabids (800-909) al- c Abbasiyya; Aghlabids; Rakkada
rulers Ibrahim I; Ibrahim II
'Alawids (1631 - ) 'Alawis; Ka'id; Mawlay ; Shurafa'. 1 .III
rulers 'Abd Allah b. Isma'il; 'Abd al-'Aziz b. al-Hasan; 'Abd al-Rahman b. Hisham;
Hafiz ('Abd al-); (Mawlay) al-Hasan; Mawlay Isma'il; Muhammad III b. 'Abd
Allah; Muhammad IV b. 'Abd al-Rahman; Muhammad b. Yusuf (Muhammad
V); al-Rashid (Mawlay); Sulay man (Mawlay); [in Suppl.] Muhammad b. 'Arafa;
Yusuf b. al-Hasan
DYNASTIES, Spain and North Africa 53
viziers Akansus; Ibn Idris (I); [in Suppl.] Ba Hmad; Ibn 'Uthman al-Miknasi
historians of Akansus; Ibn Zaydan; al-Kardudi; al-Zayyani
other personages Ahmad al-Nasiri al-Salawi {and al-Nasir al-Salawi); Ibn Idris
(II); Khunatha
Almohads (1130-1269) Hargha; al-'Ikab; Mizwar; al-Muwahhidun
see also Tinmal; Zahir
rulers c Abd al-Mu'min; Abu Ya'kub Yusuf; Abu Yusuf Ya'kub al-Mansur; Ibn
Tumart; al-Ma'mun; al-Nasir
historians of c Abd al-Wahid al-Marrakushi; al-Baydhak; Ibn Sahib al-Salat
see also al-Hulal al-Mawshiyya
other personages [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Kattan
see also Abu Hafs c Umar al-Hintati; Ibn Mardanish
Almoravids (1056-1147) Amir al-Muslimin; al-Murabitun
see also al-Zallaka
rulers 'Ali b. Yusuf b. Tashufin; al-Lamtuni; Tashufin b. 'All; Yusuf b. Tashufin
secretaries Ibn 'Abdun
historians of Ibn al-Sayrafi
see also al-Hulal al-Mawshiyya
other personages Ibn Badjdja; Ibn Kasi
'Amirids (1021-1096) 'Amirids
rulers c Abd al-Malik b. Abi 'Amir; al-Muzaffar
viziers Ibn al-Katta c
other personages 'Abd al-Rahman b. Abi 'Amir
Djahwarids (1030-1070) Djahwarids
other personages (al-)Hakam ibn 'Uk(k)asha; Ibn 'Abdus
Hafsids (1228-1574) Hafsids
secretaries Hazim
historians of al-Hadjdj Hammuda
other personages Ibn 'Arafa
Hammadids (972-1152) Hammadids
rulers Badis; al-Mansur; al-Nasir
see also Kal'at Bani Hammad
Hammudids (1010-1057) Hammudids
viziers Ibn Dhakwan
Hudids (1039-1142) Hudids
rulers al-Mu 5 tamin
Husaynids (1705-1957) Husaynids
rulers Ahmad Bey; al-Husayn (b. 'Ali); Muhammad Bey; Muhammad al-Sadik
Bey
ministers Khayr al-Din Pasha; Mustafa Khaznadar
Idrisids (789-926) Idrisids
rulers Idris I; Idris II
Marinids (1196-1465) Marinids
rulers Abu '1-Hasan; Abu 'Inan Faris
Nasrids (1230-1492) Nasrids
viziers Ibn al-Khatib
other personages [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Sarradj; al-Nubahi
Rustamids (777-909) Rustamids
historians of Ibn al-Saghir
Sa'dids (1511-1659) Sa'dids; ShurafaM.III
rulers 'Abd Allah al-Ghalib; Ahmad al-Mansur; Mawlay Mahammad al-Shaykh
DYNASTIES, Spain and North Africa — EDUCATION
see also Mawlay
viziers Ibn c Isa
historians of 'Abd al- c AzIz b. Muhammad; al-Ifrani
other personages al-Tamgruti; [in Suppl.] Abu Mahalli
Tdhirids (1 1 th-12th centuries) Tahirids.2
Tudjibids (1019-1039) Tudjib
rulers Ma'n b. Muhammad; al-Mu c tasim
'Ubaydids
historians of Ibn Hamadu
Umayyads (756-1031) Umayyads.In Spain
amirs and caliphs c Abd Allah b. Muhammad; c Abd al-Rahman; al-Hakam I; al-
Hakam II; Hisham I; Hisham II; Hisham III; al-Mahdi; al-Mundhir b. Muhammad
see also Madinat al-Zahra'; Mu'awiya b. Hisham; Rabad; al-Rusafa.4; al-Walid
b. Hisham; [in Suppl.] Bubashtru; Sulayman b. al-Hakam al-Musta'in
viziers Ibn c Alkama.2; Ibn Shuhayd
see also Wazir.1.4
secretaries c Arib b. Sa c d al-Katib al-Kurtubi; Ibn Burd.I
other personages 'Abd al-Rahman b. Marwan; Ghalib b. 'Abd al-Rahman; Habib
b. c Abd al-Malik; Hasday b. Shaprut; Ibn 'Alkama. 1 ; Ibn Dhakwan; Ibn al-Hannat;
Ibn Kasi; Ibn al-Kitt; al-Mansur; Rabi' b. Zayd; Sakaliba.3; Subh; 'Umar b. Hafsun;
Ziryab; [in Suppl.] Ziri b. c Atiyya
Zirids (972-1 152) Zirids.l
rulers Buluggin b. Ziri; al-Mu'izz b. Badis; Tamim b. al-Mu c izz
historians of Umayya, Abu '1-Salt
other personages Ibn Abi '1-Ridjal
see also Kurhub
Zirids of Granada (1012-1090) Zirids.2
rulers c Abd Allah b. Buluggin; Zawi b. Ziri
Earthquakes Zalzala
for accounts of earthquakes, see also Aghri Dagh; Amasya; Antakiya; c Ashkabad; Cankiri;
Cilicia; Daybul; Djidjelli; Erzindjan; Harra; Hulwan; Istanbul.VI.f; Kalhat; Kangfa; Kazwin;
Kilat; Nishapur; al-Ramla
Economics Bay 1 ; Kasb; Mai, Tadbir.l; Ta'mim
see also Mudaraba; Ta'awun; Tidjara.3; and ->■ Finance
Education Ma'arif; Tadris; Tarbiya
see also c Arabiyya.B.IV; Idjaza
educational reform -+ Reform
institutions of learning Dar al-Hadith; Djami c a; Koy Enstitiileri; Kuttab; Madrasa; Maktab;
Pesantren
see also Kulliyya; Sadr.(c); Sama c .2; Shaykh; Ustadh; and -+ Education. libraries
individual establishments al-Azhar; Bay t al-Hikma; Dar al-Hikma; Dar al-'Ulum; Ghalata-
sarayi; Harbiye; al-Karawiyyin.ii; al-Khalduniyya; Makhredj; Mulkiyya; al-
Sadikiyya; Zaytuna; [in Suppl.] Institut des hautes etudes marocaines; Institut des
hautes etudes de Tunis; Jamia Millia Islamia; Tibbiyye-i c Adliyye-i Shahane
EDUCATION — EGYPT 55
see also Aligarh; Deoband; Filaha.iii; al-Kahira; Lakhnaw; al-Madina.ii; Makka.3;
Mustafa c Abd al-Razik; al-Mustansir (I); Nadwat al- c Ulama'; [in Suppl.] 'Abd al-
Bari; c Abd al-Wahhab; Farangi Mahall
learned societies and academies Andjuman; Djam'iyy a; Djem c iyyet-i Tlmiyye-i 'Othma-
niyye; Institut d'Egypte; Khalkevi; Madjma' c Ilmi
libraries Dar al-'Ilm; Maktaba
see also 'AH Pasha Mubarak; Khazin; al-Madina.ii
collections 'All Amiri (and [in Suppl.] C A1I Emiri); Es'ad Efendi, Mehmed; Khuda Bakhsh;
al-Tur.l; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Wahhab
see also Geniza; and ->■ Literature.bibliographical
librarians Ibn al-Fuwati; Ibn Hadjar al- c AskalanI; Ibn al-Sa c i; al-Kattani
treatises on
medieval al-Zarnudji
modern-day Ergin, Osman; [in Suppl.] Tongug
Egypt al-Kahira (and [in Suppl.] Misr.C.2.vi); Kibt; Misr; Nuba; al-Sa'id
see also al-'Arab.iv; al-Fustat; and -> Christianity.denominations.copts; Dynasties.
EGYPT AND THE FERTILE CRESCENT; MUSIC.REGIONAL; NUBIA
administration Dar al-Mahfuzat al- c Umumiyya; Diwan.ii; Kabala; Kharadj.I; Rawk
see also Misr.D.l.b; Wakf.II.l; and -> Caliphate. 'abbasids and fatimids;
Dynasties. egypt and the fertile crescent. mamluks; Ottoman Empire,
administration
architecture ->■ Architecture.regions
before Islam Fir'awn; Manf; Misr.D.l; Nuba.2; Sakkara; [in Suppl.] Abu Sinbil
see also al-Uksur
dynasties 'Abbasids; Ayyubids; Fatimids; Mamluks; Muhammad C AH Pasha; Tulunids
and -* Dynasties.egypt and the fertile crescent
education al-Azhar; Dar al- c Ulum; Djami'a; Institut d'Egypte; Ma'arif . 1 .ii; Madjma' c Ilmi.i.2.b;
Rifa'a Bey al-Tahtawi
see also 'Ali Pasha Mubarak
historians of Abu '1-Mahasin b. Taghrabirdi; 'Ali Pasha Mubarak; al-Bakri.2; al-Balawi; al-
Damurdashi; al-Djabarti; Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam.4; Ibn Dukmak; Ibn Iyas; Ibn Muyassar;
al-Kindi, Abu c Umar Muhammad; al-Makrizi; al-Nuwayri, Muhammad; Rifa c a Bey al-
Tahtawi; al-Safadi, al-Hasan; Salim al-Nakkash; al-Suyuti; al-Wasifi; Zaydan, Djurdji
see also [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l.fc); and -* Dynasties.egypt and the fertile cres-
cent
modernperiod Dariba.4; Djarida.i.A; Dustur.iii; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iii; al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun;
Iltizam; Imtiyazat.iv; Madjlis.4.A.xvi; Mahkama.4.i; Misr.D.7 (and [in Suppl.] Misr.D.8
andD.9); Salafiyya.2(a); Sihafa.l.(i); al-Takfirwa '1-Hidjra; Wafd; [in Suppl.] Nizam
'Askari.l.(a)
see also Baladiyya.2; al-Banna'; Madjlis al-Shura; Wataniyya
belletrists
poets al-Barudi; Fikri; Hafiz Ibrahim; Isma c il Sabri; Isma'il Sabri Pasha; al-
Manfaluti; al-Mazini; Nadji; Nadjib al-Haddad; Nadjib Muhammad Surur; Salah
c Abd al-Sabur; al-Sharkawi; Shawki; Shukri; Taha, c Ali Mahmud; [in Suppl]
Abu Shadi; al- c Akkad
writers of prose Ahmad Amin; Hafiz Ibrahim; Mahmud Taymur; al-Manfaluti; al-
Mazini; Muhammad Husayn Haykal; al-Muwaylihi; Salama Musa; al-Sharkawi;
Taha Husayn; Tawfik al-Hakim; Yahya Hakki; [in Suppl.] Abu Shadi; al- c Akkad;
Lashin
56 EGYPT EMIGRATION
see also Farah Antun; Mayy Ziyada; Muhammad Bey 'Uthman Djalal (and [in
Suppl.] Muhammad 'Uthman Djalal); and -> Literature.drama.arabic and
HISTORICAL.ARABIC; PRESS
influential persons Djamal al-Dln al-Afghani; al-Marsafi; Muhammad 'Abduh; Mustafa
Kamil Pasha; al-Muwaylihi. 1 ; Rifa'a Bey al-Tahtawi; Salama Musa; al-Sanhuri, 'Abd
al-Razzak; Sayyid Kutb; Shakir, Ahmad Muhammad; Shaltut, Mahmud; al-
Subkiyyun; Taha Husayn; Umm Kulthum; [in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Aza'im; al-'Adawi;
al-Bakri; al-Biblawi; Djawhari, Tantawi; al- c Idwi al-Hamzawi; 'Illaysh
see also Rashid Rida; and -+ the section Statesmen below
Muhammad 'All's line c Abbas Hilmi I; 'Abbas Hilmi II; Fu'ad al-Awwal; Husayn Kamil;
Ibrahim Pasha; Isma'Il Pasha; Muhammad c Ali Pasha; Sa'id Pasha; Tawfik Pasha;
[in Suppl.] Bakhit al-Mutn al-Hanafi; Faruk
see also 'Aziz Misr; Khidiw; 'Umar Makram; [in Suppl.] Da'ira Saniyya; Ib'adiyya
statesmen 'Ali Pasha Mubarak; al-Barudi; Fikri; Isma'il Sabri Pasha; Isma'il Sidki; Lutfi
al-Sayyid; Muhammad Farid Bey; Muhammad Nadjib; al-Nahhas; Nubar Pasha;
Sa'd Zaghlul; al-Sadat; Sharif Pasha; 'Urabi Pasha; Yakan, 'Adli; [in Suppl.] 'Abd
al-Nasir; Mahir, 'Ali
see also Mustafa Kamil Pasha
mystic orders Marwaniyya; Rifa'iyya; Tasawwuf.4; [in Suppl.] al-'Afifi; Demirdashiyya;
Sha'raniyya
see also Bakriyya; Khalwatiyya; Zar.2; and -> Mysticism
Ottoman period (1517-1798) Dh u '1-Fakariyya; Kasimiyya; Kazdughliyya; Misr.D.6;
Muhammad 'Ali Pasha; Shaykh al-Balad
see also Hurriyya.ii
beys 'Ali Bey; Muhammad Abu '1-Dhahab (and [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Dhahab)
physical geography
mountains al-Tur. 1
oases al-Wahat
waters Burullus; al-Nil; Timsah, Lake
see also Mikyas; Rawda; al-Suways
population 'Ababda; Kibt
see also [in Suppl.] Demography .IV; and -> Christianity.denominations.copts
toponyms
ancient Adfu; Babalyun; al-Bahnasa; Burullus; Dabik; al-Kulzum; Manf; Shata; Tinnis
see also al-Sharkiyya
present-day
regions Buhayra; al-Fayyum; al-Gharbiyya; Girga; al-Sharkiyya; Sina 5
see also al-Sa'id
towns 'Abbasa; Abukir; Akhmim; al-'Allaki; al-'Arish; Asyut; Atfih; 'Ayn Shams;
Banha; Bani Suwayf; Bilbays; Bulak; Busir; Dahshur; Dakahliyya; Damanhur;
Dimyat; al-Farafra; al-Fustat; Girga; Hulwan; al-Iskandariyya; Isma'iliyya; Isna;
al-Kahira (and [in Suppl.] Misr.C.2.vi); Kalyub; Kantara.3; Kift; Kuna; Kus;
Kusayr; al-Mahalla al-Kubra; al-Mansura; Manuf; Port Sa'id; Rafah; Rashid;
Sakkara; Samannud; Siwa.l; al-Suways; al-Tall al-Kabir; Tanta; al-Uksur; al-
Ushmunayn; Uswan; al-Zakazik; [in Suppl.] Abu Za'bal
see also al-Mukattam; Rawda
Emancipation Hurriyya
for manumission -> SLAVERY;/or women -> Women
EMIGRATION — EUROPE 57
Emigration Djaliya; Hidjra
see also al-Mahdjar; Muhadjir; al-Muhadjirun; Parsis; Sihafa.3; and ->■ New World
Epigraphy Kitabat
see also Eldem, Khalil Edhem; Hisab al-Djummal; Khatt; Musnad.l; Tiraz.3
sites of inscriptions Libiya.2; Lihyan; Orkhon; al-Sawda 5 ; Sikilliya.4; Sirwah.l; Zafar
see also Hadramawt; Saba'; Safaitic; Thamudic; [in Suppl.] Kahtanite
Eschatology 'Adhab al-Kabr; Akhira; al-A'raf; Barzakh; Ba'th; Djahannam; Djanna; Djaza';
Dunya; Hawd; Hisab; Israfil; c Izra c il; Kiyama; Ma'ad; al-Mahdi; Mawkif.2; Munkar wa-
Nakir; Sa'a.3; Zakkum
see also Kayyim; Shafa c a; Shakawa; Yawm; al-Zabaniyya; and ->■ Death; Paradise
hereafter Adjr.l; Akhira
see also Dunya
signs c Asa; Dabba; al-Dadjdjal; Yadjudj wa-Madjudj
see also Ba c th; Sa c a.3
Eternity Abad; Kidam
Ethics Adab; Akhlak; Hisba
see also Hurriyya; al-Mahasin wa '1-Masawi; Miskawayh; Tahsin wa-Takbih; Tanzim al-
Nasl; Zarif; and ->■ Virtues and Vices
Ethiopia Adal; Ahmad Gran; Awfat; Bali; Dawaro; Djabart; Djimma; Habash; Habashat
see also Habesh; Kush; Shaykh Husayn; Zar.l; and ->• Africa.east Africa; Languages.
AFRO-ASIATIC; YEMEN.TOPONYMS
historians of 'Arabfakih
population c Amir; Diglal; Djabart; Galla; Marya; Oromo; Rasha'ida
toponyms Assab; Dahlak; Dire Dawa; Eritrea; Harar; Masawwa'; Ogaden
Ethnicity Maghariba; Masharika; Sart
see also Fata; Ibn Gharsiya; Isma'il b. Yasar; Mawla; Saracens
Etiquette Adab
see also A'in; Hiba; and ->■ Cuisine.table manners; Literature.etiquette-literature
Eunuch Khasi
see also Khadim; Mamluk.3; Ustadh.l
Europe
for imitation of see Tafarnudj; for translations from European works ->• Literature.
translations
Eastern Europe Arnawutluk; Balkan; Bulgaria; Ikrltish; Kubrus; Leh; Madjar; Yugoslavia;
[in Suppl.] Ceh
see also Bulghar; Hizb.v; Ibrahim b. Ya c kub; Muhadjir.2; Muslimun. 1 ; Rumeli; al-Sakaliba
for individual countries ->• Albania; Bulgaria; Crete; Cyprus; (former) Czecho-
slovakia; Greece; Hungary; Poland; (former) Yugoslavia; the section Russia be-
low; and ->■ Balkans
waters Itil; Tuna; Wardar; Yayik
Russia Budjak; Kirim
see also Bulghar; Djadid; Hizb.v; Kayyum Nasiri; al-Tantawi; [in Suppl.] al-Kabk.3
dynasties Giray
Muslim Communists [in Suppl.] Sultan 'Ali Ughli
population Bashdjirt; Besermyans; Beskesek-abaza; Bukharlik; Burtas; Ceremiss;
Cullm; Cuwash; Gagauz; Karapapakh; Lipka; Rus; Teptyar
see also Kanghli; Khazar; Kimak; Pecenegs; al-Sakaliba
toponyms
ancient Atil; Saksin
present-day Ak Kirman; Ak Masdjid. 1 ; Azak; Baghce Saray ; Isma c il; Kamanica;
Karasu-bazar; Kasimov; Kazan; Kefe; Kerc; Khotin; Kilburun; Sughdak; Tiimen
see also Yeiii Kal'e
Western Europe al-Bashkunish; Burtukal; Ifrandj; Italiya; Malta; Nemce; Sardaniya
see also Ibn Idris (II); Ibrahim b. Ya'kub; al-Madjus; Muslimun.2
for individual countries ->• Austria; France; Italy; Portugal; Spain; and ->• Basques
Arabic press in Sihafa.3
Arabic printing in [in Suppl.] Matba c a.6
waters Tuna
Evil Eye 'Ayn, Tamima
see also Karkaddan; and ->• Charms; Islam.popular beliefs
Faith 'Akida; Iman; [in Suppl.] Takwa
and -> Islam; Religion
Falconry Bayzara; Cakirdji-bashi; Doghandji
see also Toghril
Fasting 'Ashura'; Ramadan; Sawm
see also 'Id al-Fitr; Sufiyana; [in Suppl.] Puasa
prayer during Ramadan Tarawih
Fatimids ->• Caliphate
Festival Id; Kanduri; Mawlid (and [in Suppl.]); Mawsim; Shenlik
see also Matbakh.2
festivals 'Ansara; c Ashura'.II; Bara Wafat; 'Id al-Adha; 'Id al-Fitr; Khidr-ilyas; Mihragan;
Nawruz; Sultan al-Talaba (and Talaba)
see also Ghadir Khumm: Kurds.iv.C.3; Lalish; Lebaran; Ra's al-'Am; Wali.9
literature on Wehbi Sayyidi
Finance Riba
and ->■ Administration.financial; Law.law of obligations; Payments; Taxation
accounting Muhasaba.2; Mustawfi
see also Daftar; and ->• Administration.financial
banking Kirad; Mudaraba; Riba; Suftadja; [in Suppl.] Sarraf
see also Djahbadh; Sharika
commerce Bay'; Imtiyazat; Kasb; Kirad; Shira 5 ; Tidjara
see also Insha'; and ->• Industry; Law.law of obligations
FINANCE — GAMBLING 59
functions Dallal; Malik al-Tudjdjar; Shah Bandar {and [in Suppl.] Shahbandar); Tadjir;
[in Suppl.] Sarraf
see also Tardjuman
marketplace Hisba; Suk
see also [in Suppl.] al-Sunami
trade Kahwa; Karimi; Kutn; Luban; Tin.3
see also Kalah; Karwan; Kaysariyya; Kirman; Mina 3 ; Safawids.II; Szechuan; Tashaza;
Tammar; 'Ukaz; Wenedik
institutions
Arabic Bayt al-Mal; Makhzan
Turkish Khazine; Maliyya
partnerships Mufawada; Musharaka; Sharika
terms c Ariyya; Bay'; Daman; Gharim; Hawala; Hiba; Kafala; Kirad; Mudaraba; Mufawada;
Mukata'a; Mukhatara; Musharaka; Riba; Suftadja; [in Suppl.] Dayn; Sakk
and -> Law.law of obligations
Flora (Djazirat) al- c Arab.v; Bustan; Filaha; Hind.i.k
and -> Architecture.monuments.gardens; Botany; Literature.poetry.nature
flowers Nardjis; Shakikat al-Nu'man; Susan; Ward; [in Suppl.] Babunadj; Djullanar
see also Filaha.iv; Lale Devri; Lalezari; Nawriyya; [in Suppl.] Ma 3 al-Ward; and ->
Architecture.monuments.gardens; Literature.poetry.nature
plants Adhargun; Afsantin; Afyun; Haifa 3 ; Hinna 3 ; Kammun; Karanful; Karm; Kasab; Na'am;
Nabat; Sabr; Shibithth; Shih; Shuka'a; Sidr; Simsim; Siradj al-Kutrub (and Yabruh);
Sus; Turundjan; Wars; Yasamin; Za'faran; [in Suppl.] Akunitun; As; Babunadj; Basbas;
Djawars; Fadhandj; Hindiba 3 ; Iklil al-Malik
see also Maryam; Nahl; Namir and Nimr; Nasr; Samgh; Sinnawr; Sirwal; Timsah; and
-> Drugs.narcotics
trees Abanus; 'Afs; Argan; Bakkam; Ban; Nakhl; Sadj; Sandal; Sidr; Tin; Tut; 'Unnaba;
Zaytun.2; [in Suppl.] Djawz; Djullanar
see also c Ayn Shams; Ghaba; Kafur; Kahruba; Katran; Luban; Samgh; Tha'lab; [in Suppl.]
Haliladj
woods Abanus; Bakkam; Khashab; Sandal; c Ud.I
see also Lamu; and ->■ the section Trees above; Navigation.ships and shipyards
Folklore [in Suppl.] Takalld
and -> Charms; Custom; Divination; Humour; Legends; Literature.folkloric
France Arbuna; Fraxinetum
see also Balat al-Shuhada 3 ; Muslimun.2; Rifa'a Bey al-Tahtawi; Sayigh, Fath Allah; al-
Sham.2(b)
Franks Ifrandj
and -> Crusade(r)s
Furnishings Mafrushat; Siradj; [in Suppl.] Athath
see also [in Suppl.] Martaba
Gambling Kimar; al-Maysi
and -> Animals.sport; Recreation.games
Genealogy Hasab wa-Nasab; Nasab; Sharif; Shurafa'
see also 'Irk; Nakib al-Ashraf; Sharaf; and -> Literature.genealogical; Onomastics
Geography Djughrafiya; Iklim; Istiwa'; Kharita; al-Kubba; Takhtit al-Hudud
see also Maghrib; Makka.4; Mashrik
for the geography of individual areas, see Adamawa; Adharbaydjan.i; Afghanistan.!; Ak
Su; Algeria. i; Anadolu.ii; al-Andalus.ii and iii.2; (Djazlrat) al- c Arab.ii; Arminiya;
Arnawutluk.3; c Asir; Bahr; Djazira; Filaha; Hammada; Indonesia; 'Irak; Iran; Libiya; al-
Maghrib; Mazandaran.2; Muritaniya. 1 ; Nadjd.l; Niger. 1; Pakistan; Senegal. 1; al-Sham.l;
Sistan.2; Somali.2; Tunisia.I.a; 'Uman.l; al-Yaman.2; Zab.l; [in Suppl.] Kazakstan.l;
Radjasthan. 1
administrative Kura; Mamlaka; Mikhlaf; Rustak.l; Shahr; Suba; Tassudj; Ustan
see also Djund; Iklim; Wali
geographers Abu '1-Fida; Abu 'Ubayd al-Bakri; 'Ashik; al-Balkhi, Abu Zayd; al-Dimashki;
Ibn 'Abd al-Mun'im al-Himyari; Ibn al-Fakih; Ibn Ghalib; Ibn Hawkal; Ibn
Khurradadhbih; Ibn Madjid; Ibn Rusta; Ibn Sarabiyun; al-Idrisi; al-Istakhri; al-Kazwini;
al-Mas'udi; al-Muhallabi, Abu '1-Husayn; al-Mukaddasi; al- c Udhri; al-Warrak,
Muhammad; Yakut al-Rumi; al-Zuhri, Muhammad
see also Batlamiyus; Istibsar; Kasim b. Asbagh; al-Masalik wa '1-Mamalik; al-Sarakhsi,
Abu 'l- c Abbas; [in Suppl.] al-Djayhani; Hudud al-'Alam
literature Djughrafiya.IV.c and V; Surat al-Ard
see also Turan; and -> Literature.travel-literature
physical geography
deserts -> Deserts
mountains -> Mountains
oases Waha
salt flats Sabkha
see also Azalay; Milh; Shatt;/or regional salt flats -> Algeria; Oman
springs c Ayn Dilfa; 'Ayn MQsa; al-Hamma; Hasan Abdal
see also Kaplidja
volcanoes see 'Adan; Aghri Dagh; Damawand; Harra; Ladja'; al-Safa.2; [in Suppl.] Djabal
Says
wadis Wadi
waters
lakes Baikal; Bakhtigan; Balkhash; Burullus; Gokce-tengiz; Hamun; al-Hula; Issik-
kul; Kara-kol; Timsah, Lake; Tuz Golu; Urmiya. 1 ; al-'Utayba; Wan. 1 ; Zirih
see also Buhayra; al-Kulzum; and -»■ Oceans and Seas
oceans and seas -»■ Oceans and Seas
rivers -»■ Rivers
straits Bab al-Mandab; Boghaz-ici; Canak-kare Boghazi
terms Harra; Khabra'; Nahr; Reg; Rif; Sabkha; Shatt
see also Sanf; Sarhadd; Wali
urban Karya; Kasaba; Khitta; Mahalle; Medina; Rabad; Shahr; Shahristan
see also Fener; Hayy; Khitat; Mallah; Shari'; and -> Architecture.urban; Seden-
tarism; and in particular the larger cities in the section Toponyms under each country
Gifts Hiba; Sila.3
see also Bakhshish; Nithar; Pishkash; Rashwa; and ->■ Payments
GREECE — HERALDRY 61
Greece Yunan
see also Muhadjir.2; Muslimun.l.B.3; Pomaks
Greek authors in Arabic translation -> Literature.translations; Philosophy.philoso-
phers
toponyms
districts Karli-ili
islands Coka Adasi; Egriboz; Korftiz; Levkas; Limni; Midilli; Nakshe; On Iki Ada; Para;
Rodos; Sakiz; Santurin Adasi; Semedirek; Shey tanlik; Shire; Sisam; Tashoz; Zaklise;
[in Suppl.] Yedi Adalar
see also Djaza 3 ir-i Bahr-i Safid
regions Mora, Tesalya
towns Atina; Aynabakhti; Baliabadra; Dede Aghac; Dimetoka; Karaferye; Kawala;
Kerbenesh; Kesriye; Kordos; Koron; Livadya; Menekshe; Modon; Nauplion;
Navarino; Olendirek; Preveze; Selanik; Siroz; Tirhala; Wodina; Yanya; Yefii Shehir;
[in Suppl.] Kuluz; Mezistre
see also [in Suppl.] Giimiildjine
Guilds Sinf
Arabic Amin; c Arif; Futuwwa.ii and iii; Hammal; Harfush; Khatam; Khayyat; Sinf. 1
see also Shadd; Shaykh; Sirwal
Persian Sinf.2
see also Ustadh.2
Turkish Akhi; Akhi Baba; Anadolu.iii.6; Harir.ii; Ketkhuda.ii; Sinf.3; [in Suppl.] Ikhtiyariyya;
Inhisar
see also Akhi Ewran; 'Alima; Ca'ush; Kannas; Mawakib.4.4; Muhr. 1
Guinea Futa Djallon; Guinea; Konakry
see also Sudan (Bilad al-).2
Gypsies Cingane; Luli; Nuri
see also al-Zutt
H
Hadith -> Literature.tradition-literature
Hagiography Manakib
see also Wali; and -> Sainthood
hagiographers Aflaki; 'Atal; al-Badisi.2; "Djamali"; Hasan Dihlawi; Ibn c Askar; Ibn Maryam;
al-Ifrani; al-Kadiri al-Hasani, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Sharrat; al-Sulami, Abu c Abd al-
Rahman
see also Ahmad Baba; Bakikhanli; al-Kattani; Sinan Pasha, Khodja. 1
Hell Ashab al-Ukhdud; Djahannam, Sa'ir; Sakar; Sirat; Zakkum
see also al-A c raf; Shaytan.l; al-Wa'd wa '1-Wald; al-Zabaniyya
Hephthalites Hayatila; Nizak, Tarkhan
Heraldry al-Asad; Rank
Heresy Bid'a; Dahriyya; Din-i Ilahi; Ghulat; Kabid; Kafir; Khubmeslhis; Mulhid; Zindik
see also al-Salib; Takfir; Tanasukh; and ->■ Religion.dualism and pantheism
heretics Abu 'Isa al-Warrak; Abu '1-Khattab al-Asadi; Bashshar b. Burd; Bishr b. Ghiyath
al-Marisi; Ibn Dirham; Ibn al-Rawandi; Molla Kabid; Muhammad b. c Ali al-Shalmaghani
see also Thabit Kutna; Waliba b. al-Hubab; and -+ Sects
refutations of Ibn al-Djawzi, c Abd al-Rahman; [in Suppl.] Afdal al-Din Turka
History -+ Literature, historical
for the chronological history of dynastic events ->■ Caliphate; Dynasties;/*?/- the history of
early Islam ->■ Caliphate. rightly-guided caliphs; Law.early religious law;
MiLiTARY.BATTLES.622-632 and 633-660; Muhammad, the Prophet; for the history of
regions, towns and other topographical sites, see the section Toponyms under individual
countries; for the history of ideas ->■ e.g. Astronomy; Law; Linguistics; Mathematics;
Philosophy; Theology
Hostelry Funduk; Khan; Manzil; [in Suppl.] Mihman
see also Ribat.l.b
Humour al-Djidd wa '1-Hazl; Nadira
see also Hidja'.ii; Mudjun
comic figures Djuha; Ibn al-Djassas.II; Nasr al-Din Khodja
humourists Ash'ab; al-Ghadiri; Ibn Abi c Atik; Ibn Daniyal; Kasab, Teodor; Sifawayh al-Kass;
[in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Anbas al-Saymari
Hungary Budin; Egri; Esztergom; Istolni (Istoni) Belghrad; Madjar; Mohacs; Pecs; Pest;
Sigetwar; Szeged; Szekesfehervar; [in Suppl.] Koszeg
see also Bashdjirt; Kanizsa; Mahmud Tardjuman; Mezokeresztes; Muslimun.l.B.l; Ofen
Hunting Sayd
see also Kurds.iv.C.5; Samak; Shikari; Zaghardji Bashi; [in Suppl.] Segban; and ->■ Ani-
mals; Falconry
poetry Tardiyya
see also Radjaz
treatises on Kushadjim; [in Suppl.] Ibn Mangli
see also al-Shamardal
wild animals Fahd; Khinzir; Mahat; Na'am; Namir and Nimr; Saluki; [in Suppl.] Dabu'
Hydrology Bi'r; Kanat; Ma 5 ; Ma'sir; Tahun
see also Filaha; Kantara.5 and 6; Madjrit; al-Mizan.2; Sa'a.l; and -+ Architecture,
monuments.dams; Geography. waters
Idolatry Shirk; Wathaniyya
idols Nusub; Sanam: Taghut. 1 ; al-Ukaysir
see also Shaman; Zun; and ->■ Pre-Islam.in Arabian peninsula
Illness Madjnun; Malarya; Ramad; Saratan.7; [in Suppl.] Djudham
see also Kalb; Kutrub; Summ; and -*■ Plague
treatises on Hayati-zade; Ibn Butlan; Ibn Djazla
see also [in Suppl.] 'Ukala' al-Madjanin; and ->■ Medicine
India Hind; Hindi
see also 'Ada.iii; Balhara; Imam-bara; Matba'a.4; Sikkat al-Hadid. 1 ; and ->■ Literature;
Military; Music
administration Baladiyya.5; Dariba.6; Diwan.v; Djizya.iii; Hisba.iv; Katib.iii; Kharadj.IV;
Pargana; Safir.3; Tahsil; Zamindar; [in Suppl.] Ta'alluk
see also Kitabat.10; Ma\9; Wakf.VI; and -> Military.indo-muslim
during British rule [in Suppl.] Mufassal
agriculture Filaha.v
architecture -> Architecture.regions
belles-lettres ->■ Literature.in other languages and poetry.indo-persian
cuisine Matbakh.4
dynasties 'Adil-Shahs; Bahmanis; Barid Shahis; Dihli Sultanate; Farukids; Ghaznavids;
Ghurids; Hindu-Shahis; 'Imad Shahi; Khaldiis; Kutb Shahis; Lodis; Mughals; Nizam
Shahis; Sayyids; Sharkis; Tughlukids
see also Awadh; Dar al-Darb; Rana Sanga; TIpu Sultan; Vidjayanagara; and ->
DYNASTIES.AFGHANISTAN AND INDIA
education Dar al-'Ulum.c andd; Djami'a; Madjma 1 'Ilmi.iv; Madrasa.II; Nadwat al-'Ulama';
[in Suppl.] Farangi Mahall; Jamia Millia Islamia
see also Ahmad Khan; Deoband; Mahmudabad Family; [in Suppl.] Muhammad 'Abd
Allah
historians of Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba'i; Nizam al-DIn Ahmad b. al-HarawI; Sudjan
Ray Bhandari
see also Dja'far Sharif; al-Ma'bari; Mir Muhammad Ma'sum; and -> Dynasties.
AFGHANISTAN AND INDIA; LlTERATURE.HISTORICAL.INDO-PERSIAN
languages Gudjarati; Hindi; Hindustanis and ii; Lahnda; MarathI; Pandjabl. 1 ; Sind.3.a; Urdu. 1 ;
[in Suppl.] Radjasthan.3
see also Kitabat.10; and -> Languages.indo-iranian
literature -> Literature
modern period Djam'iyya.v; Hindustani.iii; Hizb.vi; Indian National Congress; Islah.iv;
Kashmir.ii; Kawmiyya.vi; Khaksar; Khilafa; Madjlis.4.C; al-Mar'a.5; Nikah.II.3; [in
Suppl.] Djarida.vii; Mahkama.5
see also Mahsud; Mappila; Tablighl Djama'at; [in Suppl.] Fakir of Ipi; Khan, c Abd al-
Ghaffar; and -> India.education
e against the British Yaghistan
Indian Mutiny Azim Allah Khan; Bakht Khan; Imdad Allah; Kanpur
Khildfat movement Khilafa; Muhammad C A1I; Mushir Husayn Kidwa'I; Shawkat
C A1I; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Bari; Hasrat Mohan!
see also Amir 'All; [in Suppl.] Khan, c Abd al-Ghaffar
Nawwab Sayyid Siddik Hasan Khan; Salar Djang; [in Suppl.] Azad, Abu '1-
Kalam
see also Mahmudabad Family
mysticism -> Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood.saints
physical geography
waters Djamna; Ganga
see also Nahr.2
population Bhatti; Bohoras; Dawudpotras; Djat; Gakkhaf; Gandapur; Giidjar; Habshi; Hind.ii;
Khatak; Khokars; Lambadis; Mappila; Med; Memon; Me'6; Naitias; Parsis; Radjputs;
Rohillas; Shikari; Sidi; [in Suppl.] Demography .VII
see also Khodja; Marathas; al-Zutt
64 INDIA INDONESIA
Tamils Ceylon; Labbai; Marakkayar; Rawther
religion Ahl-i Hadith; Barahima; Djayn; Hindu; Ibahatiya; Mahdawls; Pandj PIr; Sikhs;
Tablighi Djama'at; [in Suppl.] PIrpanthi
see also Kh w adja Khidr; Parsis; Ta'ziya; Yusuf Kandhalawi Dihlawi; Zakariyya
Kandhalawi Saharanpuri; [in Suppl.] Andjuman-i Khuddam-i Ka c ba; and -*■ Mysticism;
Sainthood; Theology
reform Ahmad Brelwi; al-DihlawI, Shah Wall Allah; Isma'il Shahid; Karamat C A1I; Nanak;
Titu Mir
toponyms
ancient Arur; Campaner; Chat; Djaba; Djandjira; Fathpur-sikri; HampI; Husaynabad;
Kulam; Lakhnawti; al-Mansura; Mewaf; Nandurbar; Narnawl; Pandu'a; Shikarpur.2;
Sldhpur; Sindabur; Slndan; Sumanat; Telingana; Tonk; TribenI; Wayhind
present-day
and -»• Asia.south
regions Assam; Bihar; Bombay State; Dakhan; Djaypur; Do'ab; Gudjarat; Hariyana;
Haydarabad.b; Kamrup; Kashmir; Khandesh; Kuhistan.4; Ladakh; Ludhiana;
Ma'bar; Mahisur; Malabar; Mew at; Muzaffarpur; Nagpur; Palamaw; Palanpur;
Pandjab; Radhanpur; Rampur; Rohilkhand; Sundarban; Tirhut; Urisa; [in Suppl.]
Djammu; Konkan; Radjasthan; Rohtak
see also Alwar; Banganapalle; Baoni; Berar; Djodhpur; Hunza and Nagir;
Udaypur; [in Suppl.] Sarkar.2
towns Adjmer; Agra; Ahmadabad; Ahmadnagar; Aligarh; Allahabad; Ambala;
Amritsar; Anhalwara; Arcot; Awadh; Awrangabad; Awrangabad Sayyid;
A'zamgarh; Bada'un; Bala-ghat; Banda; Bankipur; Banur; Bareilly; Baroda;
Benares; Bharatpur; Bharoc; Bhattinda; Bhopal; Bidar; Bidjapur; Bidjnawr;
Bilgram; Bombay City; Bulandshahr; Burhanpur; Buxar; Calcutta; Canderi;
Dawlatabad; Deoband; Dhar; Dharwar; Dihli; Diu; Djalor; Djawnpur; F^junagafh;
Dyunnar; Dwarka; Faridkot; Farrukhabad; Faydabad; Firuzpur; Gulbarga;
Gwaliyar; Hansi; Haydarabad.a; Hisar Firuza; Idar; Islamabad; Itawa; Kalpi;
Kalyani; Kanawdj; Kafigfa; Kannanur; Kanpur; Karnal; Karnatak; Katahr;
Khambayat; Khayrabad; Khuldabad; Kofa; Koyl; Lakhnaw; Lalitpur; Ludhiana;
Madras; Mahim; Mahim; Mahur; Malda; Malwa; Mandu; Maner; Mangrol;
Mathura; Mirath; Mirzapur; Multan; Mungir; Muradabad; Murshidabad;
Muzaffarpur; Nadjibabad; Nagar; Nagawr; Nagpur; Naldrug; Nandef; Panipat;
Parenda; Patan; Patna; Puna; Radjmahal; Raycur; Saharanpur; Sahsaram;
Sarangpur; Sardhana; Sarkhedj; Shakarkhelda; Shikarpur.3; Sholapur; Sirhind;
Srinagar; Sriangapattanam; Surat; Talikota; Thalner; Thana; f hanesar; f hatfa;
Udgir; Udjdjayn; Warangal; [in Suppl.] Amroha; Elicpur; Ghazipur; Iric; Kalikat;
Madura; Rohtak
Indonesia Baladiyya.7; Dustur.xi; Hizb.vii; Hukuma.vi; Indonesia; Mahkama.6; Malays;
Masjumi; [in Suppl.] Dariba.7; Hoesein Djajadiningrat; Sukarno
see also c Ada.iv; Nikah.II.4; Pasisir; Prang Sabil; [in Suppl.] al-Mar'a.6
architecture ->■ Architecture.regions
education Djami'a; Pesantren
literature Indonesia.vi; Kissa.6; Mi'radj.4; Sha c ir.7; Ta'rikh.II.7; [in Suppl.] Shi c r.5
see also Kitabat.8; Malays; and -> Literature.poetry.mystical
Muslim movements Padri; Sarekat Islam
see also Sulawesi
mysticism-^ Mysticism.mystics
INDONESIA — IRAN 65
population Malays; Minangkabau; [in Suppl.] Demography .VIII
see also Sayabidja
religion ->■ Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood.saints
festivals Kanduri; Lebaran
see also [in Suppl.] Puasa
recitation competitions [in Suppl.] Musabaka
toponyms Ambon; Atjeh; Banda Islands; Bandjarmasin; Bangka; Batjan; Billiton; Borneo
{and [in Suppl.]); Djakarta; Kubu; Kutai; Lombok; Madura; Makassar; Palembang; Pase;
Pasir; Pontianak; Riau; Sambas; Sulawesi (and Celebes); Sumatra; Sunda Islands;
Surakarta; Ternate; Tidore; [in Suppl.] Kalimantan; Mataram; Yogyakarta
see also Zabadj
Industry Harir; Kattan; Kutn; Lubud; Milh
see also Bursa; al-Iskandariyya; Kaysariyya; Zonguldak
Inheritance c Ada.iii; Akdariyya; c Awl; Fara'id; Mirath; al-Sahm.2; Wasiyya; Yatim.2
see also Kassam; Khal; Makhredj; Mukhallefat; Tanasukh
works on al-Sadjawandi, Siradj al-Din; al-Tilimsani.2; al- c Ukbari
Inventions 'Abbas b. Firnas; Ibn Madjid; Musa (Banu); Sa c a. 1
Iran al-Furs; Iran; Kurds; Lur
see also al- c Arab.iii; Harb.v; Kitabat.9; Libas.iii; Zurkhana; and ->• Dynasties. Persia;
Shiites; Zoroastrians
administration Dariba.5; Diplomatic.iii; Diwan.iv; Ghulam.ii; Imtiyazat.iii; Katib.ii; Khalisa;
Kharadj.II; Mahkama.3; Parwanaci; [in Suppl.] Shahbandar
see also Kalantar; Wakf.III; and ->■ Iran.modern period
agriculture Filaha.iii
architecture ->■ Architecture.regions
art ->■ Art.regional and period
before Islam Anusharwan; Ardashir; Bahrain; Dara; Darabdjird; Dihkan; Djamshid; Faridun;
al-Hadr; Hayatila; Hurmuz; al-Hurmuzan; Karinids; Kayanids; Kay Ka 3 us; Kay Khusraw;
Khurshid: Kisra; Marzpan; Mazdak; Muluk al-TawaMf.l; Parwiz, Khusraw (II);
Pishdadids; Sasanids; Shapur; Tahmurath; Yazdadjird III; [in Suppl.] Farrukhan
see also Afrasiyab; Buzurgmihr; Hamadhan; Ikhshid; Iran.iv; Ispahbadh; Kasr-i Shirin;
Kumis; al-Mada 5 in; al-Rayy; Rustam b. Farrukh Hurmuzd; Sarpul-i Dhuhab; Tansar;
[in Suppl.] Dabir; and -> Zoroastrians
cuisine [in Suppl.] Matbakh.3
dynasties ->■ Dynasties.persia
historians of Hamza al-Isfahani; Ibn Manda; al-Mafarrukhi; al-Rafi c i; Zahir al-Din Mar c ashi;
[in Suppl.] al-Kummi
and ->■ Dynasties.persia
language ->■ Languages.indo-iranian
literature ->■ Literature
modernperiod Baladiyya.4; Djami c a; Djam'iyya.iii; Djarida.ii; Dustur.iv; Hizb.iii; Hukuma.ii;
Iran.v.b; Islah.ii; Kawmiyya.iii; Ma'arif.3; Madjlis.4.A.iii; Madjma c 'Ilmi.ii; al-Mar'a.3;
Shuyu c iyya.2; Takrib; [in Suppl.] Demography .III; Nizam c Askari.2; Sihafa.4
see also Khaz'al Khan; Madjlis al-Shura; Mahkama.3; [in Suppl.] Amir Nizam; and ->■
Dynasties.persia.kadjars and pahlawIs; Shiites
activists Fida 5 iyyan-i Islam; Kashani, Ayatullah; Kh w ansari. Sayyid Muhammad; Khiyabani.
Shaykh Muhammad; Khurasani; Kucak Khan Djangali; Lahuti; Mahallati; Samsam
66 IRAN
al-Saltana; Talakani; [in Suppl.] Aka Nadjafi; Haydar Khan 'Amu Ughli; 'Ishki
see also Djangali; Kurds.iii. C; Yazdl; Zayn al-'Abidin Maragha'i; [in Suppl.] Azadi;
Faramush-khana
influential persons Kasrawi Tabrizi; Malkom Khan; Mutahhari; Na'ini; Nuri, Shaykh Fadl
Allah; Sharfati, 'Ali; Tihrani; [in Suppl.] Aka Khan Kirmani; Khumayni
statesmen Musaddik; Tabataba'i; Takizada; Wuthuk al-Dawla; [in Suppl.] Amir Kabir
physical geography
deserts Biyabanak
mountains Ala Dagh; Alburz; Alwand Kuh; Bisutun; Damawand; Hamrin; Hawraman;
Zagros
see also Sarhadd
waters Atrek; Bakhtigan, Hamun; Karkha; Karun; Mand; Ruknabad; Safid Rud; Shah
Rud.l; Shapur; Shatt al- c Arab; Urmiya.l; Zayanda-Rud; Zirih
see also Bahr Faris
population Bakhtiyari; Bazukiyyun; Bilbas; Djaf; Eymir.3; Goklan; Guran; (Banu) Ka'b; Kara
Gozlu; Kashkay; Kurds; Lam; Lur; Shabankara; Shahsewan; Shakak; Shakaki; Sindjabi;
Tiirkmen.3
see also Daylam; Dulafids; Eymir.2; Firuzanids; Iran.ii; Kufs; Shulistan; Tat. 1 ; [in Suppl.]
Demography .III
religion Iran.vi; Safawids.IV
and ->■ Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood.saints; Shhtes
toponyms
ancient Abarshahr; Ardalan; Arradjan; 'Askar Mukram; Badj; Bakusaya; Bayhak;
Darabdjird; Daskara; Dawrak; Dihistan; Dinawar; al-Djazira; Djibal; Djiruft; Gurgan;
Hafrak; Hulwan; Idhadj; Istakhr; (al-)Karadj; Khargird.2; Kumis; Kurkub;
Mihragan.iv. 1 ; Narmashir; Nasa; Nawbandadjan; al-Rayy; Rudhbar.2; Rudhrawar;
Saymara; Shapur; Shulistan; al-Siradjan; Siraf; Sisar; Suhraward; al-Sus; Talakan.2;
Tarum; Tawwadj; Tun; Turshiz; Tus; Tusan; Urm; Ustuwa; Zarang; [in Suppl.]
Arghiyan; Ghubayra
present-day
islands al-Farisiyya; Tunb
provinces Adharbaydjan; Balucistan; Fars; Gilan; Hamadhan; Isfahan; Khurasan;
Khuzistan; Kirman; Kirmanshah; Kurdistan; Mazandaran; Yazd
see also Astarabadh.2; Ruyan; Tabaristan
regions Bakharz; Hawraman; Kuhistan.l; Makran; Sarhadd; Sistan; [in Suppl.]
Bashkard
see also Gulistan
towns and districts Abadah; Abarkuh; 'Abbadan; c Abbasabad; Abhar; al-Ahwaz;
Amul.l; Ardakan; Ardistan; Asadabadh; Ashraf; Astarabadh.l; Awa; Bam;
Bampur; Bandar 'Abbas; Bandar Pahlawi; Barfurush; Barudjird; Barzand;
Birdjand; Bistam; Bushahr; Damghan; Dizful; Djannaba; Djuwayn.l and 2;
Farahabad; Faryab; Fasa; Firuzabad; Fuman; Gulpayagan; Gunbadh-i Kabus;
Hurmuz; Isfahan; Isfarayin; Kashan; Kasr-i Shirin; Kazarun; Kazwin; Kh w af;
Khalkhal; Kh w ar; Kharag; Khargird.l; Khoi; Khurramabad: Khurramshahr;
Kinkiwar; Kishm; Kucan; Kuhistan.2; Kuhrud; Kum; Lahidjan; Lar (2x); Linga;
Luristan; Mahabad; Maku; Maragha; Marand; Mashhad; Miyana; Narak; Natanz;
Nayriz; Nihawand; Nishapur; Rafsandjan; Ram-hurmuz; Rasht; Rudhbar.3;
Sabzawar.l; Sahna; Sa'inKara; Sakkiz; Salmas; Sanandadj; Sarakhs; Sari; Sarpul-
i Dhuhab; Sarwistan; Sawa; Shah Rud.3; Shiraz; Shushtar; Simnan; al-Siradjan;
Somay; Sulduz; Sultanabad; Sultaniyya; Sunkur; al-Sus; Tabas; Tabriz; Tarum;
Tihran; Turbat-i [Shaykh-i] Djam; Turkmen Cay (i); Urmiya.2; Ushnu; Waramin;
Yazd; Zahidan; Zandjan; Zawa; Zawara; Zawzan; [in Suppl.] Bashkard; Biyar;
Djardjarm; Djulfa.II; Hawsam; Ka'in; Khumayn
see also Shahr; Shahristan; Tun; and -+ Kurds.toponyms
Iraq 'Irak; Kurds
see also al-'Arabiyya; Djalili; Lakhmids; Sawad; Shaharidja; [in Suppl.] Suk.5; and -+
Caliphate.'abbasids; Dynasties.egypt and the fertile crescent
architecture -+ Architecture.regions
before Islam -+ Pre-Islam.in fertile crescent
historians of al-Azdi; Bahshal; Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur; Ibn al-Banna 5 ; Ibn al-Dubaythi; al-
Khatib al-Baghdadi; 'Ubayd Allah b. Ahmad b. Abi Tahir
see also Ibn al-Nadjdjar; [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l.(c); and -+ Caliphate.'abbasids;
Dynasties.egypt and the fertile crescent
modern period Djarida.i.A; Djami c a; Dustur.vi; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iii; Kurds. iii.C;
Madjlis.4.A.iv; Madjma' c Ilmi.i.2.c; Mahkama.4.iv; Mandates; Sihafa.l.(vii); [in Suppl.]
Nizam 'Askari.l.fc)
see also Baban; Kut al- c Amara; al-Mawsil.2
belletrists
poets al-Akhras; al-Faruki; al-Kazimi, c Abd al-Muhsin; Ma'ruf al-Rusafi; Sha'ul;
al-Zahawi, Djamil Sidki
writers of prose Sha'ul
monarchy Faysal I; Faysal II; Ghazi
see also Hashimids
opposition leaders Kasim c Abd al-Karim; Mustafa Barzani
politicians al-Shahrastani, Sayyid Muhammad; Shina
prime ministers Nuri al-Sa'id; Rashid c Ali al-Gaylani
physical geography
mountains Sindjar
waters Abu T-Khasib; al-'Adaym; Didjla; Diyala; al-Furat; Khabur; al-Khazir; Shatt al-
'Arab; al-Zab
population Badjalan; Bilbas; Djubur; Dulaym; Lam; al-Manasir; Turkmen.3
see also Shammar; [in Suppl.] Demography.III; and -+ Kurds
toponyms
ancient Abarkubadh; 'Akarkuf; c Alth; al-Anbar; Babil; Badjimza; Badjisra; Baduraya;
Bakhamra; Baradan; Baratha; Bawazidj; Bihkubadh; Birs; Dayr 'Abd al-Rahman;
Dayr al- c Akul; Dayr al-A'war; Dayr al-Djamadjim; Diyar Rabi'a; Djabbul; al-Djazira;
Falludja; Haditha.I; Harba'; Harura 5 ; Hawiza; al-Hira; al-Kadisiyya; Kalwadha;
Kaskar; Kasr ibn Hubayra; Khanikln; al-Khawarnak; Kutha; Kutrabbul; al-Mada'in;
Niffar; Nimrud; Ninawa; al-Nukhayla; al-Rusafa.l; Samarra'; al-Taff; al-Ubulla; al-
Warka 5 ; Wasit; [in Suppl.] 'Ukbara
see also al-Karkh; Nusratabad; Senkere
present-day
regions Bahdinan; al-Batiha; Maysan
see also Lalish
towns Altin Kdprii; c Amadiya; c Amara; 'Ana; 'Ayn al-Tamr; Badra; Baghdad;
Ba'kuba; Balawat; Barzan; al-Basra; Dakuka 5 ; Daltawa; Diwaniyya; al-Falludja;
Haditha.II; al-Hilla; Hit; Irbil; Karbala 5 ; Kazimayn; Kirkuk; al-Kufa; Kut al-
'Amara; Ma'althaya; al-Mawsil; al-Nadjaf; al-Nasiriyya; Nusratabad; Rawandiz;
Samarra'; al-Samawa.2; Senkere; Shahrazur; Sindjar; Suk al-Shuyukh; Sulay-
maniyya; Takrit; Zakhu; [in Suppl.] Athur
see also Djalula 5 ; and -> Kurds.toponyms
Irrigation Band; Kanat; Ma'; Na'ura
see also Filaha; Karun; al-Nahrawan; and -»■ Rivers
water Ma'
see also Hawd; Sabll.2; Sakka'; and^> Architecture.monuments; Hydrology; Navi-
gation; Oceans and Seas; Rivers
Islam 'Akida; Din; Djama'a; 'Ibadat; Islam; Masdjid; Muhammad; Murtadd; Muslim; Rukn. 1 ;
Shi'a: Takiyya; Tawhid; Umma
see also Islah; Ftikaf; Nubuwwa; Rahbaniyya; Shirk; Tawakkul; and -»■ Ablution; Alms;
Fasting; Pilgrimage; Prayer; Qur'an; Theology
conversion to Islam.ii
early converts to -»■ Muhammad, the Prophet.companions of
European converts Pickthall
five pillars of Islam Hadjdj; Salat; Sawm; Shahada; Zakat
see also 'Ibadat; al-Kurtubi, Yahya; Rukn.l; c Umra; [in Suppl.] Ramy al-Djimar
formulas Allahumma; Basmala; Hamdala; In Sha' Allah; Masha' Allah; Salam; Subhan;
Ta'awwudh; Tahlil.2; Takbir; Talbiya; Tashahhud; Tasliya
see also Tashrik; [in Suppl.] Abbreviations
popular beliefs c Ayn; Diw; Djinn; Ghul; Muhammad.2; Zar; [in Suppl.] c A'isha Kandisha;
Hinn
see also c Anka'; Shafa c a.2; and -»■ Law.customary law
preaching Kass; Wa'iz
proselytism Da'wa; Tablighi Djama'at
Western studies of Mawsu c a.4
Israel -»■ Palestine/Israel
Italy Italiya; Kawsara; Killawriya; Rumiya; Sardaniya; Sikilliya; Wenedik
and -»■ Sicily
Ivory Coast Cote d'lvoire; Kong
Jacobites -»■ Christianity.denominations
Jewelry [in Suppl.] Djawhar
see also Khatam
pearls and precious stones c Akik; al-Durr; Kuh-i Nur; Lu'lu'; Mardjan; Yakut; Zumurrud
see also Dhahab; Fidda; Hadjar; Kahruba; Ma c din.2.3
Jordan Dustur.x; Hukuma.iii; Madjlis.4.A.vii; Mahkama.4.vi; Mandates; Sihafa. 1 .(vi); al-
l)rdunn.2
see also Taki al-Din al-Nabhani
physical geography
mountains al-Djibal; al-Tur.5
waters al-Urdunn. 1 ; Yarmuk. 1
population al-Huwaytat; al-Manasir
see also [in Suppl.] Demography .III
statesmen 'Abd Allah b. al-Husayn; Wasfi al-Tall
see also Hashimids
toponyms
ancient Adhruh; Ayla; al-Balka 1 ; Djarash; al-Djarba'; al-Djibal; Fahl; al-Humayma; al-
Muwakkar; Umm al-Rasas; Umm al-Walid
present-day ' Adjlun; al-'Akaba; 'Amman; Bay t Ras; al-Ghawr. 1 ; Irbid.I; Ma'an; al-Salt;
al-Shawbak; al-Zarka 1 ; [in Suppl.] Mafrak
Judaism Ahl al-Kitab; Banu Isra'il; Tawrat; Yahud
see also Filastin; Hud; Nasi 3 ; al-Samira; and -> Bible; Palestine/Israel
communities al-Andalus.iv; al-Fasiyyun; Iran.ii and vi; Isfahan. 1; al-Iskandariyya;
Istanbul. vii.b; al-Kuds; Lar.2; Mallah; Marrakush; Sufruy
influences in Islam c Ashura\I
see also Kibla; Muhammad.i.I.C.2
Jewish personages in Muslim world c Abd Allah b. Salam; Abu c Isa al-Isfahani; Abu Naddara;
Dhu Nuwas; Hamon; Hasday b. Shaprut; Ibn Abi '1-Bayan; Ibn Djami'; Ibn Djanah; Ibn
Gabirol; Ibn Kammuna; Ibn Maymun; Ibn Ya'ish; Ibrahim b. Ya'kub; Ishak b. Sulayman
al-Isra 3 ili; Ka c b b. al-Ashraf; al-K6hen al- c Attar; Masardjawayh; Masha' Allah; Musa b.
'Azra; al-Radhaniyya; Sa'adya Ben Yosef; Sa'd al-Dawla; al-Samaw 3 al b. 'Adiya;
Shabbatay Sebi; Sha'ul; Shina; Ya'kub Pasha; [in Suppl.] Camondo; Ibn Biklarish; Nissim
b. Ya'kub, Ibn Shahin
see also Abu '1-Barakat; Ka'b al-Ahbar; Kaynuka'; Kurayza; 'Uzayr; [in Suppl.] Samaw'al
b. Yahya al-Maghribi, Abu Nasr
Jewish sects 'Ananiyya; al-'Isawiyya; Karaites
Judaeo-Christian sects SabFa.l
see also Nasara
Judaeo-Muslim sects Shabbatay Sebi
Jewish-Muslim relations
persecution Dhimma; Djizya; Qhiyar; al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah; al-Maghili; Shi'ar.4; Zunnar
polemics Abu Ishak al-Ilbiri; Ibn Hazm, Abu Muhammad; al-Su'udi, Abu '1-Fadl; 'Uzayr;
[in Suppl.] Samaw'al b. Yahya al-Maghribi, Abu Nasr
see also Ahl al-Kitab; Tahrif; Yahud
with Muhammad Fadak; Kaynuka'; Khaybar; Kurayza; al-Madina.i.l; Nadir
see also Muhammad. LLC
language and literature Judaeo- Arabic; Judaeo-Berber; Judaeo-Persian; Kissa.8; Risala. 1 .VII
see also Geniza; Mukhtasar; Musammat; Muwashshah; Yusuf and Zulaykha.l; and
-> Languages.afroasiatic.hebrew; Lexicography. lexicographers; Literature,
in other languages
K
Kenya Gede; Kenya; Kilifi; Lamu; Malindi; Manda; MazrQ'i; Mombasa; Pate; Siu
see also Nabhan; Swahili; [in Suppl.] Djarida.viii; and -> Africa.east Africa
Swahili literature Kissa.7; Madih.5; Marthiya.5; Mathal.5; [in Suppl.] Hamasa.vi; Nadira.2
see also Mi'radj.3
poets Shaaban Robert
song Siti Binti Saad
Koran -> QurXn
Kurds Kurds
70 KURDS LANGUAGES
see also Kitab al-Djilwa; and ->■ Iran; Iraq; Turkey
for Kurdish press in Turkey, see [in Suppl.] Sihafa.5
dynasties 'Annazids; Baban; Fadlawayh; Hasanwayh; Marwanids; Rawwadids; Shaddadids
see also Kurds. iii.B
Kurdish national movement Badrkhani; Kadi Muhammad; Kurds.iii.C; Mustafa Barzani
see also Barzan; Mahabad
languages Kurds. v; Tur 'AbdinAiii
sects Sarliyya; Shabak; Yazldi
toponyms Ardalan; Bahdinan; Baradust; Barzan; Djawanrud; Hakkari.2; Rawandiz; Sakkiz;
Sanandadj; Sawdj-Bulak; Shahrazur; Shamdinan; Somay; Sulaymaniyya; Zakhu
see also Kirkuk; Kurds.ii; Oramar; Shabankara; Slsar
tribes D^af; Hakkari.l; Hamawand; Kurds.iii.B and iv.A.2; Lak.l; Shabankara; Shakak;
Shakaki; Sindjabi
see also Zaza
Kuwait Eyarida.i.A; Dustur.xvi; al-Kuwayt; Madjlis.4.A.ix; Mahkama.4.ix; Sabah, Al;
Sihafa.l.(ix)
see also (^azirat) al- c Arab; al-'Arabiyya; Eyami'a; 'Utub
toponyms al-Dibdiba; fin Suppl.] Ahmadi
see also Karya al- c Ulya
Lamentation Bakka 1 ; Niyaha; Rawda-kh w ani
Land ->■ Property; Taxation
in the sense of agriculture, see Filaha; in the sense of cooperative ownership, see Ta'awun;
in the sense of surveying, see Misaha; Rawk
Languages Lugha
and ->■ Linguistics; Writing.scripts
Afro-Asiatic Ham; Sam.2
see also KarshunI; Ma'lula.2; Sullam
Arabic Arabiyya.A
see also Ibn Makki; Karwasha; Khatt: Madjma c 'Ilmi.i; al-SIm; Ta'rib; [in Suppl.]
Hadramawt.iii; and ->■ Alphabet
Arabic dialects Algeria.v; Aljamia; al-Andalus.x; Arabiyya.A.iii; 'Irak.iv; Judaeo-
Arabic.i and ii; LIbiya.2; al-Maghrib.VII; Mahri; Malta.2; Muritaniya.6; al-Sa c id.2;
al-Sham.3; Shawiya.3; Shuwa; Si'ird; Sudan.2; Sudan (Bilad al-).3; Tunisia.IV;
Tur c Abdin.4.i; c Uman.4; al-Yaman.5
see also Ibn al-Birr; Takrlt; al-Tantawi; c Utub; Zawdj.2 and [in Suppl.] 3; and ->■
Literature.poetry.vernacular
Christian Arabic KarshunI; Shaykhu, Luwls
see also c Arabiyya.A.ii.l; Tur c AbdIn.4
Judaeo-Arabic ->■ Judaism.language and literature; Literature.in other
LANGUAGES
Bantu Swahili; Yao
Berber Berbers.V; Judaeo-Berber; Muritaniya.6; Siwa.2; Takbaylit; Tamazight; Tarifiyt;
Tashelhit; Tawarik.2
see also Mzab; Tifinagh
LANGUAGES — LAW 71
Berber words in Arabic Afrag; Agadir; Agdal; Amenokal; Amghar; Argan; Ayt;
Imzad
see also Kallala; Rif.I.2(a); Tit
Chadic Hausa.ii
see also Wadai.2
Cushitic Kush; Somali.5
Ethiopian-Semitic Eritrea.iv; Habash.iv
Hebrew Ibn Djanah
Neo-Aramaic Tur c Abdin.4.ii
North Arabian Lihyan; Safaitic; Thamudic
and -»■ Epigraphy
South Arabian Saba 5 ; [in Suppl.] Kahtanite
see also Hadramawt; al-Harasis; al-Sawda 5 ; Zabur; and -► Epigraphy
Modern South Arabian Mahri; Shihri; Sukutra.3
see also al-Batahira; al-Harasis; [in Suppl.] Hadramawt.iii
Teda-Daza Kanuri; Tubu.3
Austronesian Atjeh; Indonesia.iii; Malays
Ibero-Caucasian Andi; Beskesek-abaza; Cerkes; Daghistan; Darghin; al-Kabk; Kayyum Nasiri
see also al-Kurdj; Tsakhur
Indo-European Arnawutluk. 1 ; [in Suppl.] South Africa.2
see also al-Kabk
Indo-lranian
Indian Afghanistan. iii; Bengali. i; Ceylon; Chitral.II; Dardic and Kafir Languages;
Gudjarati; Hind. iii; Hindi; Hindustani; Kashmiri; Lahnda; Maldives. 2; Marathi;
Pandjabi.l; Sind.3.a; Urdu.l; [in Suppl.] Radjasthan.3
see also Madjma' Tlmi.iv; Sidi; [in Suppl.] Burushaski
Iranian Afghan.ii; Afghanistan.iii; Balucistan.B; Dari; Guran; Hind.iii; Trak.iv.b;
Judaeo-Persian.ii; Kurds. v; Lur; Tadjiki. 1 ; Talish.2; Tat.2; Tur 'Abdin.4.iii; Zaza;
[in Suppl.] Iran.iii
see also Daghistan; al-Kabk; Kh w arazm; Madjma' Tlmi.ii; Ossetians; Shughnan;
al-Sughd; [in Suppl.] Ishkashim
Persian dialects Simnan.3
(Niger-jKordofanian Nuba.3
Nilo-Saharan Nuba.3; Songhay.l; Sudan.2; Wadai.2
Turkic Adhari; Balkar; Bulghar; Gagauz; Khaladj.2; Turks.II (and [in Suppl.])
see also Afghanistan.iii; Daghistan; al-Kabk; Khazar; Madjma c Tlmi.iii; Sart; [in Suppl.]
Kazakstan.3
Law 'Ada; Dustur; Fikh; Tbadat; Idjma'; Kanun.i and iii; Kiyas; Mahkama; Shari'a; Tashri';
c Urf; Usui al-Fikh; [in Suppl.] Madhhab; Makasid al-Shari c a; Ra>y
see also Ashab al-Ra 5 y; Hukuk; Siyasa.3; and ->■ Divorce; Inheritance; Marriage
for questions of law, see 'Abd.3; Djasus; Filaha.i.4; Harb.i; Harir; In Sha' Allah; Intihar;
Kabr; Kafir; Khalisa; Khitba; Ma'; al-Mar 5 a; Murtadd; Rada'; Rakid; Rashwa; Safar.l;
Sha c r.2; Sura; al-Suraydjiyya; 'Urs.l.c; Wakf.1.3; Wilaya.l
Anglo-Mohammedan law 'Ada.iii; Amir c Ali; Munsif; [in Suppl.] Mahkama.5
see also Hanafiyya
commercial law -»■ Finance; and see the section Law of Obligations below
customary law 'Ada; Dakhil; Kanun.iv; Taghut.2; Tha'r; c Urf; [in Suppl.] Djirga
see also Baranta; Berbers.IV; al-Mami; al-Mar'a.2; Musha 1
early, pre-madhhab law Abu Hanifa; Abu Yusuf; al-Ash'ari, Abu Burda; 'Ata' b. Abi Rabah;
al-Awza c i; Ibn Abi Layla.II; Ibn Shubruma; al-Layth b. Sa'd; Malik b. Anas; Maymun
72 LAW
b. Mihran; al-Nakha c I, Ibrahim; al-Sha'bl; al-Shafi'I; Shurayh; Sufyan al-lhawri; Yahya
b. Adam; [in Suppl.] Fukaha' al-Madina al-Sab'a; Ibn Abi '1-Zinad; Sa'Id b. Djubayr
see also [in Suppl.] Ra'y
genres c Amal; Dustur; Fara'id; Fatwa; Hisba; Hiyal.4; Ikhtilaf; Nazila; Shart. 1 ; Sidjill.3; Usui
al-Fikh; Wathlka; [in Suppl.] Kawa'id Fikhiyya
see also Tabakat.C; Wakf.I.2.d and IV
lbadl law 'Abd al- c Aziz b. al-Hadjdj Ibrahim; Abu Ghanim al-Khurasani; Abu Muhammad
b. Baraka (and Ibn Baraka); Abu Zakariyya' al-Djanawunl; Ibn Dja'far
see also al-Djaytali; MahkamaAix (Oman)
in Southeast Asia Penghulu; Rapak; Shari c a (In South-East Asia); 'Ulama'.S; [in Suppl.]
Mahkama.7
inheritance ->■ Inheritance
jurisprudence Fatwa; Fikh; Idjab; Idjma 1 ; Idjtihad; Ikhtilaf; Istihsan; Kiyas; Maslaha; Nazila;
Taklid
see also Sadd al-Dhara'i c
jurist Fakih; Mardja'-i Taklid; Mudjtahid; c Ulama 3
see also Sharh.III; [in Suppl.] Ra'y
Hanafi Abu Hanlfa al-Nu c man; Abu '1-Layth al-Samarkandl; Abu '1-Su c ud; al- c AmidI;
al-Biharl; al-Djassas; al-Halabl; Hamza al-Harranl; Ibn c AbidIn; Ibn Buhlul; Ibn
Ghanim; Ibn Kutlubugha; Ibn Nudjaym; Ibn al-Shihna; Kadi Khan; al-Kasanl;
Kastallani; al-Kudurl, Abu '1-Husayn Ahmad; al-Marghinani; al-Muradi.2, 3 and A;
al-Nasafi.4; al-Sadjawandi, Siradj al-DIn; al-Sarakhsi, Muhammad b. Ahmad; al-
Shaybanl, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Shibll, Abu Hafs; al-TahawI; al-Ushl; Wankuli; [in
Suppl.] Abu c Abd Allah al-Basrl; Abu '1-Barakat; al-Damaghani, Abu c Abd Allah
Muhammad b. C A1I; al-Damaghani, Abu '1-Hasan 'All b. Muhammad; al-Khassaf;
al-Sunami; Yahya
see also c Abd al-Kadir al-KurasJii; al-Fatawa al-'Alamglriyya; Ibn Dukmak; al-
Sayrafl; al-Taftazanl; Zahir
Hanbali Ahmad b. Hanbal; al-Bahuti; al-Barbahari; Ghulam al-Khallal; Ibn c Akil; Ibn al-
Banna 3 ; Ibn Batta al- c UkbarI; Ibn al-DjawzI; Ibn al-Farra'; Ibn Hamid; Ibn Kayyim
al-Djawziyya; Ibn Kudama al-Makdisi; Ibn Muflih; Ibn Radjab; Ibn Taymiyya; al-
Kalwadhanl; al-Khallal; al-Khiraki; al-Marwazi; al-Tufi; al- c Ukbari; al-Yunini; Yusuf
b. c Abd al-Hadl
see also c Uthman b. Marzuk; and -*• Theology
Maliki Ahmad Baba; Asad b. al-Furat; al-BadjI; al-Bakillanl; BannanI; al-BurzulI; al-Dani;
al-Fasi; Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam; Ibn Abi Zamanayn; Ibn Abi Zayd al-Kayrawanl; Ibn
'Ammar, Abu 'l- c Abbas; Ibn 'Arafa; Ibn c Asim; Ibn al-Faradi; IbnFarhun; Ibn Hablb,
Abu Marwan; Ibn al-Hadjdj; Ibn al-Hadjib; Ibn al-Kasim; Ibn Kuzman.III and IV
(and [in Suppl.] Kuzman.3 and 4); Ibn Mada 1 ; Ibn Rushayd; Ibn Suda; al-lbshlhl( 1 );
Tsa b. Dinar; Tyad b. Musa; al-KabisI; al-Kalasadl; al-Kardudl; Kassara; Khalil b.
Ishak; al-Khushani; al-Kurtubi, Abu c Abd Allah; al-Kurtubl, Yahya; Malik b. Anas;
al-Manufi.4 and 5; al-Mazarl; Muhammad b. Sahnun; Sahnun; Salim b. Muhammad;
al-Sanhurl, Abu '1-Hasan; Shabtun; al-Shatibl, Abu Ishak; Shihab al-DIn al-Karafi;
al-TulaytulI; al-Turtushl; al- c UtbI, Abu c Abd Allah; al-WansharisI; Yahya b. Yahya
al-Laythi; al-Zakkak; al-Zuhrl, Harun; al-Zurkanl; [in Suppl.] Abu Tmran al-Fasi;
al-Azdl; Ibn Dakik al-'Id; Ibn Dirham; Ibn Rushd; al-Nubahi
see also Ibn c Abd al-Barr; al-Kassar; Laklt; al-Sharlf al-Tilimsanl; al-Tilimsanl.l;
and ->• Andalusiajurists
Shafi'i al- c AbbadI; Abu Shudja'; Badjurl; al-BaghawI; al-Bulklnl; Dahlan; al-Djanadl; al-
DjizI; al-Djuwaynl; Ibn Abi 'Asrun; Ibn Abi '1-Dam; Ibn c Akil; Ibn c Asakir; Ibn
Djama c a; Ibn Hablb, Badr al-DIn; Ibn Hadjar al-Haytaml; Ibn Kadi Shuhba.l; Ibn
Kasim al-Ghazzi; Ibn al-Salah; Ibn Suraydj; al-Kalkashandl; al-Kalyubl; al-Kazwini,
Abu Hatim; al-Kazwini, Djalal al-Din; al-Kazwini, Nadym al-DIn; al-Kiya al-Harrasi;
Makhrama; al-Mawardi; al-Mutawalli; al-Muzanl; al-NawawI; al-Rafi c I; al-Ramli;
al-S_hafi c i; al-Shahrazuri; al-Shirazi, Abu Ishak; al-Subki; al-Sulami, 'Izz al-Din; al-
Suiukl; al-Tabari, Abu '1-Tayyib; al-Tabari, Ahmad b. c Abd Allah; Zakariyya' al-
Ansari; [in Suppl.] Abu Zur c a; Ibn Dakik al-Td; al-Zarkashi
see also Abu Thawr; Dawud b. Khalaf; al-Isfarayini; al-Tabari, Abu Dja'far; al-
Taftazani; al-Ziyadi
Shiite -> Shiites
Zdhiri Dawud b. Khalaf; al-Humaydi; Ibn Dawud; Ibn Hazm, Abu Muhammad;
(al-)Mundhir b. Sa'id
see also Sa c id al-Andalusi; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Rumiyya
law of obligations c Akd; c Ariyya; Bay c ; Daman; Dhimma; Fasid wa Batil; Faskh; Hiba; Idjab;
Idjar; Inkar; c Iwad; Kafala; Khiyar; Kirad; Mu'amalat; Mu c awada.3; Mudaraba;
Mufawada; Mugharasa; Musharaka; Rahn; Sulh; Wadi'a; Wakala; [in Suppl.] Dayn;
Gharuka
see also c Amal.4; Dja'iz; Ghasb; Kabd.i; Kasam; Madmun; Suftadja; Wathika; Yamin;
[in Suppl.] Ikrah
contract of hire and lease Adjr; Idjar; Kira 3 ; Musakat; Muzara'a; [in Suppl.] Hikr; Inzal
contract of sale Bara'a.I; Bay 1 ; Ikala; 'Iwad; Mu'awada.l; Muwada'a.l; Salam; Shira';
Tadlis.l; Taghrir; [in Suppl.] Darak; Sarf
see also Darura; Ildja'; Mukhatara; Safka; Salaf; Sawm; Tidjara; [in Suppl.] Sarraf
law of personal status Hadana; Hiba; c Idda; Mahr; Mirath; Nikah; Rida c ; Talak; Wakf; Yatim;
[in Suppl.] Nafaka; Tabannin
see also Wilaya.l; and -> Divorce; Inheritance; Marriage
law of procedure c Adl; Amin; Bayyina; Da'wa; Gha'ib; Hakam; Ikrar; Kada 3 ; Mazalim; Shahid;
Sidjill.2
Mongol Sadr.2; Yarghu; Yasa
offices Fakih; Hakam; Hisba; Kadi; Kadi c Askar; Kassam; Mardja c -i Taklid; Na'ib. 1 ; Shaykh
al-Islam
see also Amin; Fatwa; Khalifa.ii; Mahkama; Shurta
Ottoman Bab-i Mashikhat; Djaza'.ii; Djurm; Fatwa.ii; c Ilmiyye; Kanun.iii; Kanunname;
Kassam; Mahkama.2; Makhredj; Medjelle; Medjlis-i Wala; Mewlewiyyet; Narkh;
Shaykh al-Islam.2; Sidjill.3; [in Suppl.] Mufettish
see also Hanafiyya; al-Haramayn; c Ulama 3 .3; Wakf.IV (and [in Suppl.] Wakf.II.2); and
-> Dynasties.anatolia and the turks.ottomans.grand muftis
penal law c Akila; Diya; Hadd; Kadhf; Katl; Khata'; Kisas.5; Murtadd; Salb; Sarika; Ta c zir;
c Ukuba; [in Suppl.] Shatm
see also Djaza'.ii; Muhsan; al-Salib; Shubha; Sidjn; Tarrar; Tha'r; c Urf.2.II; Zina; [in
Suppl.] Ikrah
reform -> Reform
schools Hanabila; Hanafiyya; Malikiyya; al-Shafi c iyya; Usuliyya. 1 ; al-Zahiriyya; [in Suppl.]
Akhbariyya
see also Ibn Abi Layla; Sufyan al-Thawri; al-Tabari, Abu Dja'far; Wahhabiyya; Zaydiyya;
[in Suppl.] Madhhab
terms Ada 1 ; Adjr.2; c Adl; Ahkam; Ahl al-Hall wa 'l- c Akd; c Akd; Akdariyya; c Akika; c Akila;
c Amal.3 and 4; Aman; c Amil; Amin; 'Ariyya; c Arsh; c Awl; 'Azima.l; Ba c 1.2.b; Baligh;
Bara'a.I; Bay'; Bay'a; Bayyina; Burhan; Daman; Dar al- c Ahd; Dar al-Harb; Dar al-Islam;
Dar al-Sulh; Darura; Da c wa; Dhabiha; Dhimma; Diya; Dja'iz; Djanaba; DjazaMi; Djihad;
Djizya; Djurm; Fakih; Fara'id; Fard; Fasid wa Batil; Fasik; Faskh; Fatwa; Fay'; Fikh;
Gha'ib; Ghanima; Gharim: Ghasb; Ghusl; Hadana; Hadath; Hadd; Hadjr; Hady; Hakam;
74 LAW — LEGENDS
Hakk; Hawala; Hayd; Hiba; Hiyal.4; Hukuk; Hulul; 'Ibadat; Ibaha.I; c Idda; Idhn; Idjab;
Idjar; Idjma'; Idjtihad; Ihram; Ihya 5 ; Ikala; Ikhtilaf; Ikrar; Ildja 5 ; Inkar; Insaf; Istibra';
Istihsan; Isti'naf; Istishab; 'Iwad; Kabala; Kabd.i; Kada'; Kadhf; Kafa'a; Kafala; Kanun;
Kanunname; Kasam; Katl; Khata 5 ; Khiyar; Kira 5 ; Kirad; Kisas; Kiyas; Li c an; Liss; Lukata;
Madmun; Mafsul; Mahr; Maslaha; Mawat; Mawla.5; Mazalim; Milk; Mu'amalat;
Mu'awada; Mudaraba; Mudjtahid; Mufawada; Mugharasa; Muhsan; Mukhatara;
Munasafa; Musakat; Musharaka; Mut c a; Mutlak; Muwada'a.l; Muzara'a; Nadjis; Nafila;
Nass; Nazila; Niyya; Rahn; Riba; Rukhsa.l; Sabab.2; Sadaka; Sadd al-DharaT; Safka;
Sahih.2; al-Sahm.2; Salaf; Salam; Sarika; Sawm; Shahid; Shakhs; Shakk.l; Sharika;
Shart.l; Shira 5 ; Shubha; Shuf a; Sidjn; Suftadja; Sukna; Sukut; Sulh; Sunna.2; Tadlis.l;
Taghrir; Tahara; Taklid; Takllf; Talak; Talfik; Tashri c ; Tas c Ir; Ta'zir; Umm al-Walad;
c Umum wa-Khusus; 'Urf; Usui al-Fikh; Wadi'a; Wakala; Wakf; Wasf.2; Wasiyya;
Wathika; Wilaya. 1 ; WudQ 5 ; Yamin; Zahir; Za c im; Zakat; Zina; [in Suppl.] 'Akar; Darak;
Dayn; Djabr; Gharuka; Hikr; Ikrah; Inzal; Iskat; Kawa c id Fikhiyya; Khal'; Madhhab;
Makasid al-Shari'a; Mu'ahid; Muhallil; Nafaka; al-Nahy 'an al-Munkar; Ra'y; Sakk;
Sanad; Sarf
see also Bayt al-Mal; Hudna; Saghir; Shukr.2; Shura.2; Siyasa.3; Tahkim
Lebanon Djarida.i.A; Dustur.ix; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iii; Lubnan; Madjlis.4.A.vi; Mahkama.4.iii;
Mandates; Mutawali; Sihafa.l.(iii); Ta'ifiyya
see also Baladiyya.2; Djaliya; Kays 'Aylan; al-Ma c luf; Tanyus, Shahin; Turkmen.3; Yusuf
Karam; Za'im; [in Suppl.] Ahmad Pasha Kiiciik; al-Bustani; Demography.III; and ->■
Christianity.denominations.maronites; Druzes
belletrists
poets Faris al-Shidyak; Khalil Mutran; al-Ma'luf; Tu'ma, Ilyas; al-Yazidji; [in Suppl.]
Abu Madi; al-Bustani.4 and 8
see also al-Bustani.7; Nu'ayma, Mikha'il; al-Rayhani
writers of prose al-Ma c luf; Nu'ayma, Mikha'il; al-Yazidji; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani.6
see also Farah Antun; Mayy Ziyada; and ->■ Press
education Djami'a; Ma c arif. 1 .iii
governors Bashir Shihab II; Dawud Pasha; Djanbulat; Fakhr al-Din; Harfush; Shihab
see also Ma'n; Ma'n-zada
historians of Iskandar Agha
see also [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l.(c)
religious leaders Sharaf al-Din; Yusuf Karam; [in Suppl.] Musa al-Sadr
see also Mutawali
toponyms
ancient c Ayn al-Djarr
present-day
regions al-Bika c ; al-Shuf
towns Ba'labakk; Batrun; Bayrut; Bsharra; Bteddin; Djubayl; Karak Nuh; Sayda;
Sur; Tarabulus al-Sham
Legends Hikaya
and -> Bible.bibucal personages; Eschatology; QurXn.stories
legendary beings 'Anka'; al-Burak; Diw; al-Djassasa; Djinn; Ghul; Hatif; 'Ifrit; Kutrub; Pari;
Simurgh; c Udj; Zuhak
see also al-Rukhkh
legendary dynasties Kayanids; Pishdadids
see also Firdawsi; Hamasa.ii
legendary locations Damawand; Djudi; Ergenekon; Hush; Kizil-elma; Sawa.3; Wabar
LEGENDS — LIFE STAGES 75
see also Turan; Wakwak
legendary people Abu Righal; Abu Safyan; Abu Zayd; 'Adnan; Afrasiyab; Ahl al-Suffa;
Amina; Asaf b. Barakhya; Ashab al-Kahf; Barsisa; al-Basus; Bilkis; al-Dadjdjal;
Djamshid; Hablb al-Nadjdjar; Hanzala b. Safwan; Hind bint al-Khuss; Hirmis; Hushang;
Ibn Bukayla; al-Kahina; Kahtan; Kawah; al-Khadir; Lukman; Mas'ud; Nasr al-Din
Khodja: Sam; Satih b. Rabi'a; Shikk; Siyawush; Sulayman b. Dawud; Tahmurath;
Yadjudj wa-Madjudj; [in Suppl.] al-D^aradatan'; Salman al-Farisi; al-Sufyani
see also Akhi Ewran; c Amr b. c Adi; c Amr b. Luhayy; Ashab al-Rass; Kuss b. Sa c ida;
Mu'ammar; Sari Saltuk Dede; Tursun Fakih; Zarka' al-Yamama; Zuhayr b. Djanab;
and -> QurXn. stories
legendary stories c Abd Allah b. Djud'an; Aktham b. Sayfi; Almas; al-Battal; Buhlul;
Damawand; Djirdjis; Djudi; al-Durr; Fatima; al-Ghazal; al-Hadr; Ha'it al-'Adjuz; Haram;
Harut wa-Marut; Hudhud; Isra'iliyyat; Khalid b. Yazid b. Mu'awiya; Kisas al-Anbiya 1 ;
Nuh
see also Wakwak
Lexicography Kamus; Lahn al-'Amma
see also Sharh.I; Sullam; and -> Linguistics
lexicographers
for Andalusian lexicographers -> Andalusia
Arabic Abu Zayd al-Ansari; al-Azhari; al-r^awaliki; al-Djawhari; Farhat; al-Firuzabadi;
Ibn al-Birr; Ibn Durayd; Ibn Faris; Ibn Makki; Ibn Manzur; Ibn Sida; Ibn al-Sikkit;
al-Kazzaz; al-Khalil b. Ahmad; Muhammad Murtada; Nashwan b. Sa'id; al-Saghanl,
Radiyy al-Din; al-Shaybani, Abu c Amr (and [in Suppl.] Abu 'Amr al-Shaybani); al-
Tahanawi; Tammam b. Ghalib; al-Yazidji.2 and 3; al-Zamakhshari; al-Zubaydi; [in
Suppl.] Abu Ishak al-Farisi; al-Bustani.l and 2; al-Farabi; al-Shartuni
see also Abu Hatim al-Razi; Akhtari; al-Raghib al-Isfahani; al-Tanukhi, Djamal al-
Din; al-lha'alibi, Abu Mansur 'Abd al-Malik; [in Suppl.] Ibn Kabar
Hebrew Ibn Djanah
see also Judaeo-Arabic.iii.B
Persian 'Abd al-Rashid al-Tattawi; Ahmad Wafik Pasha; Burhan; Sururi Kashani; Taki
Awhadi; [in Suppl.] Dehkhuda
see also Arzu Khan; Mahdi Khan Astarabadi; Rida Kuli Khan; al-Tahanawi
Turkish Akhtari; al-Kashghari; Kazim Kadri; Ni'mat Allah b. Ahmad; Sami
see also Es c ad Efendi, Mehmed; Lutfi Efendi; Riyadi; Shinasi; Wankuli
terms Fard.b
Libya Djami'a; Djarida.i.B; Dustur.xii; Libiya; Madjlis.4.A.xviii; Sihafa.2.(iv)
see also 'Arabiyya.A.iii.3; al-Baruni; Karamanli; Khalifa b. 'Askar; Sanusiyya; and ->
DYNASTIES.SPAIN AND NORTH AFRICA
population -> Africa.north africa; Berbers
toponyms
ancient Sabra; Surt; Zawila
present-day
oases Awdjila; Bahriyya; al-Djaghbub; Djawf Kufra; al-Djufra; Ghadames; Kufra
regions Barka; al-Djufra; Fazzan
see also Nafusa
towns Adjdabiya; Benghazi; Darna; Djadu; Murzuk; Tarabulus al-Gharb
see also Ghat
Life Stages Hayat
76 LIFE STAGES — LINGUISTICS
childbirth 'Akika; Al; Li'an; al-Mar'a^.c; Mawakib.4.2
see also Rada c ; Wa'd al-Banat; and -> Medicine.obstetrics
pregnancy Rakid; Waham
birth control Tanzim al-Nasl
suckling Rada'
treatises on 'Arib b. Sa c d al-Katib al-Kurtubi
childhood Baligh; Saghir; Yatlm
see also Hadana; al-Shayb wa '1-Shabab; [in Suppl] Nafaka; and -> Circumcision;
Education; Marriage
old age Mu'ammar
see also al-Shayb wa '1-Shabab; Shaykh; and -> Death
Linguistics Lugha; Nahw; Tasrif; Usui
see also Balagha; Bayan; Lahn al- c Amma; Sharh.I; and ->■ Languages; Lexicography
grammarians/philologists
biographies of al-Zubaydl
8th century 'Abd Allah b. Abi Ishak; Abu c Amr al-'Ala 3 ; al-Akhfash.I; c Isa b. 'Umar; al-
Khalil b. Ahmad; Kutrub; al-Mufaddal al-Dabbi; Sibawayhi; al-Shaybani, Abu c Amr
(and [in Suppl] Abu 'Amr al-Shaybani); Yunus b. Habib
see also [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Bayda' al-Riyahl
9th century Abu Hatim al-Sidjistani; Abu 'Ubayd al-Kasim b. Sallam; Abu 'Ubayda; Abu
Zayd al-Ansari; al-Akhfash.II; al-Asma'I; al-Bahili, Abu Nasr; DjudI al-Mawruri;
al-Farra'; Ibn al-A'rabl, Muhammad; Ibn Sallam al-Djumahl; Ibn al-Sikklt; al-Kisa'I,
Abu '1-Hasan; al-Layth b. al-Muzaffar; al-Mazini, Abu 'Uthman; al-Mubarrad;
Muhammad b. Habib; al-Ru'asi; al-Yazidi.2; [in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Amaythal
10th century al-Akhfash.III; al-Anbari, Abu Bakr; al-Anbari, Abu Muhammad; al- c Askari.i;
Djahza; al-Farisi; Ghulam Tha'lab; Hamza al-Isfahani; Ibn al-'Arif, al-Husayn; Ibn
Djinni; Ibn Durayd; Ibn Durustawayh; Ibn Kaysan; Ibn Khalawayh: Ibn al-Khayyat.
Abu Bakr; Ibn al-Kutiyya; Ibn al-Nahhas; Ibn al-Sarradj; al-Kali; Kudama; Niftawayh;
al-Rummani; al-Sirafi; al-Tayalisi, Dja'far; Tha'lab; al-Zadjdjadj; al-ZadjdjadjI; al-
Zubaydi; [in Suppl.] Abu Ishak al-Farisi; Abu Riyash al-Kaysi; Abu '1-Tayyib al-
Lughawi; al-Hatimi; Ibn Kaysan; Ibn Miksam
11th century al-Adjdabi; al-'Askari. ii; Ibn al-Birr; Ibn Faris; Ibn al-Hadjdj; Ibn al-Iflili;
Ibn Makki; Ibn Sida; al-Kazzaz; al-Marzuki; al-Rabahi; al-Raba c i; al-Shantamari;
Tahir b. Ahmad b. Babashadh; al-Wahidi; [in Suppl.] Abu Usama al-Harawi; al-
Djurdjani
12th century al-Anbari, Abu '1-Barakat; al-Batalyawsi; al-Djawaliki; al-Djazuli, Abu Musa;
al-Hariri; Ibn Barri, Abu Muhammad; Ibn Mada'; Ibn al-Shadjari al-Baghdadi; al-
Maydani; al-Tibrizi; al-Zamakhshari; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Barakat; Ibn Hisham al-
Lakhmi
13th century al-Astarabadhi, Radi al-Din; Ibn al-Adjdabi; Ibn al-Athir.l; Ibn al-Hadjdj;
Ibn al-Hadjib; Ibn Malik; Ibn Mu'ti; al-Mutarrizi; al-Shalawbin; al-Sharishi; al-
'Ukbari; [in Suppl.] al-Balati, Abu '1-Fath 'Uthman; Ibn al-Adjdabi; al-Zandjant
14th century Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati; al-Astarabadhi, Rukn al-Din; Fakhri; Ibn Adjurrum;
Ibn c Akil, c Abd Allah; Ibn Barri, Abu '1-Hasan; Ibn Hisham, Djamal al-Din; Ibn
Khatima; Ibn al-Sa'igh; al-Sharif al-Gharnati: Yahya b. Hamza al- c Alawi
15th century al-Azhari, Khalid; Ibn 'Asim; al-Sanhuri, Abu '1-Hasan; al-Suyuti
17th century c Abd al-Kadir al-Baghdadi
18th century Farhat
19th century Faris al-Shidyak; Ibn al-Hadjdj; al-Nabarawi; al-Yazidji.l
see also Fu'ad Pasha
LINGUISTICS — LITERATURE, drama 11
20th century [in Suppl.] Arat; al-Shartuni
phonetics Huruf al-Hidja'.II; Makharidj al-Huruf; Mushtarik; Sawtiyya; Tafkhim
see also Hawl; Huruf al-Hidja'; Imala; Usui
for Arabic and Persian dialects -* LANGUAGEs;/or the letters of the alphabet -> Alpha-
bet
terms Addad; Ala.i.; c Amil; c Atf; Dakhil; Djarn'; Fard.c; Fi'l; Gharib; Haraka wa-Sukun.ii;
Harf; Hawl; Hikaya.I; Hukm.II; Hulul; Ibdal; Idafa; Idgham; Idmar; Tla.i; Imala; Trab;
Ishtikak; Ism; Istifham; Istithna 3 ; Kasra; Kat'; Khabar; Kiyas.2; MadI; Ma'na.l; Mu'arrab;
Mubalagha.a; MubtadaM; Mudari'; Mudhakkar; Mudmar; Musnad.2; Mutlak;
Muwallad.2; Muzdawidj; Nafy; Nasb; Na c t; Nisba.l; Raf .1; Sabab.4; Sahih.3; Salim.2;
Sarf; Shart.3; Sifa.l; Sila.l; Ta'addi; Tafdil; Tafkhlm; Takdir.l; Tamthil.l; Tanwin;
Ta c rib; Ta'rif.2; Tasrif; Wad 1 al-Lugha; Wahda.l; Wasl; Wazn.2; Zarf; [in Suppl.] Hal;
Lafz
see also Basit wa-Murakkab; Ghalatat-i Meshhure; Huruf al-Hidja 5 ; Ta'lik
Literature Adab; 'Arabiyya.B; 'Irak.v; Iran.vii; 'Othmanli.III; Tunisia.V; Turks. Ill; Urdu.2
autobiographical Ibn TQlQn; Nu'ayma, Mikha'il; Salim; Sha'ul; Zaydan, Djurdji
see also Shaybani; Tardjama. 1 ; Tuzuk
bibliographical Bibliography; Fahrasa
compilers Ibn Khayr al-Ishbili; Ibn al-Nadim; Katib Celebi; al-Ru'ayni; al-Tihrani; [in Suppl.]
Isma'il Pasha Baghdadli
biographical Fadila; Manakib; Mathalib; Tabakat; Tadhkira.2 and 3; Tardjama. 1; Tuzuk
see also c Ilm al-Ridjal; Ma'athir al-Umara 3 ; Mughals.10; Shurafa'.2; Sila.2.II.c; and-*
Hagiography; Literature. historical and poetry; Medicine. physicians.
BIOGRAPHIES OF; MUHAMMAD, THE PROPHET
criticism [in Suppl.] Nakd
classical Ibn 'Abbad; Ibn al-Athir.3; Ibn al-Mu'tazz; Ibn Rashik; Ibn Sharaf al-Kayrawani;
Kudama; al-Sidjilmasi; [in Suppl.] al-Djurdjani; al-Hatimi
and ->■ Rhetoric.treatises on
modern Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Kopriilii; Kurd 'Ali; al-Mazini; Olghun, Mehmed Tahir;
[in Suppl.] Alangu; Atac
terms Mubalagha.b; Wahshi
drama Masrah; Ta'ziya
Arabic Khayal al-Zill; Masrah. 1 and 2
see also 'Arabiyya.B.V
playwrights Abu Naddara; Farah Antun; Ibn Daniyal; al-Kusantini; al-Ma c luf;
Nadjib al-Haddad; Nadjib Muhammad Surur; al-Nakkash; Salah c Abd al-Sabur;
Salim al-Nakkash; al-Sharkawi; Shawki; al-Yazidji.3; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani.l
see also Ishak, Adib; Isma'il Sabri; Khalil Mutran; Muhammad Bey 'Uthman Djalal
(and [in Suppl.] Muhammad 'Uthman Djalal); Shumayyil, Shibli; Tu'ma, Uyas
Central Asian Masrah. 5
Persian Masrah.4; Ta'ziya
playwrights Muhammad Dja'far Karadja-daghi; [in Suppl.] Amiri; 'Ishki
Turkish Karagoz; Kawuklu; Masrah.3; Orta Oyunu
playwrights 'Abd al-Hakk Hamid; Ahmad WafTk Pasha; Akhund-zada; Djewdet;
Karay, Refik Khalid: Kasab, Teodor; Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Khayr Allah
Efendi; Manastirli Mehmed Rif at; Mehmed Ra'uf; Mizandji Mehmed Murad;
Muhibb Ahmed "Diranas"; Musahib-zade Djelal; Oktay Rifat; Shinasi; [in Suppl.]
Alus; Bashkut; Camlibel; Hasan Bedr al-Din
see also Djanab Shihab al-Din; Ebuzziya Tevfik; Ekrem Bey; Kaygili, 'Othman
Djemal; Khalide Edib; Mu'allim Nadji
78 LITERATURE, drama — historical
Urdu Masrah.6
playwrights Amanat; [in Suppl.] Agha Hashar Kashmiri
epistolary Insha'; Katib; Risala; [in Suppl.] Maktubat
see also Sadr.(b)
letter-writers c Abd al-Hamid; Ahmad Sirhindi; c Amr b. Mas'ada; al-Babbagha'; Ghalib:
Haleti; al-Hamadhani; Harkarn; Ibn 'Amira; Ibn al-Athir.3; Ibn Idris.I; Ibn Kalakis;
Ibn al-Khasib; Ibn al-Sayrafi; al-Kabtawri; al-Kadi al-Fadil; Kani; Khalifa Shah
Muhammad; Kh w andamir; al-Kh w arazmi; al-Ma c arri; Makhdum al-Mulk Maniri;
Mehmed Pasha Rami {and Rami Mehmed Pasha); Muhammad b. Hindu-Shah; Okcu-
zade; Rashid al-Din (Watwat); Sa'id b. Humayd; al-Shaybani, Ibrahim; Tahir b.
Muhammad; Tahir Wahid; al- c Utbi, Abu c Abd al-Rahman; al-Wahrani; Yusufi; [in
Suppl.] c Abd al- c Aziz b. Yusuf; Amir Nizam; Ibn Khalaf; Muhammad Salih Kanbo
Lahawri; al-Shartuni
see also Aljamia; al-D^unayd; Ibn al- c Amid.l; Ibn al-Khatib; Mughals.10; Sudjan
Ray Bhandari; al-Washsha'; [in Suppl.] Isfizari; Manshurat
etiquette-literature Adab; al-Mahasin wa '1-Masawi
see also al-Djidd wa '1-Hazl; Djins; Hiyal; Iyas b. Mu'awiya; Kalila wa-Dimna; Katib;
Marzban-nama; Nadim; Suluk.l; Tufayli; Zarif
authors Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi; al-Bayhaki; D^ahiz; al-Ghuzuli; Hilal al-Sabi'; al-Husri.I;
Ibn c Abd Rabbih; Ibn Abi '1-Dunya; Ibn al-Mukaffa c ; al-Kalyubi; al-Kashani; al-
Kisrawi; al-Marzubani; Merdjiimek; al-Nisaburi; al-Raghib al-Isfahani; al-Shimshati;
al-Suli; al-Tanukhi, al-Muhassin; al-Washsha'
see also al-D^ahshiyari; al-Kalkashandi.l; Shabib b. Shayba; al-Zarnudji
folkloric Bilmedje; Hikaya; Nadira; [in Suppl.] Takalid
see also Yahud.5; and ->■ the section Poetry. vernacular below; Proverbs
genealogical Mathalib
see also Tabakat
genealogists al- Abiwardi; al-Djawwani; al-Hamdani; al-Kalbi.II; al-Kalkashandi. 1 ; Kasim
b. Asbagh; al-Marwazi; Mus'ab; al-Rushati; al-Zubayr b. Bakkar; [in Suppl.] Fakhr-
i Mudabbir
see also Ibn Da'b; al-Kadiri al-Hasani; al-Kh w arazmi; Mihmindar
genres
for the genres of non-literary disciplines ->■ Astronomy; Law; Theology; etc.
poetry Ghazal; Hamasa; Hidja'; Kan wa-Kan; Kasida; Khamriyya; al-Kuma; Madih;
Malhun; Marthiya; Mathnawi; Mufakhara; Munsifa; Musammat; Muwashshah;
Naka'id; Nawriyya; Shahrangiz; Sharki; Su'luk.II^ and III.2; Tadhkira.2 and 3;
Tardiyya; Tardji c -band; Wasf. 1 ; Zadjal; Zahriyyat; Zuhdiyya; [in Suppl.] Habsiyya;
Kifa; Nazm.l
see also 'Arabiyya.B; Iran.vii; Rabi'iyyat; Saki.2; Shawahid; Takhmis; Wa-sekht
prose Adab; Adja'ib; Awa'il; Badi c ; Bilmedje; Djafr; Fadila; Fahrasa; Hikaya; Ilahi; Insha';
Isra'iliyyat; Khitat; Kissa; Lahn al- c Amma; Lughz; al-Maghazi; al-Mahasin wa '1-
Masawi; Makala; Makama; Manakib; Masa'il wa-Adjwiba; al-Masalik wa '1-
Mamalik; Masrah; Mathalib; Mawsu'a; Mukaddima; Mukhtasar; Munazara; Nadira
{and [in Suppl.]); Nasihat al-Muluk; Rihla; Risala; Sharh; Sila.2; Sira; Sunan; Tabakat;
Tadhkira. 1 ; Tafsir; Tardjama; Uksusa; [in Suppl.] Arba'un Hadith; Malfuzat; Takriz
see also Alf Layla wa-Layla (363b); 'Arabiyya.B; Bibliography; Djughrafiya;
Fathname; Hayawan; Hiyal; Iran.vii; Malahim; Mathal; Shahnamedji; Zuhd; and ->■
Christianity.monasteries.writings on; Literature.tradition-literature;
Pilgrimage
historical Isra'iliyy at; al-Maghazi; Tardjama. 1 ; Ta'rikh.II
see also Fathname; Sahaba; Sila.2.II; and ->■ the sections Biographical, Maghdzl-litera-
LITERATURE, historical 79
ture and Tradition-literature under this entry
Andalusian -> Andalusia
Arabic Ta'rikh.II.l
on countries/cities -► individual countries
on dynasties/ caliphs -► individual dynasties under Dynasties
universal histories Abu '1-Fida; Abu Mikhnaf; Akansus; al-Antaki; c Arib b. Sa c d
al-Katib al-Kurtubl; al-'Ayni; al-Bakri.l and 2; al-Baladhuri; Baybars al-Mansuri;
al-Birzali; Dahlan; al-Dhahabi; al-Diyarbakri; al-Djannabi; al-Djazari; al-
Farghani; Hamza al-Isfahani; Hasan-i Rumlu; al-Haytham b. 'Adi; Ibn Abi
Shayba; Ibn Abi TayyP; Ibn A'tham al-Kufi; Ibn al-Athir.2; Ibn al-Dawadari;
Ibn al-Djawzi (Sibt); Ibn al-Furat; Ibn Kathir; Ibn Khaldun; Ibn Khayyat al-
'Usfuri; Ibn al-Sa'i; al-Kalbi.II; Katib Celebi; al-Kutubi; al-Makin b. al-'Amid;
al-Mas c udi; Miskawayh; Miinedjdjim Bashi; al-Mutahhar b. Tahir al-Makdisi;
al-Nuwayri, Shihab al-Dln; Sa'id b. al-Bitrik; al-Tabari, Abu Dja'far; al-lha'alibi,
Abu Mansur (and al-lha c alibl, Abu Mansur c Abd al-Malik); al-lhakafi, Ibrahim;
Wathlma b. Musa; al-Ya'kubi; al-Yunini
see also Akhbar Madjmu c a
8th-century authors Abu Mikhnaf; c Awana b. al-Hakam al-Kalbi; Sayf b. c Umar
9th-century authors al-Baladhuri; al-Fakihi; al-Farghani; al-Haytham b. 'Adi; Ibn
'Abd al-Hakam.4; Ibn Abi Shayba; Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur; Ibn A'tham al-Kufi;
Ibn Khayyat al- c Usfuri; Ibn al-Nattah; al-Kalbi.II; al-Mada'ini; Nasr b. Muzahim;
al-Wakidi; Wathima b. Musa; al-Ya c kubi; al-Ziyadi
10th-century authors c Arib b. Sa'd al-Katib al-Kurtubi; al-Azdi; Bahshal; al-Balawi;
al-Djahshiyari; Hamza al-Isfahani; Ibn al-Daya; Ibn al-Kutiyya; Ibn Manda; Ibn
al-Saghir; al-Kindi, Abu 'Umar Muhammad; al-Mas c udi; al-Mutahhar b. Tahir
al-Makdisi; Said b. al-Bitrik; al-Tabari, Abu Dja'far; Waki'; al-Wasifi
11th-century authors al-Antaki, Abu '1-Faradj; Ibn al-Banna 5 ; Ibn Burd.I; Ibn
Hayyan; Ibn al-Rakik; al-Mafarrukhi; al-Razi, Ahmad b. 'Abd Allah; al-Tha'alibi,
Abu Mansur
12th-century authors al- c Azimi; Ibn al-Djawzi; Ibn Ghalib; Ibn al-Kalanisi; Ibn
Sahib al-Salat; Ibn al-Sayrafi, Abu Bakr; Ibn Shaddad. Abu Muhammad; c Imad
al-Din; Shirawayh; 'Umara al-Yamani
see also al-Baydhak; Ibn Manda
13th-century authors c Abd al-Wahid al-Marrakushi; Abu Shama; al-Bundari; al-
Djanadi; Ibn Abi '1-Dam; Ibn Abi TayyF; Ibn al-'Adim; Ibn al-Athir.2; Ibn al-
Djawzi (Sibt); Ibn Hamadu; Ibn Khallikan; Ibn al-Mudjawir; Ibn Muyassar; Ibn
al-Nadjdjar; Ibn al-Sa'i; Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi; Ibn Shaddad, Izz al-Din; Ibn
Shaddad, Baha 1 al-Din; Ibn al-Tuwayr; al-Makin b. al- c Amid; al-Mansur, al-Malik;
al-Rafi'i; [in Suppl.] Ibn c Askar; Ibn Hatim
14th-century authors Abu '1-Fida; Baybars al-Mansuri; al-Birzali; al-Dhahabi; al-
Djazari; Ibn Abi Zar'; Ibn al-Dawadari; Ibn Dukmak; Ibn al-Furat, Nasir al-Din;
Ibn Habib, Badr al-Din; Ibn c Idhari; Ibn Kathir, 'Imad al-Din; Ibn Khaldun; Ibn
al-Khatib; Ibn al-Tiktaka; al-Khazradji, Muwaffak al-Din; al-Kutubi; al-Mufaddal
b. Abi '1-Fada'il; al-Nuwayri, Shihab al-Din; al-Safadi, Salah al-Din; Shafi c b.
'Ali; al-Sharif Abu Muhammad Idris; al-Wadi'ashi; al-Yunini
15th-century authors Abu '1-Mahasin b. Taghribirdi; c Arabfakih; al-'Ayni; al-Fasi;
Ibn 'Arabshah; Ibn Shahin al-Zahiri; al-Makrizi; al-Sakhawi
16th-century authors al-Diyarbakri; al-Djannabi, Abu Muhammad; Hasan-i Rumlu;
Ibn al-Dayba c ; Ibn Iyas; Ibn Tulun; Mudjir al-Din al-'Ulaymi; al-Nahrawali; al-
Suyuti
1 7th-century authors c Abd al- c Aziz b. Muhammad; al-Bakri (b. Abi '1-Surur); Ibn
) LITERATURE, historical
Abl Dinar; Katib Celebi; al-Makkari; al-Mawza'I; al-Shilll
18th-century authors al-Damurdashi; al-Hadjdj Hammuda; al-Ifrani; Miinedjdjim
Bas_hi; al-Muradi.3
1 9th-century authors Ahmad al-Nasiri al-Salawi {and al-Nasir al-Salawi); Akansus;
'All Pasha Mubarak; Dahlan; al-Djabarti; Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba'I; Ibn
Abi '1-Diyaf; al-Turk, Nikula; al-Zayyani
see also al-Kardudi
20th-century authors Ibn Zaydan; Kurd 'AH; [in Suppl.] Matar
Indo-Persian Mughals.10; Ta'rikh.II.4
on countries! cities ~* India
on dynasties/caliphs -> individual dynasties under Dynasties. Afghanistan and
INDIA
13th-century authors al-Djuzdjani
14th-century authors Barani; Shams al-Din-i Siradj 'Afif
16th-century authors Abu '1-Fadl 'AllamI; Djawhar; Gulbadan Begam; Nizam al-
Din Ahmad al-HarawI; [in Suppl.] 'Abbas Sarwani
17th-century authors 'Abd al-Hamid Lahawri; Bakhtawar Khan: Firishta; Inayat
Allah Kanbu; Mir Muhammad Ma'sum; Ni'mat Allah b. Habib Allah Harawi;
Nur al-Hakk al-Dihlawi; Shirazi, Rafi c al-Din; [in Suppl.] c Akil Khan Razi; Hadjdji
al-Dablr; Haydar Malik; Muhammad Salih Kanbo Lahawri
see also Bada'uni
18th-century authors c Abd al-Karlm Kashmiri; Kani c ; Kh w afi Khan; Ni'mat Khan:
Sudjan Ray Bhandari
19th-century authors 'Abd al-Karlm Munshi; Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba'I;
Ghulam Husayn "Salim"
see also Azfari
Persian Ta'rikh.H.2; [in Suppl.] Cac-nama
on Afghanistan -> Afghanistan
on Iran -> Iran
on dynasties/ caliphs -> individual dynasties under Dynasties. Persia
universal histories Mirkh w and; Nizam-shahl; Sipihr
10th-century authors Bal'ami.2; Hamza al-Isfahani' [in Suppl.] al-Kumml
11th-century authors Bayhaki; Gardizi; al-Mafarrukhi
12th-century authors Anushirwan b. Khalid; al-Bayhaki, Zahir al-DIn; Ibn Manda;
[in Suppl.] Ibn al-Balkhi
13th-century authors Djuwayni, 'Ala' al-DIn; Ibn Bibi; Ibn-i Isfandiyar; [in Suppl.]
Hasan Nizami; al-Husayni
see also al-Rafi'I
14th-century authors Banakiti; Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Kazwini; Shabankara'i:
Wassaf; [in Suppl.] al-Aksarayi
15th-century authors 'Abd al-Razzak al-Samarkandi; Hafiz-i Abru; Zahir al-DIn
Mar'ashi
1 6th-century authors Bidlisi, Sharaf al-DIn; Djamal al-Husayni; Ghaffari; Haydar
MIrza; Kh w andamir: Kum(m)i; al-Lari; Shami, Nizam al-DIn; [in Suppl.] Hafiz
Tanish
see also 'AH b. Shams al-DIn
17th-century authors 'Abd al-Fattah FumanI; Haydar b. 'All; Iskandar Beg; Razi,
Amin Ahmad; Tahir Wahid
18th-century authors Mahdi Khan Astarabadi
see also Isar-das
19th-century authors 'Abd al-Karlm Bukhari; [in Suppl.] Fasa'I
LITERATURE, historical — personages in literature 81
Turkish Shahnamedji; Ta'rikh.II.3; Waka'-niiwis
on the Ottoman Empire -> Dynasties. anatolia and the turks.otto-
MANS.HISTORIANS OF
universal histories Sharih iil-Menar-zade
see also Neshri
15th-century authors 'Ashik-pasha-zade; Mehmed Pasha, KaramanI; Yakhshi Fakih
16th-century authors 'All; Bihishti; Djalalzade Mustafa Celebi; Djalalzade Salih
Celebi; Kemal Pasha-zade; Lukman b. Sayyid Husayn; Matrakci; Mehmed Za'im;
Neshri; Selanlki; Seyfi
see also Hadidi; Medjdi
17th-century authors c AbdI; 'Abdi Pasha; Hasan Bey-zade; Hibri; Kara-celebi-
zade.4; Katib Celebi; Mehmed Khalife b. Hiiseyn; Sharih iil-Menar-zade;
Tashkopriizade.2; Wedjihi
18th-century authors c Abdi Efendi; Ahmad Rasmi; Celebi-zade; Ceshmizade;
Enweri; c Izzi; Miinedjdjim Bashi; c Othman-zade; c Ushshaki-zade, Ibrahim
see also [in Suppl.] Kantimir, Demetrius
19th-century authors Ahmad DJewdet Pasha; c Asim; c Ata 5 Bey , Tayyarzada; Es'ad
Efendi, Mehmed; Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Khayr Allah Efendi; Wasif
20th-century authors Ahmad Rafik; C A1I Amirl; (Mehmed) c Ata' Beg; Lutfi Efendi;
Mizandji Mehmed Murad; Shems al-Din Giinaltay; Sheref, 'Abd al-Rahman;
Thiireyya
see also Hilmi
in Eastern Turkish Abu '1-Ghazi Bahadur Khan; Bakikhanli; Mu'nis; [in Suppl.]
Agahi
hunting -> Hunting.poetry
imagery -> the section Topoi and imagery below
in other languages Afghan.iii; Aljamia; Bengali. ii; Berbers. VI; Beskesek-abaza; Bosna.3;
Hausa.iii; Hindi; Indonesia.vi; Judaeo-Arabic.iii; Judaeo-Persian.i; Kano; Kissa.8;
Lahnda.2; Lak; Masrah.6; Pandjabi.2; Shi'r.7; Sind.3.b; Somali.6; Tadjiki.2; Tashelhit.3;
[in Suppl.] Shi c r.5
for Chinese -> China; for Swahili -> Kenya; for Malaysian -> Malaysia; for Eastern
Turkish languages -> the sections Literature.history.turkish, poetry. Turkish and
prose.turkish; and -> Literature.poetry.mystical and translations
Bengali authors Nadhr al-Islam; Nur Kutb al-'Alam
Bosnian authors [in Suppl.] Ka'imi
Hindi authors Malik Muhammad Djayasi; Nihal Cand Lahawri; Prem Cand; Sudjan Ray
Bhandari; [in Suppl.] Kabir
see also c Abd al-Rahim Khan; Insha'; Lalludji Lai
Judaeo-Arabic authors Musa b. 'Azra; al-Samaw'al b. c Adiya; [in Suppl.] Nissim b. Ya'kub,
Ibn Shahin
and -> Judaism.language and literature
Judaeo-Persian authors Shahin-i Shirazi
and -> Judaism.language and literature
Pashto authors Khushhal Khan Khatak
Tatar authors Ghafuri, Medjid
maghdzi-literature Abu Ma c shar al-Sindi; Ibn c A'idh; al-Kala l i; al-Maghazi; Musa b. c Ukba
see also al-Battal; Sira
personages in literature Abu Damdam; Abu '1-Kasim; Abu Zayd; Ali Baba; Ayaz; Aywaz.2;
al-Basus; al-Battal; Bekri Mustafa Agha; Buzurgmihr; Dhu '1-Himma; Djamshid; Djuha;
al-Ghadiri; Hamza b. c Abd al-Muttalib; Hatim al-Tal; Hayy b. Yakzan; Koroghlu; Manas;
Nasr al-Din Khodja: Rustam; Sam; Sari Saltuk Dede; Shahrazad; al-Sid; Sindbad; Siyawush
82 LITERATURE, personages in literature — poetry
see also Tufayll; Yusuf and Zulaykha
picaresque Makama; Mukaddi
pilgrimage-literature -> Pilgrimage
poetry Arud; Hamasa; Kafiya; Lughz; Ma'na.3; Mukhtarat; Muzdawidj; Sha'ir; Shi'r; Wazn.2;
[in Suppl.] Nazm.l
see also Rawi; Sharh.II; Takhallus.l; Ta'rikh.III; [in Suppl.] Sarika; for poetical genres
-> Literature.genres.poetry; and ->■ Metrics
Andalusian c Arabiyya.B. Appendix; Khamriyya.vi: Muwashshah; Nawriyya; Sha'ir. l.D;
Zadjal; Zahriyyat.l
anthologies al-Fath b. Khakan; al-Fihri; Ibn Bassam; Ibn Dihya; Ibn Faradj al-
Djayyanl; al-S_hakundi
8th-century poets Ghirbib b. 'Abd Allah
9th-century poets 'Abbas b. Firnas; 'Abbas b. Nasih; al-Ghazal
see also Ibn 'Alkama.2
10th-century poets Ibn 'Abd Rabbih; Ibn Abi Zamanayn; Ibn Faradj al-Djayyani;
Ibn Kuzman.I {and [in Suppl.] Kuzman.I); Mukaddam b. Mu'afa; al-Ramadi; al-
Sharif al-Talik
11th-century poets Abu Ishak al-Ilbiri; Ibn al-Abbar; Ibn 'Abd al-Samad; Ibn
'Ammar; Ibn Burd.II; Ibn Darradj al-Kastalli; Ibn Gharsiya; Ibn al-Haddad; Ibn
al-Hannat; Ibn al-Labbana; Ibn Ma J al-Sama 3 ; Ibn al-Shahid; Ibn Shuhayd; Ibn
Zaydun; al-Mu'tamid ibn 'Abbad; Wallada
see also Sa'id al-Baghdadi; al-Wakkashi
12th-century poets al-A'ma al-Tutlli; Hafsa bint al-Hadjdj; Ibn 'Abdun; Ibn Baki;
Ibn Kabturnu (and [in Suppl.] Kabturnuh); Ibn Khafadja: Ibn Kuzman.II and V
(and [in Suppl.] Kuzman.2); Ibn al-Sayrafi; al-Kurtubi; al-Rusafi; Safwan b. Idris
see also Musa b. 'Azra
13th-century poets Hazim; Ibn al-Abbar; Ibn 'Amira; Ibn Sahl; Ibn Sa'id al-
Maghribi; al-Kabtawri; al-Shushtari
14th-century poets Ibn al-Hadjdj; Ibn Khatima; Ibn Luyun; Ibn al-Murabi'; al-Sharif
al-Gharnati
see also [in Suppl.] al-Ru'ayni
Arabic Ataba; Ghazal.i: Hamasa. i; Hidja'; Kan wa-Kan; Kasida.l; al-Kuma; Madlh.l;
Maksura; Malhun; Marthiya.l; Mawaliya; Mawlidiyya; Mukhtarat. 1 ; Musammat.l;
Muwashshah; Naka'id; Nasib; Ruba'1.3; Sha'ir.l; Shi'r. 1; Takhmis; Tardiyya; Tayf
al-Khayal; 'Udhri; Zahriyyat.l; Zuhdiyya; [in Suppl.] Kit'a.l; Muhdathun
see also 'Arabiyya.B.II; 'Ilm al-Djamal; Kalb.II; Mawlid; Muwallad.2; Su'luk; and
->■ LlTERATURE.POETRY.ANDALUSIAN and POETRY.MYSTICAL
anthologies al-Mu'allakat; al-Mufaddaliyyat; Mukhtarat. 1
anthologists Abu '1-Faradj al-Isbahani; Abu Tammam; al-'Alami; al-Bakharzi;
al-Buhturi; Di'bil; al-Hamdani; Hammad al-Rawiya; Ibn Abi Tahir Tayfur; Ibn
Dawud; Ibn al-Kutayba; Ibn al-Mu'tazz; Ibn al-Sayrafi; 'Imad al-Din; al-Nawadji;
al-Sari al-Raffa'; al-Shayzari; al-Shimshati; al-Tha'alibi, Abu Mansur 'Abd al-
Malik; [in Suppl.] Abu Zayd al-Kurashi; al-Bustani.3; Muhammad b. Sayf al-
Din, Ibn Aydamir; al-Zandjani
see also al-Tayalisi, Dja'far
works Banat Su'ad; Burda.2; Madjnun Lay la. 1 ; al-Mu'allakat
pre-lslamic poets ' Abid b. al-Abras; Abu Dhu'ay b al-Hudhali; Abu Du'ad al-Iy adi;
Abu Kabir al-Hudhali; 'Adi b. Zayd; al-Afwah al-Awdi; al-Aghlab al-'Idjli;
' Alkama; 'Amir b. al-Tufay 1; ' Amr b. al-Ahtam; 'Amr b. Kami'a; 'Amr b. Kulthum;
'Antara; al-A'sha; al-Aswad b. Ya'fur; Aws b. Hadjar; Bishr b. Abi Khazim:
Bistam b. Kays; Durayd b. al-Simma; al-Hadira; al-Harith b. Hilliza; Hassan b.
LITERATURE, poetry
Thabit; Hatim al-Ta'I; Ibn al-Itnaba al-Khazradji; Imru' al-Kays b. Hudjr; Kays
b. al-Khatim; al-Khansa 5 ; Lakit al-Iyadi; Lakit b. Zurara; al-Munakhkhal al-
Yashkurl; Murakkish; al-Mutalammis; al-Nabigha al-Dhubyani; Salama b.
Djandal; al-Samaw'al b. 'Adiya; al-Shanfara; Ta'abbata Sharran; Tarafa; Tufayl
b. 'Awf; Uhayha b. al-Djulah; Umayya b. c Abi '1-Salt; c Urwa b. al-Ward; Zuhayr
see also 'Arabiyya.B.I; Ghazal; Hudhayl; al-Mu'allakat; al-Mufaddaliyyat;
Mufakhara.2; Naslb.2.a; Sha'ir.lA; al-Shantamari; Su'luk.II.4
mukhadramun poets (6th-7th centuries) al- c Abbas b. Mirdas; c Abd Allah b. Rawaha;
Abu Khirash; Abu Mlhdjan; c Amr b. Ma'dikarib; Dirar b. al-Khattab; Hassan b.
Thabit; al-Hutay'a; Ibn (al-)Ahmar; Ka'b b. Malik; Ka c b b. Zuhayr; Khidash b.
Zuhayr al-Asghar; Labid b. Rabi'a; Ma'n b. Aws al-Muzani; Mukhadram;
Mutammim b. Nuwayra; al-Nabigha al-Dja c di; al-Namir b. Tawlab al-TJkli; al-
Shammakh b. Dirar; Suhaym; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Tamahan al-Kayni; Ibn Mukbil
see also Hudhayl; Nasib.2.b; [in Suppl.] Muhdathun
7th and 8th-century poets al-'Abbas b. al-Ahnaf; c Abd Allah b. Hamman; Abu
c Ata J al-Sindi; Abu Dahbal al-Djumahl; Abu Dulama; Abu '1-Nadjm al-Tdjli;
Abu Sakhr al-Hudhali; Abu '1-Shamakmak; Adi b. al-Rika'; al-'Adjdjadj; al-
Ahwas; al-Akhtal; al- c Ardji; A'sha Hamdan; al-Ashdja c b. c Amr al-Sulami; Ayman
b. Khuraym: al-Ba c ith; Bashshar b. Burd; Dhu '1-Rumma; Djamil; Djarir; Dukayn
al-Radjiz; al-Farazdak; al-Hakam b. c Abdal; al-Hakam b. Kanbar; Hammad
'Adjrad; Hamza b. Bid; Haritha b. Badr al-Ghudani; al-Hudayn; Humayd b.
Thawr; Humayd al-Arkat; Ibn Abi c Uyayna; Ibn al-Dumayna; Ibn Harma; Ibn
Kays al-Rukayyat; Ibn Ladja 1 ; Ibn al-Mawla; Ibn Mayyada; Ibn Mufarrigh; Ibn
Mutayr; Ibn Sayhan; Tmran b. Hittan; c Inan; Isma'il b. Yasar; Ka'b b. Dju'ayl al-
Taghlabi; Katari b. al-Fudja'a; al-Kumayt b. Zayd al-Asadi; al-Kutami; Kuthayyir
b. c Abd al-Rahman; Layla al-Akhyaliyya; Mansur al-Namari; Marwan b. Abi
Hafsa and Marwan b. Abi '1-Djanub; Miskin al-Darimi; Musa Shahawatin;
Musawir al-Warrak; Muti c b. Iyas; Nubata b. c Abd Allah; Nusayb; Nusayb b.
Rabah; al-Ra c i; Ru 3 ba b. al- c Adjdjadj; Safi al-Din al-Hilli; Safwan al-Ansari;
Sahban Wail; Salih b. c Abd al-Kuddus; Salm al-Khasir; al-Sayyid al-Himyari;
al-Shamardal; Sudayf b. Maymun; Sufyan al- c Abdi; Sulayman b. Yahya; Suraka
b. Mirdas al-Asghar; Tahman b. c Amr al-Kilabi; Tawba b. al-Humayyir; Thabit
Kutna; al-Tirimmah; al-Ukayshir; c Umar b. Abi Rabi'a; 'Urwa b. Hizam; c Urwa
b. Udhayna; Waddah al-Yaman; Waliba b. al-Hubab; al-Walid.2; al-Walid b.
Tarif; al-Walid b. c Ukba; Yazid Ibn Dabba; al-Zafayan; al-Zibrikan b. Badr; Ziyad
al-A c djam; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Rahman b. Hassan; Abu c Amr al-Shaybani (and
al-Shaybani, Abu c Amr); Abu Hayya al-Numayri; Abu Huzaba; Abu Nukhayla;
Bakr b. al-Nattah; al-Nadjashi
see also Nasib.2.c and d; Su c luk.III.2; [in Suppl.] Muhdathun
9th and 10th-century poets Aban b. c Abd al-Hamid; c Abd Allah b. Tahir; Abu '1-
'Atahiya; Abu T-'Ayna'; Abu Dulaf; Abu '1-Faradj al-Isbahani; Abu Firas; Abu
Nuwas; Abu T-Shis; Abu Tammam; Abu Ya'kub al-Khuraymi; al- c Akawwak;
c Ali b. al-Djahm; al- c Attabi; al-Babbagha'; al-Basir; al-Buhturi; al-Busti; Di'bil;
Dik al-Djinn; al-Himsi; al-Djammaz; al-Hamdani; (al-)Husayn b. al-Dahhak; Ibn
al- c Allaf; Ibn Bassam; Ibn al-Hadjdjadj; Ibn Kunasa; Ibn Lankak; Ibn al-
Mu'adhdhal; Ibn Munadhir; Ibn al-Mu c tazz; Ibn al-Rumi; al-Kasim b. c Isa; Khalid
b. Yazid al-Katib al-Tamimi; al-Khalidiyyani; al-Khattabi: al-Khubza'aruzzi; al-
Kisrawi; Kushadjim; al-Ma'muni; Muhammad b. c Abd al-Rahman al- c Atawi;
Muhammad b. Hazim al-Bahili; Muhammad b. Umayya; Muhammad b. Yasir
al-Riyashi; al-Mus'abi; Muslim b. al-Walid; al-Mutanabbi; Nasr b. Nusayr; Sahl
b. Harun b. Rahawayh; Sa'id b. Humayd; al-Sanawbari; al-Sari al-Raffa'; al-
LITERATURE, poetry
Shimshati; Tahir b. Muhammad; Tamlm b. al-Mu c izz li-DIn Allah; c Ulayya; al-
c UtbI, Abu c Abd al-Rahman; al-Warrak, Mahmud; al-Wa'wa' al-Dimashki; Yamut
b. al-Muzarra'; [in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Amaythal; Abu '1-Asad al-Himmani; Abu '1-
Hasan al-Maghribi; Abu Hiffan; Abu 'l-'Ibar; Abu Riyash al-Kaysi; Abu Sa c d al-
Makhzumi; Abu Shura'a; 'All b. Muhammad al-Tunisi al-Iyadi; Fadl al-Sha'ira;
al-Fazari; al-Hamdawi
see also al-Hamadhani; Ibn Abl Zamanayn; Nasib.2.d; Shahid; al-Suli; al-Tufayli;
al-YazIdI.2
11th- 13th-century poets al-Abiwardi; 'Amid al-Din al-Abzari; al-Arradjani; al-Badi'
al-Asturlabi; Baha' al-DIn Zuhayr; al-Bakharzi; Haysa Baysa; al-Husri.II; Ibn
Abi '1-Hadid; Ibn Abl Hasina; Ibn al-'Aflf al-Tilimsanl; Ibn al-Habbariyya; Ibn
Hamdis; Ibn Hayyus; Ibn Hindu; Ibn al-Kattan; Ibn al-Kaysarani.2; Ibn Khamis;
Ibn Matruh; Ibn al-Nabih; Ibn Rashik; Ibn Sana' al-Mulk; Ibn al-Shadjari al-
Baghdadi; Ibn Sharaf al-Kayrawani; Ibn Shibl; Ibn al-Ta'awidhi; al-Kammuni;
Kurhub; al-Ma c arri; al-Marwazi; Mihyar; Muhammad b. c Ali b. 'Urnar; al-
Rudhrawari; al-Saghani, c Abd al-Mu'min; Sa'id al-Baghdadl; al-Sharlf al-'Akili;
al-Sharif al-Radi; Shumaym; al-Talla'fari; Tamim b. al-Mu c izz; al-Tarabulusi
al-Raffa'; al-Tihami; al-Tilimsani.3; al-Tughra'I; 'Umara al-Yamani; al-Wasani;
Zafir al-Haddad; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Hasan al-Ansari; al-Balati, Abu '1-Fath
'Uthman; al-BusM; al-Ghazzi; al-Is c irdi
see also al-Khazradji; Nasib.2.d; al-Wathiki; Yakut al-Rumi
14th-18th-century poets c Abd al-'Aziz b. Muhammad; c Abd al-Ghani; al-Bakri;
al-Burini; Farhat; Ibn Abi Hadjala; Ibn 'Ammar; Ibn Hidjdja; Ibn Nubata; Ibn al-
Sa'igh; Ibn al-Wannan; al-San c ani, Diya' al-Din; Su'udi; al-Warghi; al-Yadali;
al-Yusi
see also Khidr Beg; al-Shirbini; al-Wadi'ashi
19th and 20th-century poets al-Akhras; al-Barudi; Fans al-Shidyak; al-Faruki; Fikri;
Hafiz Ibrahim; Ibn Idris (I); Isma'il Sabri; Isma'il Sabri Pasha; Kaddur al- c Alami;
al-Kazimi, c Abd al-Muhsin; Khalil Mutran; al-Khuri; al-Ma'luf; al-Manfaluti;
Mardam.2; Ma'ruf al-Rusafi; al-Mazini; Nadji; Nadjib al-Haddad; Nadjib
Muhammad Surur; Sa'id Abu Bakr; Salah c Abd al-Sabur; Sayigh, Tawflk; al-
Shabbi; al-Sharkawi; Sha'ul; Shawki; Shukri; Taha, 'Ali Mahmud; Tu'ma, Ilyas;
al-Tunisi, Mahmud Bayram; al-Turk, Nikula; Yakan, Muhammad Wali al-Din;
al-Yazidji.1-4; al-Zahawi, Djamil Sidki; [in Suppl.] Abu Madi; Abu Shadi; al-
c Akkad; al-Bustani; Butrus Karama; Ibn c Amr al-Ribati; Ibn al-Hadjdj; Kabbani
see also Sha'ir.l.C; Shi'r.l.b
transmission of Rawi
transmitters Hammad al-Rawiya; Ibn Da'b; Ibn Kunasa; Khalaf b. Hayyan al-
Ahmar; Khalid b. Safwan b. al-Ahtam; al-Kisrawi; al-Mufaddal al-Dabbi;
Muhammad b. al-Hasan b. Dinar; al-Sharki b. al-Kutami; al-Sukkari; al-Suli; [in
Suppl.] Abu c Amr al-Shaybani (and al-Shaybani, Abu c Amr)
and -> Linguistics.grammarians.8th and <jth century
bacchic -^ Wine
Indo-Persian Mughals.10; Sabk-i Hindi; Sha c ir.4
see also Pandjabi.2; and -> Literature.poetry.mystical and Persian
11th-century poets Mas c ud-i Sa c d-i Salman; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Faradj b. Mas'ud
Run!
14th-century poets Amir Khusraw; Hasan Dihlawi; [in Suppl.] Hamid Kalandar
16th-century poets Faydi; Xhana'i; [in Suppl.] Kahi; Kasim Arslan
see also c Abd al-Rahim Khan
17th-century poets Ghani; Qhanimat; Idraki Beglari; Kudsi, Muhammad Djan;
LITERATURE, poetry 85
Malik Kummi; Munir Lahawri; Nasir 'Ali Sirhindi; Naziri; Salim, Muhammad
Kuli; Shayda, Mulla; Talib Amuli; Tughra, Mulla; [in Suppl.] Ghanimat Kundjahi
18th-century poets Arzu Khan: Ashraf 'Ali Khan: Bidil; Dard; Hazin; Kani'; Makhfi;
Wafa.l
see also Tahsin
19th-century poets Azfari; Ghalib: Rangin; [in Suppl.] Adib Pishawari
see also Afsus
love Ghazal; Nasib; Rakib; Shahrangiz; Turks.III.4; 'Udhri
see also al-Marzubani; Nardjis; Shawk. 1 (a); Shawk, Tasadduk Husay n; and -> Love
Arabic poets al-'Abbas b. al-Ahnaf; Abu Dhu'ayb al-Hudhali; Abu Nuwas; al-
Ahwas; al- c Ardji; Bashshar b. Burd; Djamil al-'Udhri; Ibn Dawud; Ibn al-
Dumayna; Ibn Mayyada; Ibn al-Nabih; Ibn Sahl; Ibn Zaydun; Imru' al-Kays;
Kuthayyir b. c Abd al-Rahman; Layla al-Akhyaliyya; Mansur al-Namari;
Murakkish-1; Nadji; Nusayb b. Rabah; al-Ramadi; Sa c id b. Humayd; Suhaym;
'Urnar b. Abi Rabi'a; c Urwa b. Hizam; c Urwa b. Udhayna; al-Walid.2
see also 'Inan; Madjnun Layla. 1; and -> Love.erotic
Persian poets Hafiz; Muhtasham-i Kashani; Sa'di; Sa'ib; Shahriyar; Zulali-yi
Kh w ansari
see also Farhad wa-Shirin; Madjnun Layla.2; Shahid: Wamik wa 'Adhra'; Wis u
Ramin
Turkish poets
see also Farhad wa-Shirin; Madjnun Layla.3
Urdu poets Dagh; Mir Muhammad Taki; Shawk
see also Madjnun Layla.4; and -> Love.erotic
mystical
Arabic c Abd al-Ghani; al-Bakri, Muhammad; al-Bakri, Mustafa; al-Dimyati; al-
Halladj; Ibn c Adjiba; Ibn 'Aliwa; Ibn al- c Arabi; al-Madjdhub; Makhrama.3; al-
Shushtari
see also c Abd al-Kadir al-Djilani; Abu Madyan; al-Kadiri al-Hasani; al-Yafi'i;
[in Suppl.] al-Hilali
Central Asian Ahmad Yasawi
Indian Baki bi 'llah; Bidil; Dard; "Djamali"; Hansawi; Husayni Sadat Amir; Imdad
Allah; Malik Muhammad Djayasi; [in Suppl.] Hamid Kalandar; Kabir
see also Bhita'i; Pandjabi.2; Sha c ir.4
Indonesian Hamza Fansuri
Persian Ahmad-i Djam; 'Attar; Baba-Tahir; Djalal al-Din Rumi; Fadl Allah Hurufi;
Ghudjduwani: Humam al-Din b. 'Ala 3 Tabrizi; 'Iraki; Kamal Khudjandi; Kasim-
i Anwar; Kirmani; Lahidji; Mahmud Shabistari; Sana'i; Shirin Maghribi,
Muhammad; Sultan Walad; [in Suppl.] 'Arif Celebi; 'Imad al-Din 'Ali, Fakih-i
Kirmani
see also Abu Sa'id b. Abi '1-Khayr; Kharakani; Shawk; [in Suppl.] Ahmad-i
Rumi
Turkish 'Ashik Pasha; Fasih Dede; Gulshani; Giilshehri; Huda'i; Munedjdjim Bashl;
Nefes; Nesimi; Refi'i; Sari 'Abd Allah Efendi; Seza'i, Hasan Dede; Sheyyad
Hamza; Yunus Emre; [in Suppl.] Eshrefoghlu; Esrar Dede; Rushani, Dede 'Umar;
Siileyman Dhati
see also Husam al-Din Celebi; Isma'Il al-Ankarawi; Isma'il Hakki; Kayghusuz
Abdal; Khalili; Sultan Walad; Yazidji-oghlu
nature Ibn Khafadja: Nawriyya; Rabi'iyyat; al-Sanawbari; Zahriyyat
see also al-Walid.2; [in Suppl.] Ward
Persian Ghazal.ii; Hamasa.ii; HidjaMi; Kasida.2; Khamsa: Madih.2; Malik al-Shu'ara';
LITERATURE, poetry
Marthiya.2; Mathnawi.2; Mukhtarat.2; Musammat; Mustazad; Ruba'i.l; Shah-
ranglz.l; Sha'ir.2; Shi'r.2; Takhallus.2; Tardji'-band; Zahriyyat.2; [in Suppl.]
Habsiyya; Kit'a.2
see also Radif.2; Safawids.III; Saki.2; Shaman; Sha'r.3; Sharif; Wa-sekht; Yaghma
Djandaki; [in Suppl.] Mi'radj.6; Sawladjan; and-* Literature.poetry.indo-persian
and POETRY.MYSTICAL
anthologies Mukhtarat.2; Tadhkira.2
anthologists 'Awfi; Dawlat-Shah; Lutf 'Ali Beg; Taki Awhadi; Taki al-Din;
[in Suppl.] Djadjarmi.2
biographies Dawlat-Shah; Sam Mirza; Tadhkira.2; Taki al-Din; Wafa.4
stories Barzu-nama; Farhad wa-Shirin; Iskandar Nama.ii; Kalila wa-Dimna;
Madjnun Layla.2; Wamik wa c Adhra 5 ; Wis u Ramin; Yusuf and Zulaykha.l
9th-century poets Muhammad b. Wasif
see also Sahl b. Harun b. Rahawayh
10th-century poets Baba-Tahir; Dakiki; Kisa'i; al-Mus'abi; Rudaki; Shahid; [in
Suppl.] Abu Shakur Balkhi; Ma c ruf Balkhi
11th-century poets Asadi; Azraki; Farrukhi; Firdawsi; Gurgani; Katran; Lami'i,
Abu '1-Hasan; Manucihri; 'Unsuri
12th-century poets 'Abd al-Wasi' Djabali; Anwari; Falaki Shirwani; Tmadi (and
[in Suppl.]); Khakani; Labibi; Mahsati; Mu'izzi; Mukhtari; Sabir; Sana'I; Sayyid
Hasan Ghaznawi; Shufurwa; Suzani; c Umar Khayyam; Zahir-i Faryabi; [in Suppl.]
c Am c ak; Djamal al-Din Isfahani; Mudjir al-Din Baylakani
13th-century poets 'Attar; Baba Afdal; Djalal al-Din Rumi; 'Iraki; Kamal al-Din
Isma'il; Nizami Gandjawi; Pur-i Baha 5 ; Sa'di; [in Suppl.] Djadjarmi.l
see also Shams-i Kays; Sudi
14th-century poets 'Assar; Awhadi; Banakiti; Hafiz; Humam al-Din b. 'Ala 1 Tabrizi;
Ibn-i Yamin; Tsami; Kh w adju; Nizari Kuhistani; Rami Tabrizi; Salman-i Sawadji;
'Ubayd-i Zakani; [in Suppl.] Badr-i Caci; Djadjarmi.2; Tmad al-Din 'Ali, Fakih-
i Kirmani
see also Fadl Allah Hurufi; Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Kazwini; Sudi
15th-century poets Bushak; Djami; Fattahi; Hamidi; Katibi; Sayfi 'Arudi Bukhari;
Sharaf al-Din 'Ali Yazdi; Shirin Maghribi, Muhammad; [in Suppl.] 'Arifi
see also Djem
16th-century poets Banna'i; Basiri; Fighani; Hatifi; Hilali; Muhtasham-i Kashani;
Mushfiki; Naw'i; Sahabi Astarabadi; Sam Mirza; 'Urfi Shirazi; Wahshi Bafki
see also Lukman b. Sayyid Husayn
17th-century poets Asir; al-Damad; Kadri; Kalim Abu Talib; Kashif; Lahidji.2;
Nazim Farrukh Husayn; Sa'ib; Sa'ida Gilani; Shawkat Bukhari; Shifa'i Isfahani;
Tahir Wahid; Taki Awhadi; 'Unwan, Muhammad Rida; Zuhuri Turshizi; Zulali-
yi Kh w ansari
see also al-'Amili; Ghanimat; Khushhal Khan Khatak; [in Suppl.] Findiriski;
and ->• LlTERATURE.POETRY.INDO-PERSIAN
18th-century poets Hatif; Hazin; Lutf 'Ali Beg; Nadjat; Shihab Turshizi; Wafa.2
and 3
see also Azad Bilgrami
19th-century poets Furugh; Furughi. 1 and 2; Ka'ani; Kurrat al-' Ayn; Nashat; Rida
Kuli Khan; Saba; Sabzawari; Shaybani; Shihab Isfahani; Surush; Wafa.5-9;
Wakar; Yaghma Djandaki; [in Suppl.] Wisal
see also Ikbal; Ka 3 im-makam-i Farahani; Sipihr; Wafa.4
20th-century poets Bahar; Furughi. 3; Lahuti; Nafisi, Sa'id; Nima Yushidj; Parwin
I'tisami; Pur-i Dawud; Rashid Yasimi; Shahriyar; Shurida, Muhammad Taki;
LITERATURE, poetry 87
Sipihri; Wuthuk al-Dawla; Yaghma'i; Yazdi; [in Suppl.] 'Arif, Mlrza; Ashraf al-
Din Gilani; Dehkhuda; 'Ishki
see also Ikbal
Turkish Hamasa.iii; Hidja'.iii; Kasida.3; Khamsa; Koshma; Madih.3; Mani; Marthiya.3;
Mathnawi.3; Mukhtarat.3; Musammat.l; Rabi'iyyat; Ruba'1.2; Shahrangiz.2; Shark!;
Shi'r.3; Turks.III (and [in Suppl.]); [in Suppl.] Ghazal.iii
see also Alpamish; 'Ashik; Ilahi; Karadja Ogblan; Ozan; Shahnamedji; Sha'ir.3;
Tardji'-band; Therwet-i Fiinun; and -> Literature.poetry.mystical
anthologies Mukhtarat.3; Tadhkira.3
anthologists Ziya Pasha
biographies 'Ashik Celebi; Latifi; Rida; Riyadi; Salim; Sehi Bey; Tadhkira.3; [in
Suppl.] Mehmed Tahir, Bursal!
stories Farhad wa-Shirin; Iskandar Nama.iii; Madjnun Layla.3; Yusuf and
Zulaykha.2
12th-century poets Ahmad Yuknaki; Hakim Ata
13th-century poets Dehhani; Sheyyad Hamza
14th-century poets Ahmadi; 'Ashik Pasha; Burhan al-Din; Gulshehri; Sheykh-
oghlu; Yunus Emre
15th-century poets Ahi; Ahmad Pasha Bursal!; Da c i; Firdewsi; Gulshani; Hamdi,
Hamd Allah; Kasim Pasha; Kayghusuz Abdal; Khalili; Khidr Beg; Suleyman
Celebi, Dede; Yazidji-oghlu
see also Djem; Hamidi
16th-century poets Agehi; c Azizi; Baki; Basiri; Bihishti; Dhati; Dja'far Celebi;
Djalal Husayn Celebi; Djalalzade Mustafa Celebi; Djalalzade Salih Celebi; Fadli;
Fakiri; Fawri; Ferdi; Fighani; Fuduli; Ghazali; Gulshani; Hadidi; Kara-celebi-
zade; Kemal Pasha-zade; Khakani: Khayali; Korkud b. Bayazid; Lami'i, Shaykh
Mahmud; Latifi; Lukman b. Sayyid Husayn; Me'ali; Medjdi; Mesihi; Mihri
Khatun; Nazmi, Edirneli; Nedjati Bey; New c i; Rewani; Sehi Bey; Sururi.l; Suzi
Celebi; Tashlidjali Yahya; Walihi
see also Tashkopriizade. 1
17th-century poets 'Ata'i; 'Azmi-zade; Baha'i Mehmed Efendi; Fasih Dede; Fehim,
Undjuzade Mustafa; Haleti; Kara-celebi-zade; Kul Mustafa; Kuloghlu; Na'ili;
Nazim, Mustafa; Nazmi, Sheykh Mehmed; Nef i; Niyazi; c Omer c Ashik; Riyadi;
Sari c Abd Allah Efendi; Tifli; Wedjihi; Weysi; Yahya
see also Tashkopruzade.3; [in Suppl.] Ka'imi
18th-century poets Beligh, Isma'il; Beligh, Mehmed Emin; Celebi-zade;
Ceshmizade; Fitnat; Gevheri; Ghalib; Hami-i Amidi; Hashmet; Kani; Mehmed
Pasha Rami (and Rami Mehmed Pasha); Nabi; Nahifi; Nazim; Nedim; Nesh'et;
Newres.l; c Othman-zade; Raghib Pasha; Seza'i, Hasan Dede; Thabit; Wehbi
Sayyidi
see also c Ushshaki-zade, Ibrahim
19th-century poets 'Arif Hikmet Bey; 'Ayni; Dadaloghlu; Derdli; Dhihni; Fadil
Bey; Fatin; Fehim, Suleyman; Ismail Safa; 'Izzet Molla; Kemal, Mehmed Namik;
Layla Khanim; Menemenli-zade Mehmed Tahir; Mu'allim Nadji; Newres.2;
Pertew Pasha.II; Redja'i-zade; Shinasi; Siinbul-zade Wehbi; Sururi.2; Wasif
Enderuni; Ziya Pasha
20th-century poets 'Abd al-Hakk Hamid; Djanab Shihab al-Din; Djewdet; Ekrem
Bey; Hashim; Kanik; Kopriilii (Mehmed Fuad); Koryiirek; Layla Khanim;
Mehmed c Akif; Mehmed Emin; Muhibb Ahmed "Diranas"; Nazim Hikmet; Oktay
Rifat; Orkhan Seyfi; Ortac, Yusuf Diya; Sahir, Djelal; Tanpinar, Ahmed Hamdi;
Tewfik Fikret; Yahya Kemal; Yiicel, Hasan c Ali; [in Suppl.] c Ashik Weysel;
LITERATURE, poetry — prose
Boliikbashi; Camlibel; Eshref; Eyyuboghlu; Govsa; Kisakurek
see also Therwet-i Fiinun; [in Suppl.] Ergun; Findikoghlu
in Eastern Turkish Adhari.ii; Babur; Bakikhanli; Burhan al-Din; Dhakir; Djambul
Djabaev; Ghazi Giray II; Hamasa.iv; Hidja'.iii; Iskandar Nama.iii; Isma'il I;
Kayyum Nasiri; Kutadghu Bilig; Lutfi; Mir c Ali Shir Nawa'i; Mu'nis; Sakkaki;
Shahriyar; Yusuf Khass Hadjib; [in Suppl.] Mirza ShafT Wadih Tabrizi
translations from Western langs. Isma'il Hakki 'Alishan; Kanik; Shinasi; Tewfik Fikret
Urdu Ghazal.iv; Hamasa.v; HidjaMv; Kasida.4; Madih.4; Madjnun Layla.4; Marthiya.4;
Mathnawi.4; Mukhtarat.4; Musammat.2; Musha'ara; Shahrangiz.3; Shi c r.4; Urdu.2
see also Tardji'-band; Wa-sekht
17th-century poets Nusrati
18th-century poets Ashraf c Ali Khan; Dard; Djur'at; Mazhar; Sawda; Suz; Wali;
[in Suppl.] Hasan, Mir Ghulam
see also Arzu Khan; Tahsin
19th-century poets Amanat; Anis; Azfari; Dabir, Salamat 'Ali; Dagh; Dhawk:
Ghalib; Fakir Muhammad Khan: Hali; Ilahi Bakhsh "Ma'ruf '; Insha'; Mir
Muhammad Taki; Muhsin c Ali Muhsin; Mu'min; Mushafi; Nasikh; Nasim;
Rangin; Shawk, Tasadduk Husayn; [in Suppl.] Atish
see also [in Suppl.] Azad
20th-century poets Akbar, Husayn Allahabadi; Azad; Djawan; Ikbal; Muhammad
c Ali; Rashid, N.M.; Ruswa; Shabbir Hasan Khan Djosh; Shibli Nu'mani; [in
Suppl.] Hasrat Mohani
see also Azurda
vernacular Hawfi; Malhun; Mawaliya; Nabati; Zadjal
see also Bukala; al-Sham.3
prose Adab; Hikaya; Kissa; Makama; Mawsu'a; Mukaddima; Nasihat al-Muluk; Risala; Sharh;
Tafsir; Uksusa; [in Suppl.] Nathr
and ->■ the sections Etiquette-literature, Historical, and Travel-literature under this
entry; Press
for authors infields other than belles-lettres, see the respective entries
Arabic 'Arabiyya.B.V; Hikaya.i; Kissa.2; Makala.l; Makama; Mawsu'a. 1; Mi'radj.2;
Nahda; Nasihat al-Muluk. 1 ; Risala. 1 ; Sadj'.3; Sira Sha'biyya: Uksusa; [in Suppl.] Nathr
and -> Literature.drama; Press
works Alf Layla wa-Layla; 'Antar; Baybars; Bilawhar wa-Yudasaf; Dhu '1-Himma;
Kalila wa-Dimna; Lukman.3; Sayf Ibn Dhi Yazan; Sindbad al-Hakim; 'Umar al-
Nu'man
see also Sindbad; Tawaddud; [in Suppl.] Madinat al-Nuhas
8th-century authors Ibn al-Mukaffa'
9th-century authors al-Djahiz; al-Tha'labi, Muhammad; [in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Anbas
al-Saymari
10th-century authors al-Hamadhani
11th-century authors Ibn Nakiya; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Mutahhar al-Azdi
see also al-Tha c alibi, Abu Mansur c Abd al-Malik
12th-century authors al-Hariri; al-Saymari; al-Wahrani; [in Suppl.] al-Djazari
13th-century authors
see also al-Sharishi
14th-century authors Ibn Abi Hadjala
15th-century authors
see also al-Ibshihi
1 7th-century authors al-Shirbini; al- Yusi
18th-century authors al-Warghi
LITERATURE, prose
19th-century authors al-Ma'luf; al-Yazidji. 1 ; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani.6
20th-century authors Ahmad Amin; Farah Antun; Hafiz Ibrahim; Mahmud Tay mur;
al-Ma'luf; al-Manfaluti; Mayy Ziyada; al-Mazini, Ibrahim; Muhammad Husayn
Haykal; al-Muwaylihi; Nu'ayma, Mikhail; al-Rayhanl; Salama Musa; Sayyid
Kutb; al-Sharkawi; Sha'ul; Taha Husayn; Tawflk al-Hakim; Tu'ma, Ilyas; al-
Tunisi, Mahmud Bayram; Yahya Hakki; Zaydan, Djurdji; [in Suppl.] Abu Shadi;
al-'Akkad; Lashin; al-Shartunl
see also Djamil al-Mudawwar; al-Khalidi; Kurd c Ali; Shumayyil, Shibli
Persian Hikaya.ii; Iran.vii; Kissa.4; Makala.2; Mawsu'a^; Nasihat al-Muluk.2; Risala.2;
[in Suppl.] Mi'radj^
see also Safawids.III; and -> Literature.drama; Press
works Bakhtiyar-nama; Dabistan al-Madhahib; Kahraman-nama; Kalila wa-Dimna;
Madjnun Layla.2; Marzban-nama; Wamik wa 'Adhra'
see also Nizam al-Mulk; Nizami 'Arudi Samarkandi
11th-century authors Kay Ka'us b. Iskandar; Nasir-i Khusraw
12th-century authors Hamidi; al-Kashani; Nasr Allah b. Muhammad; Nizami c Arudi
Samarkandi; Rashid al-DIn (Watwat); al-Sam'ani, Abu '1-Kasim
13th-century authors Sa c di
14th-century authors Nakhshabi
15th-century authors Kashifi
16th-century authors
see also Shem'i
1 7th-century authors c Inay at Allah Kanbu
18th-century authors Mumtaz
19th-century authors Shaybani
see also Furugh.2
20th-century authors Bahar; Hidayat, Sadik; Nafisi, Sa c Id; Shaykh Musa Nathri;
Talibuf; Zayn al-'Abidin Maragha'i; [in Suppl.] Al-i Ahmad; Bihrangi; Dehkhuda
Turkish Hikaya.iii; Kissa.3; Maddah; Makala.3; Risala.3; Turks.III; [in Suppl.] Mawsu c a.3
see also Bilmedje; Therwet-i Funun; and -> Literature.drama; Press
works Alpamish; Billur Koshk; Dede Korkut; Kahraman-nama; Oghuz-nama;
Yusuf and Zulaykha.2
see also Merdjiimek; Sari Saltuk Dede
14th-century authors Sheykh-oghlu
15th-century authors Sheykh-zade.3
16th-century authors Wasi 1 c Alisi
see also Shem'i
17th-century authors Nergisi; Weysi
18th-century authors C A1I c Aziz, Giridli; Nabi
19th-century authors Kasab, Teodor; Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Sami; Shinasi; Ziya
Pasha; [in Suppl.] Caylak Tewfik
see also Kissa.3(b); Therwet-i Funun
20th-century authors Ahmad Hikmet; Ahmad Midhat; Ahmad Rasim; Djanab
Shihab al-DIn; Ebiizziya Tevfik; Ekrem Bey; Fitrat; Hisar; Husayn Djahid; Husayn
Rahml; Karay, Refik Khalid; Kaygili, 'Othman Djemal; Kemal; Kemal Tahir;
Khalid Diya'; Khalide Edib; Layla Khanim; Mehmed Ra'uf; Oktay Rifat; c 6mer
Seyf iil-Din; Orkhan Kemal; Reshad Nuri; Sabahattin Ali; Seza'I, Sami; Tanpinar,
Ahmed Hamdi; Yahya Kemal; Ya'kub Kadrl; [in Suppl.] Atac; Atay; Esendal;
Halikarnas Balikcisi; Mehmed Tahir, Bursal!
see also Ahmad Ihsan; Ileri, Djelal Nuri; Inal; Isma'Il Hakki 'Alishan; Kissa.3(b);
[in Suppl.] Eyyuboghlu
90 LITERATURE, prose — tradition-literature
in Eastern Turkish Babur; Rabghuzi; [in Suppl.] Agahl
see also Timurids.2; Turks.III.6
Urdu Hikaya.iv; Kissa.5; Urdu.2; [in Suppl.] Mawsu'a.5
and -> Literature.drama; Press
18th-century authors Tahsin
19th-century authors Aman, Mir; Djawan; Fakir Muhammad Khan; Surur
20th-century authors Ikbal; Nadhir Ahmad Dihlawi; Prem Cand; Ruswa; Shabbir
Hasan Khan Djosh; Shibli Nu'mani; [in Suppl.] Azad
proverbs in Mathal.4
and -> Proverbs.collections of
terms 'Arud; 'Ataba; Badi c ; Balagha; Bayan; Dakhil; Fard.a; Fasaha; Fasila; Ibtida'; Idjaza;
Idmar; Iktibas; Intiha'; Irtidjal; Isti'ara; Kabd.iii; Kafiya; Kat c ; Kinaya; Luzum ma la
yalzam; al-Ma c ani wa '1-Bayan; Madjaz; Ma'na.3; Mu'arada; Muzawadja; Radif.2;
Radjaz.4; Shawahid; Sila.2; Ta'adjdjub; Tadjnis; Tadmin; Takhallus; Takhmis;
Takhyil.l; Ta'rikh.III; Tashbih; Tawriya; Tayf al-Khayal; Wahshi; Wasf.l; [in Suppl.]
Sarika
and -> Literature.genres; Metrics; Rhetoric
topoi and imagery Bukhl; Bulbul; Ghurab; Gul; Hamam; Hayawan.5; Insaf; al-Kamar.II;
Kata; Nardjis; Rahil; Saki; Sham c a; Sha c r.3; al-Shayb wa '1-Shabab; [in Suppl.] Ward
see also Ghazal.ii; c Ishk; Khamriyya; Rabi'iyyat; Zahriyyat
tradition-literature Athar; Hadith; Hadith Kudsi; Hind.v.e; Sunan; Sunna; Usui al-Hadith;
[in Suppl.] Arba'un Hadith
see also Ahl al-Hadith; Hashwiyya; Khabar; Mustamli; Naskh; Riwaya; Sharh.III;
'Ulama'
authoritative collections Abu Da'ud al-Sidjistani; Ahmad b. Hanbal; Anas b. Malik; al-
Bayhaki; al-Bukhari, Muhammad b. Ismail; al-Darakutni; al-Darimi; Ibn Hibban;
Ibn Madja; Muslim b. al-Hadjdjadj; al-Nasa'i; al-Tayalisi, AbQ Dawud; al-Tirmidhi,
Abu c Isa
see also al-'Ayni; Ibn Hubayra
terms al-Djarh wa '1-Ta c dil; Fard.d; Gharib; Hikaya.I; Idjaza; Isnad; Khabar al- Wahid;
Mashhur; Matn; Mu'an'an; Munkar; Mursal; Musannaf; Musnad.3; Mustamli;
Mutawatir.(a); Raf .2; Ridjal; Sahih.l; Salih; Sunan; Tadlis.2; Tadwin; Tawatur;
Ihika; Umma.2
see also Hadith; Ta'lik
traditionists Rawi; Ridjal; Salih; Thika
see also al-Ramahurmuzi
7th century 'Abd Allah b. c Umar b. al-Khattab; Abu Bakra; Abu Hurayra; al-
A'mash; Ibn Abi Layla.I; Ibn Mas'ud; Ka'b al-Ahbar; al-Khawlani, Abu Idris;
al-Khawlani. Abu Muslim; [in Suppl.] Djabir b. 'Abd Allah
see also c A'isha bint Abi Bakr; Umm Salama Hind
8th century Abu 'l- c Aliya al-Riyahi; Abu Mikhnaf; al-Ash c ari, Abu Burda; Djabir
b. Zayd; al-Fudayl b. c Iyad; Ghundjar; al-Hasan b. Salih b. Hayy al-Kufi; al-
Hasan al-Basri; Ibn Abi Layla.II; Ibn Da'b; Ibn Ishak; Ibn al-Nattah; Ibn
Shubruma; Ibn Sirin; 'Ikrima; al-Layth b. Sa c d; Maymun b. Mihran; Mukatil b.
Sulayman; Nafi c ; al-Nakha'i, Ibrahim; Sa'id b. Abi Aruba; al-Sha'bi; Shu'ba b.
al-Hadjdjadj; al-Suddi; 'Urwa b. al-Zubayr; Warka' b. c Umar; Yazid b. Zuray c ;
al-Zuhri, Ibn Shihab; [in Suppl.] Abu c Amr al-Shaybani (and al-Shaybani, Abu
c Amr); Ibn Djuraydj
9th century Abu Nu c aym al-Mulal; Baki b. Makhlad; Ibn Abi Khaythama; Ibn
Abi '1-Shawarib; Ibn Abi Shayba; Ibn 'A'isha.IV; Ibn Rahwayh; Ibn Sa'd; Ibn
Sallam al-Djumahi; Ibrahim al-Harbi; al-Karabisi.2; al-Marwazi; Muslim b. al-
LITERATURE, tradition-literature — wisdom-literature 91
Hadjdjadj; Nu c aym b. Hammad; al-San'anl, 'Abd al-Razzak; Sufyan b. 'Uyayna;
al-TayalisI, Abu Dawud; c Umarb. Shabba; Wakl< b. al-Djarrah; al-Wakidl; Yahya
b. Ma'in; al-Ziyadl; Zuhayr b. Harb; [in Suppl] Abu <Asim al-Nabll; Asad b.
Musa b. Ibrahim
see also Ibn Khayyat al- c UsfurI; Ibn Kutlubugha; Yamut b. al-Muzarra c
10th century Abu 'Aruba; al-Anbarl, Abu Bakr; al-Anbarl, Abu Muhammad;
Ghulam T_ha c lab; Ibn al-'Allaf; Kasim b. Asbagh; al-Khattabl; al-Sarakustl; al-
Sidjistanl; al-Tabarani; [in Suppl.] Ibn 'Ukda; al-Ramli
11th century al-Hakim al-Naysaburl; Ibn 'Abd al-Barr; Ibn al-Banna'; Ibn Furak;
Ibn Makula.3; al-Kabisi; al-Khatib al-Baghdadi; al-Sahmi; al- c Udhri
12th century al-Baghawi; Ibn al-'Arabi; Ibn 'Asakir; Ibn Hubaysh; Ibn al-
Kaysarani.l; Ibn al-Nadjdjar; al-Lawati; Razinb. Mu'awiya; al-Rushati; al-Sadafi;
al-Sarradj, AbQ Muhammad; Shirawayh; al-Silafi; [in Suppl] al-Zamakhshari.2
see also al-Sam'ani, Abu Sa c d
13th century al-Dimyati al-Shafi'I; Ibn al-Athir. 1 ; Ibn Dihya; Ibn Farah al-Ishbili;
al-Saghanl, Radiyy al-DIn; al-Tabari, Ahmad b. 'Abd Allah; [in Suppl] Ibn Dakik
al-id
14th century al-Dhahabi; Ibn Kathir; al-Mizzi; al-Wadi'ashi
15th century Ibn Hadjar al- c Askalani; al-Ibshihi.2; al-Kastallani; Mu'in al-Miskin;
al-Suyuti
see also Ibn Kutlubugha
20th century Shakir, Ahmad Muhammad
Shiite 'Abd Allah b. Maymun; Dindan; Dja'far al-Sadik; Ibn Babawayh(i); al-
Kashshi; al-Kazimi, 'Abd al-Nabi; al-Kulayni, Abu Dja'far Muhammad; Madjlisi;
Muhammad b. Makki; Shah 'Abd al- c Azim al-Hasani; [in Suppl] Akhbariyya;
al-Barkl; D^abir al-DjuTi
see also Asma 3 ; al-Tihrani
translation
from Greek and Syriac Tardjama.2
and ->• Medicine.physicians.greek; Philosophy.philosophers.greek
from Middle Persian Ibn al-Mukaffa 1 ; Tansar; Tardjama.3
from Western languages
into Arabic Muhammad Bey c Uthman Djalal (and [in Suppl] Muhammad c Uthman
Djalal); Sha'ul; Shumayyil, Shibll; Tardjama.4; al-Yazidji.5
into Persian Muhammad Hasan Khan; Nafisi, Sa c id; SharfatI, c Ali; Tardjama.5
into Turkish Isma'il Hakki 'Alishan; Kanik; Khalide Edib; Shinasi; Tardjama.6;
Ziya Pasha
travel-literature Djughrafiya.(d); Rihla
authors 'Abd al-Ghani; al-'Abdari; Abu Dulaf; Abu Talib Khan; Ahmad Ihsan; C A1I Bey
al-'Abbasi; c Ali Khan; al-'Ayyashi; Ewliya Celebi; Fans al-Shidyak; al-Ghassani;
Ghiyath al-DIn Nakkash; Ibn Battuta; Ibn Djubayr; Ibn Idrls(II); Kurd 'All; Ma Huan;
Mehmed Yirmisekiz; Nasir-i Khusraw; Shibll Nu c manl; SIdi C AH Re'is; al-Tamgrutl;
Tamlm b. Bahr al-Muttawwi 1 ; al-Tidjanl, Abu Muhammad; al-TudjIbl; al-TunisI,
Muhammad; al-TunisI, Shaykh Zayn al- c AbidIn; Yakut al-Ruml; al-Zayyanl; [in
Suppl] al-Ghazzal: Ibn Nasir.3; Ttisam al-DIn; Mahammad b. Ahmad al-Hudigi
see also Harun b. Yahya; Ibn Djuzayy; Ibn Rushayd; Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribl; Ibrahim
b. Ya c kub; Khayr Allah Efendi; Leo Africanus; Zayn al-'Abidin Maragha'l; Zayn al-
c Abidin Shirwani; [in Suppl] Sallam al-Tardjuman
narratives [in Suppl] Akhbar al-Sin wa '1-Hind
wisdom-literature al-Ahnaf b. Kays; 'All b. Abl Talib; Buzurgmihr; Hushang; Lukman; Sahl
b. Harun b. Rahawayh; [in Suppl] Djawidhan Khirad
92 LITERATURE, wisdom-literature — MALI
see also Aktham b. Sayfi; Buhlul; al-Ibshihi; [in Suppl.] 'Ukala' al-Madjanin
wondrous literature Abu Hamid al-Gharnati; 'Adja'ib; Buzurg b. Shahriyar; al-Kazwinl
see also Ibn Sarabiyun; Kisas al-Anbiya'; Sindbad; [in Suppl.] Madinat al-Nuhas
Love 'Ishk
see also Ishara; Kalb.II; and ->■ Literature. poetry.love
erotic Djins; Qhazal; Nasib; [in Suppl.] Mukawwiyat
see also Abu Dahbal al-Djumahi; Abu Nuwas; Abu Sakhr al-Hudhall; al-'Ardji; Dayr;
Dik al-Djinn al-Himsi; Djur'at; Fadil Bey; Hammad 'Adjrad; Ibn c Abd Rabbih; Ibn Faradj
al-Djayyani; Ibn Kays al-Rukayyat; Ibn Matruh; Khamriyya; Waliba b. al-Hubab
mystical 'Ashik; c Ishk; Shawk
and ->• Literature.poetry.mystical; Mysticism
platonic Qhazal.i.3; c Udhri
see also Djamil al-'Udhri; Ibn Dawud; Kuthayyir b. c Abd al-Rahman; Layla al-
Akhyaliyy a; Murakkish. 1 ; Nusayb b. Rabah; al-Ramadi; 'Umar b. Abi Rabi'a; c Urwa b.
Hizam; al-Walid.2
poetry -+ Literature.poetry.love
treatises on al-Antaki, Da'ud; Ibn Hazm, Abu Muhammad; Rafi c al-Din; al-Tidjani, Abu
Muhammad
see also Bukhtishu 1
M
Macedonia -> (former) Yugoslavia
Madagascar Madagascar; Massalajem
and ->• Africa.east Africa
Magic c Azima.2; Djadwal; Istinzal; Khassa; NIrandj; Rukya; Sihr; Simiya 1 ; Wafk; Yada
Tash; [in Suppl.] Buduh
see also Djinn.III; Hadjar; Huruf; Istikhara; Istiksam; Istiska 1 ; Kabid.4; al-Kamar.II; Katl.ii.2;
Khawass al-Kur'an; Kihana; Kitabat.5; Ruhaniyya; Sidr; Zar; and -+ Charms; Divination
magicians c Abd Allah b. Hilal; Sha'badha
see also Antemuru
treatises on al-Makkari; al-Zarkali; [in Suppl.] Ibn c Azzuz; al-Buni
Malawi Kota Kota; [in Suppl.] Malawi
and -> Africa.east africa
Malaysia Malacca; Malay Peninsula; Malays; Malaysia
see also Baladiyya.6; Djami c a; Indonesia; Kanduri; Kitabat.8; Partai Islam se Malaysia
(Pas); Rembau; [in Suppl.] Mahkama.7.ii; al-Mar'a
architecture -+ Architecture.regions
literature c Abd Allah b. c Abd al-Kadir; Dawud al-Fatani; Hikaya.v; Kissa.6; Malays; Sha c ir.7;
Ta J rikh.II.7; [in Suppl.] Shi c r.5
see also Indonesia.vi
states Penang; Perak; Sabah; Sarawak; Terengganu; [in Suppl.] Kelantan
see also [in Suppl.] Kalimantan
Mali Adrar.2; Ahmad al-Shaykh; Ahmadu Lobbo; Hamaliyya; Ka c ti; Mali; Mansa Musa
see also Mande; Sudan (Bilad al-).2
MALI — MAURITANIA 93
historians of al-Sa c dI
toponyms
ancient Tadmakkat
present-day
regions Kaarta
towns Bamako; Dienne; Gao; Segu; Timbuktu
Mamluks Mamluks (and [in Suppl.])
see also Harfush; Manshur; Mihmindar; Rank; Yasa.2; and -> Dynasties.egypt and the
fertile crescent; mllitary.mamluk
Maronites ->■ Christianity.denominations; Lebanon
Marriage Djilwa; Khitba; Mut'a; Nikah; 'Urs; [in Suppl.] Djabr
see also c Abd.3.e; 'Ada.iii and iv.4; 'Arus Resmi; Fasid wa Batil.III; Gha'ib: Hadana; Kafa'a;
Kurds.iv.A.l; al-Mar'a.2; Mawakib.4.3 and 5; Rada'; Shawwal; Sukna; Sukut; Wilaya.l;
[in Suppl.] Nafaka; and -> Divorce
dower Mahr; Sadak
Martyrdom Fida'i; Mazlum; Shahid
see also Habib al-Nadjdjar; (al-)Husayn b. 'All b. Abi Talib; Khubayb; Madjlis.3; Mashhad;
Mas'ud; Ziyara.5; [in Suppl.] 'Abd Allah b. Abi Bakr al-Miyanadji
Mathematics Algorithmus; al-Djabr wa '1-Mukabala; Hisab al-'Akd; Hisab al-Ghubar; c Ilm
al-Hisab; Misaha; al-Riyadiyyat; [in Suppl.] c Ilm al-Handasa
and -> Number
algebra al-Djabr wa '1-Mukabala
geometry Misaha; [in Suppl.] 'Ilm al-Handasa
mathematicians
Greek Uklidis
see also Balinus
Islamic Abu Kamil Shudja c ; Abu '1-Wafa' al-Buzadjani; 'Ali al-Kushdji; al-Biruni; Ibn
al-Banna' al-Marrakushi; Ibn al-Haytham; Ibn 'Irak; Ishak Efendi; al-Kalasadi; al-
Karabisi.l; al-Karadji; al-Kashi; al-Kh w arazmi; al-Khazin: al-Khudjandi; Kushiyar
b. Laban; al-Madjriti; al-Mardini; Muhammad b. 'Isa al-Mahani; Muhammad b.
'Umar; al-Shirazi, Abu '1-Husayn; TMbit b. Kurra; al-Tusi, Nasir al-Din; c Umar
Khayyam; c Utarid b. Muhammad; [in Suppl.] Kadi-zade Rumi; al-Kuhi; Samaw'al
b. Yahya al-Maghribi, Abu Nasr
see also Kusta b. Luka
terms Fard.f; Kasr; Kat c ; Kutr; Mai; Manshur; Mukaddam; Musadara.l; Muthallath; al-
Sahm. 1 .a; al-Ta c dil bayn al-Satrayn
see also al-Mizan; [in Suppl.] Haliladj
Mauritania Adrar.3; Atar; Hawd; Ma 5 al-'Aynayn al-Kalkami; Madjlis.4.A.xxii; Mflrita-
niya; Sihafa.2.(iii)
see also Dustur.xv; Lamtuna; al-Mami; Sudan (Bilad al-).2
historians of al-Shinkiti; al-Yadali
toponyms
ancient Awdaghost; Ghana: Kunbi Salih; Shinkit
present-day Nouakchott; Walata
94 MECHANICS MEDICINE
Mechanics Hiyal.2; al-Karastun; [in Suppl.] al-Djazari; Hiyal
see also Ibn al-Sa'ati; 'Umar Khayyam; Urghan; and -► Hydrology
Medicine Tibb
and ->■ Anatomy; Drugs; Illness; Pharmacology
centres of Blmaristan; Gondeshapur; Kalawun; [in Suppl.] Abu Za'bal
see also Baghdad; Dimashk; al-Madina; [in Suppl.] Tibbiyye-i c Adliyye-i Shahane
dentistry
dental care Miswak
see also 'Akik; Mardjan
treatises on Hamon
see also Ibn Abi '1-Bayan
diseases -> Illness; Plague
medical handbooks/encyclopaedias 'Ali b. al-'Abbas; al-Djurdjani, Isma'il b. al-Husayn; Ibn
al-Nafis; Ibn Sina; al-Masihi; Shani-zade; al-Tabari, c Ali b. Rabban; Yuhanna b.
Sarabiyun; al-Zahrawi, Abu '1-Kasim
medicines Almas; c Anbar; al-Dahnadj; Dhahab; al-Durr; Fidda; Kafur; Katran; al-Kily; al-
Kuhl; Luban; Maghnatis.l; Mardjan; Milh.2; Misk; Mumiya'; Sabun; Samgh; Tabashir;
Za c faran.2; [in Suppl.] Bawrak; Haliladj
see also Bazahr; al-Iksir; Kabid.3; Zi'bak; [in Suppl.] Afawih; Dam; for medicinal use
of animal parts, food and plants or flowers, see specific articles under Animals, Cui-
sine and Flora, respectively
obstetrics c Arib b. Sa c d al-Katib al-Kurtubi
and -► Life Stages.childbirth
ophthalmology c Ayn; Ramad; Tibb
see also [in Suppl.] Ma' al-Ward; and -»■ Anatomy.eye; Optics
ophthalmologists c Ali b. c Isa; 'Ammar al-Mawsili; al-Ghafiki; Ibn Daniyal; Khalifa b.
Abi '1-Mahasin
see also Hunayn b. Ishak al-'Ibadi; Ibn al-Nafis; Ibn Zuhr.V
physicians Djarrah; Hawi; [in Suppl.] Fassad
see also c Ayn; Constantinus Africanus; Hikma; Kabid.3; Masa'il wa-Adjwiba; and -»■
Medicine.ophthalmology.ophthalmologists; Pharmacology
biographies of Ibn Abi Usaybi'a; Ibn Djuldjul; Ibn al-Kadi; Ishak b. Hunayn
see also Ibn al-Kifti
7th century [in Suppl.] Ahrun; al-Harith b. Kalada
and -> the section Physicians. Greek below
9th century Bukhtishu'; Hunayn b. Ishak al- c Ibadi; Ibn Masawayh; Sabur b. Sahl; Yuhanna
b. Sarabiyun
see also Masardjawayh; al-Tabari, 'Ali
10th century c Ali b. al- c Abbas; c Arib b. Sa'd al-Katib al-Kurtubi; Ibn Djuldjul; Ishak b.
Hunayn; Ishak b. Sulayman al-Isra'ili; Kusta b. Luka; al-Razi, Abu Bakr; Sabi\(3);
Sa'id al-Dimashki; [in Suppl.] Ibn Abi '1-Ash c ath
11th century al-Antaki, Abu '1-Faradj; Ibn Butlan; Ibn Djanah; Ibn Djazla; Ibn al-Djazzar;
Ibn Ridwan; Ibn Sina; Ibn al-Tayyib; Ibn Wafid; Ibn Zuhr.II; al-Masihi; al-Zahrawi,
Abu '1-Kasim
12th century Abu '1-Barakat; al-Djurdjani, Isma'il b. al-Husayn; Ibn Djamf; Ibn al-Tilmidh;
Ibn Zuhr.III and IV; al-Marwazi, Sharaf al-Zaman; Umayy a, Abu '1-Salt; [in Suppl.]
Ibn Biklarish; Samaw'al b. Yahya al-Maghribi, Abu Nasr
see also Ibn Rushd
13th century Ibn Abi '1-Bayan; Ibn Abi Usaybi'a; Ibn Hubal; Ibn al-Nafis; Ibn Tumlus;
Sa'd al-Dawla; al-Suwaydi; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Kuff
MEDICINE — MILITARY 95
14th century Hadjdji Pasha; Ibn al-Khatib; Ishak b. Murad; Kutb al-Din Shirazi
15th century Bashir Celebi; Ya'kub Pasha
16th century al-Antaki, Da'ud; Hamon; Yusufi
17th century Hayati-zade
18th century al-San'ani, Diya 5 al-Din; [in Suppl.] Adarrak; Ibn Shakrun al-Miknasi
1 9th century and on Bahdjat Mustafa Efendi; Muhammad b. Ahmad al-Iskandarani; Shani-
zade; Shumayyil, Shibli; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Salam b. Muhammad
Christian Bukhtishu'; Hunayn b. Ishak al-'Ibadi; Ibn Butlan; Ibn Masawayh; Ibn al-Tayyib;
Ishak b. Hunayn; Kusta b. Luka; Sabi'.(3); Sabur b. Sahl; al-Tabari, c Ali; Yuhanna b.
Sarabiyun; [in Suppl.] Ahrun; Hubaysh b. al-Hasan al-Dimashki; Ibn al-Kuff
Greek Diyuskuridis; Djalinus; Rufus al-Afsisi; [in Suppl.] Ahrun; Bukrat
see also Hunayn b. Ishak al- c Ibadi; Ibn Ridwan; Ibn al-Tayyib; Ishak b. Hunayn;
Istifan b. Basil; Ustath; Yahya b. al-Bitrik; Yunan; [in Suppl.] Hubaysh b. al-Hasan
al-Dimashki; Ibn Abi '1-Ash c ath
Jewish Hamon; Ibn Abi '1-Bayan; Ibn Djamf; Ibn Djanah; Ishak b. Sulayman al-Isra J ili;
Masardjawayh; Sa'd al-Dawla; Ya'kub Pasha; [in Suppl.] Ibn Biklarish
see also Abu '1-Barakat; Hayati-zade. 1; Ibn Maymun
Ottoman Bahdjat Mustafa Efendi; Bashir Celebi; Hadjdji Pasha; Hamon; Hayati-zade;
Ishak b. Murad; Shani-zade; Ya'kub Pasha
see also Hekim-bashi; [in Suppl.] Tibbiyye-i 'Adliyye-i Shahane
surgery al-Zahrawi, Abu '1-Kasim
terms Bimaristan; Djarrah; Hidjab; Kuwwa.5; Sabab.l; [in Suppl.] Mizadj; Mukawwiyat
see also Hal
veterinary Baytar; Ibn Hudhayl; Ibn al-Mundhir
Melkites -»■ Christianity.denominations
Mesopotamia -»■ Iraq
Metallurgy Kal'i; Kharsini; Ma 'din
see also Kalah; al-Mizan.l; and -*■ Mineralogy. mines
metals Dhahab; Fidda; al-Hadid; Nuhas; Zi'bak
and -»■ Mineralogy.minerals; Professions.craftsmen and tradesmen .artisans
Metaphysics Ma ba'd al-Tabi'a
see also 'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi; Mahiyya; Mutlak
Meteorology al-Athar al-'Ulwiyya
see also Anwa'; Sadj'.2; [in Suppl.] Ibn al-Adjdabi
weather magic Yada Tash
winds Rih; Samum
Metrics 'Arud, Wazn.2
and -»■ LlTERATURE.POETRY
metres Mudjtathth; Mutadarik; Mutakarib; Mutawatir.(b); Radjaz; Ramal. 1 ; Sari'; Tawll; Wafir
terms Dakhil; Fard.a; Kat'; Sabab.3; Sadr.(a); Salim.3; Watid; Zihaf
treatises on Babur; al-Djawhari; al-Khalil b. Ahmad; al-Khazradji, Diya' al-Din; Mir 'Ali
Shir Nawa'i; Shams-i Kays; al-Tibrizi
Military Bahriyya; Djaysh; Harb; [in Suppl.] Nizam 'Askari
see also Dar al-Harb; Djihad; Fathname; Ghazw
architecture Ribat
see also Tabaka; and ->• Architecture.monuments.strongholds
army Djaysh; Isti'rad ( c Ard); Lashkar; Radlf.3
see also Djasus; Saff.2; and ->• Military.mamluk and ottoman
contingents Bazinkir; Djandar; Djaysh.iii.2; Djund; Ghulam; Gum; Kurci; Mahalla;
Mamluk; Mutatawwi'a; Sipahi.2; Tabur; Tali'a; Tulb; Tuman. 1 ; [in Suppl.] Shallsh. 1
see also Almogavares; Faris; and ->• Military.ottoman.army contingents
band Nakkara-khana; Tabl-khana
see also Mehter
battles
see also Shi'ar.l; Tugh; and -> Military.expeditions; Treaties
before 622 Bu'ath; Dhu Kar; Djabala; Fidjar; Halima; Shi'b Djabala; Ubagh; [in Suppl.]
Dahis
see also Ayyam al-'Arab; Hanzala b. Malik; [in Suppl.] Silah. 1
622-632 Badr; Bfr Ma'una; Buzakha; Hunayn; Khandak; Khaybar; Mu'ta; Uhud
see also Malik b. c Awf; [in Suppl.] al-Ridda; Salman al-Farisi
633-660 Adjnadayn; 'Akraba 5 ; al-Djamal; Djisr; Fahl; Harura'; al-Kadisiyya.2; Mardj al-
Suffar; Siffin; Yarmuk.2; [in Suppl.] Dhat al-Sawari
see also c Abd Allah b. Sa c d; c A'isha bint Abi Bakr; c Ali b. Abi Talib; al-Hurmuzan;
Musaylima; al-Nahrawan; Rustam b. Farrukh Hurmuzd; Tahkim; [in Suppl] al-Ridda
661-750 c Ayn al-Warda; Balat al-Shuhada'; Baldj b. Bishr; al-Bishr; Dayr al-Djamadjim;
Dayr al-Djathalik; al-Harra; al-Khazir; Mardj Rahit; [in Suppl.] Wadi Lakku
see also (al-)Husayn b. 'All b. Abi Talib; Kulthum b. c Iyad al-Kushayri;
(al-)Kustantiniyya
751-1258 al-Arak; Bakhamra; Dayr al-'Akul; Fakhkh; Haydaran; Hazarasp; Hittin; al-
'Ikab; Kose Dagh; Malazgird.2; Shant Mankash; Taraz; Ubbadha; al-Zallaka; [in
Suppl.] Dandankan
see also Hadjar al-Nasr; al-Madjus; al-Mansur bi 'llah, Isma'il; Mardj Dabik
1258-18th century c Ayn Djalut; Caldiran; Dabik; Djarba; Hims; Kosowa; Mardj Dabik;
Mardj Rahit; Mardj al-Suffar; Mezokeresztes; Mohacs.a and b; Nikbuli; Panipat;
Talikota; Tukaro'i; Wadi '1-Khaznadar; Zenta; [in Suppl.] Koszeg
see also Aynabakhti; Bahriyya.iii; Fathname; Harb; Nahr Abi Futrus; 'Othman Pasha;
Wenedik.2; Zsitvatorok
after 18th century Abuklea; Atjeh; Ceshme; Farwan; Gok Tepe; Isly; Kut al-'Amara;
MaysalQn; Nizib; Rif.II; al-Tall al-Kabir; [in Suppl.] al-Kabk.3.f and]
see also al- c Akaba; Gulistan
bodies 'Ayyar; DawaMr; Djaysh.iii.l; Futuwwa; Ghazi; al-Shakiriyya
see also c Ali b. Muhammad al-Zandji; al-Ikhwan; Khashabiyya; Sarhang; and ->
Military.army.contingents
booty Fay 1 ; Ghanima: [in Suppl.] Khums
see also Baranta; Ghazw; Khalisa; Pendjik; and -> Military.prisoners
Byzantine ->■ Byzantine Empire; for battles fought between the Arabs and Byzantines ->■
Byzantine Empire.military
decorations Nishan; Wisam
expeditions Ghazi; Sa'ifa
see also Ghazw
Indo-Muslim Barud.vi; Ghulam.iii; Harb.vi; Hisar.vi; Lashkar; Sipahi.3; Suwar
see also Isti'rad (Ard)
Mamluk al-Bahriyya; Bahriyya.II; Barud.iii; Burdjiyya; Halka; Harb.iii; Hisar.iv; Mamluk;
Tabaka; Wafidiyya; [in Suppl.] Shalish
see also Amir Akhur; al-Amir al-Kabir; Atabak al- c Asakir; Cerkes.ii; 'Isa b. Muhanna;
MILITARY — MINERALOGY 97
Khassakiyya; Kumash; Rikabdar; Silahdar; Tulb
battles c Ayn Djalut; Dabik; Hims; March' Rahit; Wadi '1-Khaznadar
navy Bahriyya; Dar al-Sina c a; Darya-begi; Kapudan Pasha; Lewend.l; Nassads; Ra'is.3;
Riyala; Ustul
see also 'Azab; Gelibolu; Katib Celebi; [in Suppl.] Dhat al-Sawari; and -> Naviga-
tion.ships; Piracy; for Ottoman maritime topics -> Dynasties.anatolia and the
TURKS.OTTOMANS.HIGH ADMIRALS; MlLITARY.OTTOMAN
offices Amir; 'Arif; Atabak al-'Asakir; Fawdjdar; Ispahbadh; Ispahsalar; Isti'rad ( c Ard); Ka'id;
Mansab; Salar; Sardar; Sarhang; Shihna; Silahdar
see also Amir al-Umara'; Darugha; Kadi 'Askar; Kurci; and -> Military.ottoman
Ottoman Bab-i Ser'askeri; Bahriyya.iii; Balyemez; Barud.iv; Devshirme; Djebeli; Ghulam.iv;
Harb.iv; Harbiye; Hisar.v; Musellem; Radif.3; Sandjak; Sipahi.l; Tersane; Tugh.2; c Ulufe;
Yeni Ceri; [in Suppl.] Djebedji; Mu'insiz; Nizam c Askari.3
see also c Askari; Dabtiyya; Gelibolu; Gum; Hareket Ordusu; Isti'rad (Ard); Kapidji;
Karakol; Martolos; Mensukhat; Mondros; Nefir; Ordu; Pendjik; Timar; Zi'amet; and ->
MlLITARY.NAVY
army contingents al-Abna'.V; c Adjami Oghlan; Akindji; Alay; 'Azab; Bashl-bozuk; Boliik;
Deli; Devedji; Djanbazan; Eshkindji; Ghuraba'; Goniillii; Khasseki; Khumbaradji;
Lewend; Nizam-i Djedid; Odjak; Orta; Woynuk; Yaya; Yefii Ceri; Yerliyya; Zeybek;
[in Suppl.] Djebedji; Segban
see also Akhi; Eflak; Martolos; Nefir; Sipahi.l
battles Caldiran; Dabik; Kosowa; Mezokeresztes; Mohacs.a and b; Nikbuli; [in Suppl.]
al-Kabk.3.f and]
see also Wenedik
officers Bayrakdar; Binbashi; Boliik-bashi; Ca'ush; Corbadji.l; Dabit; Darya-begi;
Kapudan Pasha; Mushir; Rikabdar; Riyala; Zaghardji Bashi; [in Suppl.] Yuzbashl
see also Sandjak; Silahdar
pay 'Ata'; In'am; Mai al-Bay'a; Rizk.3; 'Ulufe
police Ahdath; c Asas; Dabtiyya; Karakol; Shurta
see also Dawa'ir; Futuwwa; Kotwal; Martolos; Nakib.2
prisoners Lamas-su; Miibadele.ii; [in Suppl.] Fida'
see also Sidjn; and -> Military.booty
reform ->■ Reform.military
tactics Harb; Hisar; Hiyal.l
see also al- c Awasim; Fil; al-Thughur; and -> Architecture.monuments.strongholds
terms Tadjmir; Za'im
treatises on Ibn Hudhayl; al-Tarsusi; [in Suppl.] Fakhr-i Mudabbir
see also Harb.ii; Hiyal.l
weapons 'Anaza; 'Arrada; Balyemez; Barud; Durbash; Kaws; Mandjanik; Naft.2; Top; [in
Suppl.] Silah
see also 'Alam; Asad Allah Isfahani; Hilal.ii; Hisar; Kal'i; Lamt; Maratib
Mineralogy Ma 'din
see also al-Mizan. 1
minerals Abu Kalamun; c Akik; Almas; Barud; Billawr; al-Dahnadj; Firuzadj; al-Kibrit; al-
Kuhl; Maghnatis.l; Milh; Mumiya'; Natrun; Yakut; Yashm; [in Suppl.] Bawrak
see also al-Andalus.v; Damawand; Golkonda; Hadjar; Kirman; Ma'din; Malindi; and ->
Jewelry; Metallurgy
mines al-'Allaki; Anadolu.iii.6; al-Andalus.v. 2; 'Araba; Arminiya.III; Badakhshan; Billiton;
Bilma; Cankiri; al-Djabbul; Djayzan; al-Duru c ; Farghana; Firrish; Giimush-khane; Kalah;
KaraHisar.2 and3; Kaysariyya; al-Kily; Kishm; Ma'din.2; al-Ma c din; Sofala; Zonguldak
98 MINERALOGY MOROCCO
see also Fazughli; Filastin; Milh
treatises on al-Suwaydi; al-Tlfashi
see also 'Utarid b. Muhammad
Miracles Karama; Mu'djiza
see also Aya; Dawsa; Ma 5 al-'Aynayn al-Kalkami; Mi'radj {and [in Suppl.]); and ->■ Saint-
hood
Monarchy Malik; Mamlaka
see also Darshan; Nasihat al-Muluk; S_hah; Tigin; and -*■ Court Ceremony
royal insignia Mizalla; Sandjak; Saraparda; Shamsa; Tadj; Takht-i Tawus; Tughra
see also Shams.3; Tamgha; Tugh
Monasticism Rahbaniyya
and ->■ Christianity.monasteries
Mongolia Karakorum; Khalkha; Mongolia; Mongols
Mongols Batu'ids; Caghatay Khanate; Cubanids; Djalayir; Djanids; Giray; Hayatila; Ilkhans;
Kalmuk; Kara Khitay; Kuriltay; Mangit; Mongols
see also Dughlat; Ergenekon; Khanbalik; Kishlak; Kubcur; Kungrat; Libas.iii; Otiiken;
Timurids; Tuman.l; Ulus; Yaylak; and ->■ Dynasties. Mongols; Law. Mongol;
TRIBES.CENTRAL ASIA, MONGOLIA AND POINTS FURTHER NORTH
administration Soyurghal; Yam; Yarllgh; [in Suppl.] Diwan-begi; Yurtci
and ->■ Law.mongol
battles c Ayn Djalut; Hims; Mardj Rahit; Wadi '1-Khaznadar
historians of Djuwayni, 'Ala' al-Din; Hamd Allah al-Mustawfi al-Kazwini; Haydar Mirza;
Rashid al-Din Tabib; Wassaf
see also Tamim b. Bahr al-Muttawwi c ; and ->■ Dynasties.mongols; and the section
Historians Of under individual dynasties
physical geography
waters Orkhon
MONOPHYSITES -> CHRISTIANITY.DENOMINATIONS
Morocco al-Maghrib
see also 'Arabiyya.A.iii.3; Himaya.ii; Mallah; Rif.II; Sultan al-Talaba (and Talaba)
architecture ->■ Architecture.regions.north Africa
dynasties c Alawis; Idrisids; Marinids; Sa'dids; Wattasids
see also Bu Hmara; Hasani; Shurafa'. 1 .III; Zahir; [in Suppl.] Ahmad al-Hiba; and ->■
DYNASTIES.SPAIN AND NORTH AFRICA
historians of Ahmad al-Nasiri al-Salawi (and al-Nasir al-Salawi); Akansus; Ibn Abi Zar'; Ibn
al-Kadi; al-Zayyani
see also Ibn al-Rakik; al-Kattani; [in Suppl.] 'Allal al-Fasi; Mahammad b. Ahmad al-
Hudigi; and ->■ Dynasties.spain and north Africa
modern period Baladiyya.3; Djarida.i.B; Djaysh.iii.2; Dustur.xvii; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iv;
Madjlis.4.A.xxi; Mahkama.4.x; Makhzan; Sihafa.2.(ii); [in Suppl.] Siba
belletrists
poets Ibn Idris (I); Kaddur al-'Alami; [in Suppl.] Ibn c Amr al-Ribati; Ibn al-Hadjdj
education Djami'a; Ma c arif.2.C; Madjma 1 c Ilmi.i.2.d; [in Suppl.] Institut des hautes etudes
marocaines
reform Salafiyya.l(c); Tartib
MOROCCO — MUHAMMAD, THE PROPHET 99
see also [in Suppl.] Muhammad b. c Abd al-Karim
scholars al-Tadili
statesmen [in Suppl.] 'Allal al-Fasi
for sultans ->■ Dynasties.spain and north africa.'alawids
physical geography al-Maghrib.I
deserts al-Sahra'
see also Reg
mountains Atlas; Rif.1.2
plateaux Hammada
population Dukkala; Glawa; Hartani; Khult; Shawiya.l; [in Suppl.] Awraba
see also al-Fasiyyun; al-Ma c kil; and ->■ Berbers
religion al-Maghrib.VI
mystical orders Darkawa; Hansaliyya; Hazmiriyyun; 'Isawa; al-Nasiriyya; Shadhiliyya;
Wazzaniyya; [in Suppl.] Hamadisha
for Djazuliyya, see al-Djazuli, Abu 'Abd Allah
see also Sharkawa; Ziyaniyya; [in Suppl.] 'A'isha Kandisha; and ->■ Mysticism;
Sainthood
toponyms
ancient Anfa; Badis; al-Basra; Fazaz; al-Kasr al-Saghir; Nakur; Shalla; Sidjilmasa;
Tamasna; Tinmal; Tit; Walili
present-day
districts Tafilalt; Tazarwalt
islands [in Suppl.] al-Husayma
regions Dar c a; Figuig; Gharb; Hawz; Ifni; Rif.1.2; Spartel; al-Sus al-Aksa; Tadla;
Wadi Nun; [in Suppl.] al-Sakiya al-Hamra'
towns Agadir-ighir; Aghmat; al- c Ara J ish; Asfi; Asila; Azammur; Damnat; (al-)Dar
al-Bayda'; al-Djadida; Dubdu; Fadala; Fas; Garsif; al-Kasr al-Kabir; al-Mahdiyya:
Marrakush; Mawlay Idris; Melilla; Miknas; Ribat al-Fath; Sabta; Sali
Shafshawan; Sufruy; al-Suwayra; Tamgrut; Tandja; Tarudant; Taza; Tittawin;
Tiznit; Wadjda; Wazzan; [in Suppl.] Azru; Beni Mellal
see also al-Hamra 5 ; Tit
Mountains Adja' and Salma; Adrar.2; Aghri Dagh; Air; Ala Dagh; Aladja Dagh; Alburz;
Altai; Alwand Kuh; c Amur; Atlas; Awras; Balkhan; Beshparmak; Biban; Bingol Dagh;
Bisutun; Copan-ata; Damawand; Deve Boynu; Djabala; al-Djibal; Djudi; Djurdjura; Elma
Daghi; Erdjiyas Daghi; Futa Djallon; Gawur Daghlari; Hadur; Hamrin; Haraz; Hawraman;
Hindu Kush; Hira'; Hisn al-Ghurab; Hufash; al-Kabk; Kabylia; Karakorum; Kasiyun;
Khumayr; Kuh-i Baba; al-Lukkam; Nafusa; Pamirs; Safid Kuh; al-Sarat; al-Sharat; Sindjar;
Sulayman; Tibesti; Toros Daglan; al-Tur; Ulu Dagh; Wansharis; Zagros; [in Suppl.] Shah
Dagh; al-Sharaf
see also Hind.i.i; Kara Bagh; Tasili; Ihabir; and ->■ the section Physical Geography under
individual countries
Mozambique Kerimba; Makua; Mozambique (and [in Suppl.]); Pemba; Sofala
Muhammad, the Prophet Hidjra; Hira'; al-Hudaybiya; Khaybar; Khuza'a; Kuda'a; Kuraysh;
al-Madina.i.2; Mawlid; Mi'radj (and [in Suppl.]); Muhammad; Sahaba; Sunna; Tabi'un;
Tulaka'; Ummi.2; Wufud
see also al-Kur'an; Mu'akhat; al-Mu'allafa Kulubuhum; Nubuwwa; Nur Muhammadi;
Sayyid; Sharaf; Sharif; Tahannuth; Tasliya; Wahy; [in Suppl.] Bay'at al-Ridwan; Mawlid.3;
Shatm; and ->■ MiLiTARY.BATTLES.622-632
100 MUHAMMAD, THE PROPHET — MUSIC
belongings of Athar; al-Burak; Burda. 1 ; Dhu '1-Fakar; Duldul; Emanet-i Mukaddese; Kadam
Sharif; Khirka-yi Sherif; Lihya-yi Sherif; [in Suppl.] al-Na c l al-Sharif
biographies of al-Maghazi; Sira
biographers Abd al-Hakk b. Sayf al-Dln; al-Bakrl, Abu '1-Hasan; Dahlan; al-Diyarbakri;
al-Djawwani; al-Halabl, Nur al-Din; Ibn Hisham; Ibn Ishak; Ibn Sayyid al-Nas; 'Iyad
b. Musa; Kara-celebi-zade.4; al-Kastallanl; Liu Chih; Mughultay; Muhammad Husayn
Haykal; Mu'In al-Miskin; al-Tabrisi, Amln al-Din; al-Tanukhl, Djamal al-Din; Wahb
b. Munabbih; Weysi; [in Suppl.] Dinet
see also Hind.v.e; Ibn Sa'd; al-Khargushi; [in Suppl.] al-Suhayli
companions of Sahaba
see also Ahl al-Suffa; al-Salaf wa '1-Khalaf; Tabi'un; [in Suppl.] Shatm
individual companions Abu Ayyub al-Ansari; Abu Bakra; Abu 'l-Darda J ; Abu Dharr:
Abu Hurayra; 'AdI b. Hatim; 'Ammar b. Yasir; Anas b. Malik; al-Arkam; al-Ash'ari,
Abu Musa; 'Attab; al-Bara' (b. c Azib); al-Bara 1 (b. Ma'rur); Bashir b. Sa'd; Bilal b.
Rabah; Bishr b. al-Bara'; Burayda b. al-Husayb; Dihya; Djariya b. Kudama; Ghasil
al-Mala'ika; Hashim b. c Utba; Hurkus b. Zuhayr al-Sa'di; Ibn Mas'ud; Ka'b b. Malik;
Khabbab b. al-Aratt; Khalid b. Sa'id; Kutham b. al- c Abbas; Maslama b. Mukhallad;
al-Mikdad b. c Amr; Mu'awiya b. Hudaydj; al-Mughira b. Shu c ba; Muhammad b.
Abi Hudhayfa; Mus'ab b. c Umayr; al-Nabigha al-Dja c di; al-Nu'man b. Bashir; Sa c d
b. Abi Wakkas; Safwan b. al-Mu c attal; Sa c id b. Zayd; Shaddad b. c Amr; Shurahbil b.
Hasana; Talha; Tamim al-Dari; c Ubayd Allah b. al- c Abbas; c Ubayd Allah b. c Umar;
c Ukba b. Nafi'; c Urwa b. Mas'ud; c Utba b. Ghazwan: c Uthman b. Maz'un; al-Walid
b. c Ukba; Zayd b. Thabit; al-Zibrikan b. Badr; al-Zubayr b. al-'Awwam; Zuhayr b.
Kays; [in Suppl.] Djabir b. c Abd Allah; Ibn Mitham
see also al-Ka'ka 1 ; Khawlan.2; Kuss b. Sa'ida; Rawh b. Zinba'; Ubayy b. Ka c b; Usama
b. Zayd; Uways al-Karani; 'Uyayna b. Hisn; Waraka b. Nawfal; Zayd b. c Amr; [in
Suppl.] Khawla bt. Hakim
family of al- c Abbas b. 'Abd al-Muttalib; c Abd Allah b. c Abd al-Muttalib; c Abd al-Muttalib b.
Hashim; Abu Lahab; Abu Talib; 'Akil b. Abi Talib; 'All b. Abi Talib; Amina; Dja'far b.
Abi Talib; Fatima; Halima bint Abi Dhu'ayb; Hamza b. c Abd al-Muttalib; (al-)Hasan b.
'All b. Abi Talib; al-Hasan b. Zayd b. al-Hasan; Hashim b. 'Abd Manaf; (al-)Husayn b.
'All b. Abi Talib; Rukayya; 'Ubayd Allah b. al-'Abbas; Umm Kulthum; Zayd b. Haritha
see also Ahl al-Bayt; Sharif; Shurafa 5 ; and ->■ the section Wives below
daughters Fatima; Rukayya; Umm Kulthum; Zaynab bt. Muhammad
wives ' A'isha bint Abi Bakr; Hafsa; Khadidja; Mariya; Maymuna bint al-Harith; Safiyya;
Sawda bt. Zam'a; Umm Salama Hind; Zaynab bt. Djahsh; Zaynab bt. Khuzayma
opponents of Abu Djahl; Ka'b b. al-Ashraf; Umayya b. Khalaf; 'Utba b. Rabi'a; al-Walid b.
al-Mughira
see also Zuhra; [in Suppl.] Mala\2
Music Ghina'; Kayna; Makam; Malahi; Musiki; Ramal.2; Shashmakom; [in Suppl.] Ika';
Lahn
see also Lamak; al-Rashidiyya; Sama'.l
composers ->■ the section Musicians below
instruments Buk; Darabukka; Duff; Ghayta; Imzad; Kithara; Mi'zaf; Mizmar; Nefir; Rabab;
Sandj; Santur; Saz; Tabl; Tunbur; 'Ud.II; Urghan; Zurna; [in Suppl.] Nay
see also Mehter; Muristus; Nakkara-khana; Tabbal
military ~" Military.band
musicians
composers
first centuries Ibn Muhriz; Ibrahim al-Mawsill; Ishak b. Ibrahim al-Mawsili; Ma'bad
MUSIC MYSTICISM 101
b. Wahb; Yahya al-Makkl; Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni; Ziryab; [in Suppl.]
'Allawayh al-A c sar; al-Dalal; Fadl al-Sha'ira
see also al-Kasim b. c Isa
13th to 16th centuries Safi al-Din al-Urmawi; Tansin; [in Suppl.] Habba Khatun
17th and 18th centuries Isma'il Hakki; Solak-zade
19th and 20th centuries al-Kusantini; Lahuti; Layla Khanim; Shewki Beg; Zeka'i
Dede
flautists [in Suppl.] Barsawma al-Zamir
lute players 'Azza al-Mayla J ; Djahza; Safi al-Din al-Urmawi; Sa'ib Khathir; Zalzal; Ziryab;
[in Suppl.] 'Allawayh al-A'sar
regional
Andalusian al-Ha'ik; Umayya, Abu '1-Salt
Egyptian Taktuka
Indian Hind.viii; Khayal
see also Bayazid Ansari; Tansin; [in Suppl.] Habba Khatun
Kurdish Kurds.iv.C.4
Persian Mihragan.iv.3
see also Lahuti; Nakkara-khana
Turkish Ilahi; Koshma; Mehter; Sharkl; Taksim; Turks.IV; Turku
see also Layla Khanim; Mani; Nefir; Shewki Beg; Zeka'i Dede; [in Suppl.] Kantimir,
Demetrius
song Ghina'; Khayal; Nashid; Nawba; Shashmakom; Turkii
see also Abu '1-Faradj al-Isbahani; Hawfi; Ilahi; Mawaliya.3; Sha'ir.l.E
singers 'Alima; Kayna
see also 'A&hik; al-Baramika.5
legendary [in Suppl.] al-Djaradatan'
see also [in Suppl.] Habba Khatun
early Islamic period c Azza al-Mayla'; Djamila; al-Gharid; Hababa; Ibn 'A'isha.I;
Ibn Misdjah; Ibn Muhriz; Ibn Suraydj; Ma c bad b. Wahb; Malik b. Abi '1-Samh;
Nashit; Ra'ika; Sa'ib Khathir; Tuways; [in Suppl.] al-Dalal
during the 'Abbdsid caliphate Ibn Bana; Ibn Djami 1 ; Ibrahim al-Mawsili; Ishak b.
Ibrahim al-Mawsili; Mukharik; Sallama al-Zarka'; Shariya; 'Ulayya; Yahya al-
Makki; Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni; [in Suppl.] Badhl al-Kubra
mid- 13th to 19th centuries [in Suppl.] Habba Khatun
20th century Siti Binti Saad; Umm Kulthum
songwriters -> Music.musicians.composers
terms Tarab; Taksim; Tik wa-tum; [in Suppl.] Ika'; Lahn
see also Ustadh.l; Wadjd
treatises on c Abd al-Kadir b. Ghaybi; Abu '1-Faradj al-Isbahani; al-Ha'ik; Ibn Bana; Ibn
Khurradadhbih: Mashaka; (Banu '1-) Munadjdjim.4; Muristus; Mushaka; Safi al-Din
al-Urmawi; al-Saydawi; al-Tadili; 'Urnar Khayyam; Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni; [in
Suppl.] al-Mufaddal b. Salama
see also Abu '1-Mahasin b. Taghribirdi; inal; Malahi; [in Suppl.] Kantimir, Demetrius
Mysticism Allah.III.4; Darwish; Dhikr; Ibaha.II; Karama; Murid; Murshid; Pir; SamaM;
Shaykh; Tarika; Tasawwuf; Zuhd
see also Sadjdjada.3; Sa'id al-Su'ada'; Ta'ifa; and -> Dynasties.persia.safawids
architecture -> the section Monasteries below
concepts Baka' wa-Fana 1 ; al-Insan al-Kamil; Ishrak; Lahut and Nasut; Tawakkul; Za 5 irdja.2
see also Allah.III.4; al-Halladj.IV; Ibn al-'Arabi; al-Niffari; Uwaysiyya
dervishes Darwish; Raks
102 MYSTICISM
see also Tadj; [in Suppl.] Buk'a; and ->■ Mysticism.orders
dress Khirka; Palahang; Shadd. 1
early ascetics 'Amir b. 'Abd al-Kay s al-'Anbari; al-Hasan al-Basri; al-Fudayl b. 'Iyad; Ibrahim
b. Adham; Ma'ruf al-Karkhi; Sari al-Sakati
see also Bakka'
literature [in Suppl.] Maktubat; Malfuzat; and ->■ Literature.poetry.mystical
see also Zuhdiyya
monasteries Khankah: Ribat.l.b; Tekke; Zawiya
mystics Darwish; Murid; Murshid; Pir; Shaykh
see also Pist; Wali; and ->■ Hagiography
African (excluding North Africa and Egypt) 'Umar b. Sa'id al-Futi; [in Suppl.] al-Duwayhi
see also Salihiyya; Sudan (Bilad al-).2; Tarika.II.3; Tasawwuf.9; Wali.9 and 10;
Zawiya.3; Ziyara.9 and 10; [in Suppl.] al-Madjadhib; Mozambique
Andalusian Abu Madyan; Ibn al- c Arabi; Ibn al-'Arif, Abu 'l-'Abbas; Ibn 'Ashir; Ibn
Barradjan; Ibn Kasi; Ibn Masarra; al-Shushtari
see also al-Talamanki
Arabic (excluding Andalusian and North African) 'Abd al-Ghani; c Abd al-Kadir al-Djilani;
'Abd al-Karim al-Djili; c Adi b. Musafir; Ahmad al-Badawi; 'Aydarus; al-Bakri,
Muhammad; al-Bakri, Mustafa; Bishr al-Hafi; al-Bistami, c Abd al-Rahman; al-
Damiri; al-Dasuki, Ibrahim b. 'Abd al- c Aziz; al-Dasuki, Ibrahim b. Muhammad; Dhu
'1-Nun, Abu '1-Fayd; al-Dimyati, al-Banna'; al-Dimyati, Nur al-Din; al-Djunayd; al-
Ghazali, Abu Hamid; al-Ghazali, Ahmad; al-Halladj; al-Harawi al-Mawsili; Ibn c Ata'
Allah; al-Kazwini, Nadjm al-Din; al-Kharraz; al-Kurdi; al-Kushashi; Makhrama;
al-Manufi; al-Muhasibi; al-Munawi; al-Muradi.l and 2; al-Niffari; al-Nuri; Rabi'a
al-'Adawiyya al-Kaysiyya; al-Rifa'i; Sahl al-Tustari; al-Sarradj, Abu Nasr; al-
Sha'rani: al-Shibli, Abu Bakr; Sumnun; 'Uthman b. Marzuk; al-Yafil; Yusuf b. c Abid
al-Idrisi; Zakariyya' al-Ansari; [in Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Aza'im; al- c Adawi; al- c Afifi; al-
Hisafi
see also Abu Nu'aym al-Isfahani; Abu Talib al-Makki; Ba 'Alawi; Bahrak; Bakriyya;
Bayyumiyya; Fadl, Ba; Fakih, Ba; Fakih, Bal; Hurmuz, Ba; Kadiriyya; Marwaniyya;
Sa'diyya; Shadhiliyya; al-Siddiki; Yashrutiyya; [in Suppl.] al-Bakri; Demirdashiyya;
Sha'raniyya; and -> Mysticism.early ascetics
Central Asian Ahmad Yasawi; Hakim Ata; Nakshband; al-Tirmidhi, Abu 'Abd Allah;
TirmidhI; Zangi Ata; [in Suppl.] Ahrar
see also Kalandariyya; Parsa'iyya; Tarika.II.5; Uwaysiyya; Wali. 5; Yasawiyya; [in
Suppl.] Kh w adjagan
Chinese ->• China
Indian Abu 'Ali Kalandar; Ahmad Sirhindi; Ashraf ' Ali; Baha' al-Din Zakariyya; Baki bi
'llah (and [in Suppl.]); al-Banuri; Budhan; Burhan al-Din Gharib; Burhan al-Din
Kutb-i 'Alam; Ciragh-i Dihli; Cishti; Djahanara Begam; Djalal al-Din Husayn al-
Bukhari; "Djamali"; Farid al-Din Mas'ud "Gandj-i-Shakar"; Gisu Daraz; Hansawi;
Husayni Sadat Amir; Imdad Allah; Kalim Allah al-Djahanabadi; Kutb al-Din
Bakhtiyar Kaki; Malik Muhammad Djayasi; Miyan Mir, Miyadji; Mubarak Ghazi;
Muhammad Ghawth Gwaliyari; al-Muttaki al-Hindi; Muzaffar Shams Balkhi; Nizam
al-Din Awliya'; Nizam al-Din, Mulla Muhammad; Nur Kutb al-'Alam; Shah
Muhammad b. 'Abd Ahmad; f hanesari; [in Suppl.] 'Abd al-Bari; 'Abd al-Wahhab
Bukhari; Bulbul Shah; Farangi Mahall; Gada'i Kambo; Hamid Kalandar; Hamid al-
Din Kadi Nagawri; Hamid al-Din Sufi Nagawri Siwali; Hamza Makhdum; Kabir;
Kanbo
see also 'Aydarus; Cishtiyya; Dara Shukoh; Dard; Djiwan; Hind.v; Khalil Allah
(anJKhalil Allah But-shikan); Malang; Mughals.6; Nakshbandiyya.3; Shattariyya;
MYSTICISM 103
Suhrawardiyya.2; Tarika.II.7; Tasawwuf.7; Wall.6; Ziyara.7; [in Suppl] Maktubat;
Malfuzat; TabrizI, Djalal al-DIn
Indonesian c Abd al-Ra'uf al-Sinkili; 'Abd al-Samad al-Palimbani; Hamza Fansuri; Shams
al-Din al-Samatrani
see also Tarika.II.8; Wall.7; Ziyara.8
North African c Abd al-Kadir al-Fasi; c Abd al-Salam b. Mashish; Abu '1-Mahasin al-Fasi;
Abu Muhammad Salih; Ahmad b. Idris; c Ali b. Maymun; al-'Ayyashi; al-Dakkak;
al-Djazuli; al-Hashimi; Hmad u-Musa; Ibn 'Abbad; Ibn 'Adjiba; Ibn 'Aliwa; Ibn
'Arus; Ibn Hirzihim; al-Kadiri al-Hasani; al-Kuhin; al-Lamati; Ma' al-'Aynayn al-
Kalkami; al-Madjdhub; al-Sanusi, Abu 'Abd Allah; al-Sanusi, Muhammad b. C A1I;
al-Sanusi, Shaykh Sayyid Ahmad; al-Shadhili; al-Tidjani, Ahmad; [in Suppl.] al-
Asmar; al-Dila 1 ; al-Fasi; Ibn 'Azzuz; Mahammad b. Ahmad al-Hudigi
see also 'Ammariyya; 'Arusiyya; Darkawa; Hansaliyya; Hazmiriyyun; al-Ifrani;
'Isawa; Madaniyya; al-Nasiriyya; Rahmaniyya; Shadhiliyya; Tidjaniyya; Wali.2;
Wazzaniyya; Zawiya.2; Ziyaniyya; [in Suppl.] Hamadisha; Tayyibiyya
Persian 'Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani; Abu Sa'id b. Abi '1-Khayr; Abu Yazid al-Bistami;
Ahmad-i f^am; 'Ala' al-Dawla al-Simnani; c Ali al-Hamadani; al-Ansari al-Harawi;
Ashraf Djahangir; Baba-Tahir; Djalal al-Din Rumi; Fadl Allah Hurufi; Ghudjduwani;
Hamdun al-Kassar; Hudjwiri; Ibn Khafif; 'Iraki; al-Kalabadhi; Kamal Khudjandi;
Kasim-i Anwar; Kazaruni; Khalil Allah {and Khalil Allah But-shikan); Kharakani;
al-Khargushi; Kirmani; Kubra; al-Kushayri.l; Lahidji.l; Mahmud Shabistari; Nadjm
al-Din Razi Daya; Nakshband; Ruzbihan; Sa'd al-Din al-Hammu 5 i; Sa'd al-Din
Kashghari; Sadr al-Din Ardabili; Sadr al-Din Musa; Safi; Sa'id al-Din Farghani;
Sayf al-Din Bakharzi; Shams-i Tabriz(i); al-Suhrawardi, Abu '1-Nadjib; al-
Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din Abu Hafs; Sultan Walad; Tirmidhi; Zayn al-'Abidin
Shirwani; [in Suppl.] 'Abd Allah b. Abi Bakr al-Miyanadji; Abu 'Ali; Ahmad-i Rumi;
'Ayn al-Kudat al-Hamadhani; Ibn al-Bazzaz al-Ardabili; al-Sindi; Tabrizi, Djalal
al-Din
see also Djami; Madjlisi-yi Awwal; Nakahbandiyya.l; Ni'mat-Allahiyya; Safa-
wids.I.ii; Tasawwuf.5
Turkish Ak Shams al-Din; Alti Parmak; 'Ashik Pasha; Badr al-Din b. Kadi Samawna;
Barak Baba; Bidjan; Emir Sultan; Fasih Dede; Fehmi; Gulshani; Giilshehri; Hadjdji
Bayram Wali; Hiida'i; Husam al-Din Celebi; Isma'il al-Ankarawi; Isma'il Hakki;
Kayghusuz Abdal; Khalili; Kutb al-Din-zade; Merkez; Niyazi; Seza'i, Hasan Dede;
'Ushshaki-zade. 1; [in Suppl.] 'Arif Celebi; Eshrefoghlu; Esrar Dede; Rushani, Dede
'Umar; Suleyman Dhati
see also Ashrafiyya; Bakriyya; Bayramiyya; Bektashiyya; Djilwatiyya; Giilbaba;
Ilahi; Khalwatiyya; Mawlawiyya; Nakshbandiyya.2; Sha'baniyya; Shamsiyya:
Sunbuliyya; Tarika.II.5; Tasawwuf.6; 'Ushshakiyya; Wali.4
orders Tarika.II
individual orders 'Ammariyya; 'Arusiyya; Ashrafiyya; Bakriyya; Bayramiyya; Bayyu-
miyya; Bektashiyya; Cishtiyya; Darkawa; Djilwatiyya; Hansaliyya; Hazmiriyyun;
'Isawa; Kadiriyya; Kalandariyya; Khalwatiyya; Madaniyya; Marwaniyya;
Mawlawiyya; Mirghaniyya; Muridiyya; Nakshbandiyya; al-Nasiriyya; Ni'mat-
Allahiyya; Parsa'iyya; Rahmaniyya; Rifa'iyya; Sa'diyya; Salihiyya; Sanusiyya;
Sha'baniyya; Shadhiliyya; Shamsiyya; Shattariyya; Suhrawardiyya; Sunbuliyya;
Tidjaniyya; 'Ushshakiyya; Wazzaniyya; Yasawiyya; Yashrutiyya; Ziyaniyya; [in
Suppl.] Demirdashiyya; Hamadisha; Kh w adjagan; Sha'raniyya
for 'Adawiyya, see 'Adi b. Musafir; for 'Afifiyya, see [in Suppl.] al-'Afifi; for
Ahmadiyya (Badawiyya), see Ahmad al-Badawi;/or Dasukiyya (Burhamiyya), see
al-Dasuki, Ibrahim b. 'Abd al-'Aziz; for al-Djazuliyya, see al-Djazuli; for
MYSTICISM NEW WORLD
Gulshaniyya, see Gulshani; for Idrisiyya, see Ahmad b. Idris; for Kazaruniyya
(Murshidiyya, Ishakiyya), see Kazaruni;/o/- Kubrawiyya, see Kubra;/w Yafi'iyya,
see al-Yafi'i
see also Nurbakhshiyya; Safawids.I.ii; Uwaysiyya; [in Suppl.] al-Madjadhlb;
Tayyibiyya
f Abdal; 'Ashik; Awtad; Baka 5 wa-Fana 5 ; Bast; Bishar'; Ca'ush; Darwish; Dawsa; Dede;
Dhawk; Dhikr; Djilwa; Fakir; Fikr; al-Ghayb; Ghayba; Ghufran; Hadra; Hakika.3; Hakk;
Hal; Hidjab.III; Hukuk; Hulul; Hurriyya; Huwa huwa; Ikhlas; Ilham; c Inaya; al-Insan
al-Kamil; Ishan; Ishara; 'Ishk; Ishrak; Ithbat; Ittihad; Kabd.ii; Kafir; Kalb.I; Kalima;
Karama; Kashf; Khalifa.iii; Khalwa; Khankah: Khirka; al-Kutb; Lahut and Nasut;
Madjdhub; Manzil; Ma'rifa; Muhasaba.l; Munadjat; Murid; Murshid; Nafs; Odjak;
Palahang; Plr; Pust; Pust-neshln; Rabita; Ramz.3; Ratib; Ribat; Rida. 1; Rind; Ruhaniyya;
Rukhsa.2; Sabr; Sadr; Shath; Shawk; Shaykh; Shukr.l; Sidk; Silsila; Sultan.4; Suluk.2;
Tadjalll; Ta'ifa; Tarika.I; Tekke; Terdjuman; Wadjd; Wahdat al-Shuhud; Wara c ;
Wazifa.2; Wird; Wudjud.2; [in Suppl.] Buk c a; Ghawth; Mawkif; Sirr; Takwa.4 and 5;
Wahm.2
see also Celebi; Futuwwa; Giilbaba; Gulbang; Lawh; Lawn; Watan
Nationalism Istiklal; Kawmiyya; Wataniyya; [in Suppl.] Ta c rlb.2
see also Djangali; Khilafa; Pashtunistan; al-Shu'ubiyya; c Uruba; Watan; and ->• Panarabism;
Panislamism; Panturkism; Politics.movements
Natural Science al-Athar al-'Ulwiyya; Hikma; Masa'il wa-Adjwiba; Tabi'a; [in Suppl.]
Tabiiyyat
see also Nur. 1
natural scientists al-BIruni; al-Dimashki; Ibn Badjdja; Ibn al-Hay tham; Ibn Rushd; Ibn SIna;
Ikhwan al-Safa'; al-Kazwini; al-Marwazi, Sharaf al-Zaman
and -»■ Alchemy; Astronomy; Botany; Metaphysics; Zoology
Nature -»■ Agriculture; Botany; Flora; Literature.poetry.nature
Navigation Djughrafiya; Isba c ; Kharita; Maghnatis.2; Manar; Milaha; MIna'
see also al-Khashabat; Rih; al-Tasa
ships Milaha (esp. 4); Nassads; Safina; ShinI; Ustul
see also Bahriyya.2; Kelek; and ->• Military.navy
shipyards Dar al-Sina c a; Tersane
treatises on Ibn Madjid; Sidi 'All Re'is; Sulayman al-Mahri; al-Tadili
see also Djughrafiya.IV.d; Milaha. 1 and 3
Nepal Nepal
Nestorians ->• Christianity.denominations
New World Djaliya; Djarida.i.C; al-Mahdjar
immigrants Djabran Khalil Djabran; al-Ma c luf; Nu'ayma, Mikha'il; al-Rayhani; [in Suppl.]
Abu Madi; Abu ShadI
see also Parsis; Tu c ma, Ilyas
NIGER — NUMISMATICS 105
Niger Niger
see also Sudan (Bilad al-).2
physical geography Niger. 1
toponyms Bilma; Djadu; Kawar
Nigeria Hausa; Nigeria; Yoruba
see also Djarida.vi; Fulbe; al-Kanemi; Kanuri; Nikah.II.6; Sudan (Bilad al-).2; and ->
AFRICA.CENTRAL AFRICA and WEST AFRICA
leaders Muhammad Bello; c Uthman b. FudI
see also Gwandu; [in Suppl.] Mai Tatsine
toponyms
provinces Adamawa; Bornu
towns Ibadan; Kano; Katsina; Kukawa; Sokoto
Nomadism Badw; Horde; Ilat; Khawa; Khayma; Mar'a; Yoriik
see also Bakkara; Baranta; Dakhil; Dawar; Hayy; Kayn; and -> Bedouins; Gypsies; Tribes
nomadic ideology Ta'arrub
nomadic possessions Khayma; Mifrash
see also Khayl; Zmala.2
residences Kishlak; Yaylak
Nubia 'Aiwa; Barabra; Dongola; al-Maris; Nuba
see also Bakt; Dar al-Sulh; Ibn Sulaym al-Aswani; al-Mukurra; Soba; and -►
Egypt.toponyms; Sudan.toponyms
languages Nuba.3
peoples Nuba.4
Number Abdjad; Hisab al- c Akd; Hisab al-Djummal; Huruf; c Ilm al-Hisab
and -> Mathematics
numbers Khamsa; Sab c
see also al-Sifr
Numismatics Dar al-Darb; Sikka; Tazyif ; Wazn. 1
see also 'All Pasha Mubarak; Isma'Il Ghalib; Makayil; Nithar
coinage Akce; Balish; Cao; Ceyrek; Dinar; Dirham.2; Fals; Hasani; Larin; Mohur; Pa'i; Para;
Pawla; Paysa; Riyal; Rupiyya; Sadiki; Sahib Kiran; Shahi; Tanga; Tari; Warik
see also Dhahab; Fidda; Filori; Hilal.ii; Sanadjat; Tamgha; WadaM; Yadgar; and -►
Dynasties; Weights and Measurements
for coinage in the name of rulers, see al-Afdal (Kutayfat); c Ali Bey; Ghazi '1-Din Haydar;
Katari b. al-Fudja'a; Khurshid; al-Mansur, al-Malik Muhammad; Mustafa. 1; [in Suppl.]
Farrukhan.2; for coinage under dynasties, see in particular Artukids; Barid Shahis;
Kh w arazm-shahs; Lodis.5; Mughals.10; al-Muwahhidun; c Othmanli.IX; Rasulids.2;
Safawids.VI; Saldjukids.VIII; Sikilliya.3; Sulayhids.2; Timurids.4; Yadgar; [in Suppl.]
Mamluks.iv
shell currency Wada c . 1
special issues Yadgar
mint localities Abarshahr; al-Abbasiyya; Andarab.l; AnI; Baghce Saray; Islamabad; Istakhr;
al-Kurdj; Mah al-Basra; Mawlay Idris; Mazandaran.7; Wasit.4; [in Suppl.] Biyar; Firrim
reform c Abd al-Malik b. Marwan; [in Suppl.] al-Ghitrif b. c Ata 3
see also Tuman.2
terms c Adl.2; Salam (and Salim.l); Tuman.2; Wazn.l
OBSCENITY — ONOMASTICS
Obscenity Mudjun; Sukhf
Oceans and Seas Bahr; al-Madd wa '1-Djazr
see also Kharita; and -*■ Cartography; Navigation
waters Aral; Bahr Adriyas; Bahr Buntus; Bahr Fans; Bahr al-Hind; Bahr al-Khazar; Bahr al-
Kulzum; Bahr Lut; Bahr Mayutis; al-Bahr al-Muhit; Bahr al-Rum; Bahr al-Zandj;
Marmara Denizi
Oil Naft.3
see also Ta'mim
for cooking oil -> Cuisine.food
oilfields 'Abbadan; Abkayk; Altin Koprii; al-Bahrayn; al-Dahna'; al-Ghawar; al-Hasa; al-
Katif; Kharag; Khuzistan; Kirkuk; Kirmanshah; al-Kuwayt; LIbiya; Nadjd.3; Ram-
hurmuz; Ra 3 s (al-)Tannura; (al-)Zahran; [in Suppl.] AhmadI
see also Djannaba; Fars; al-Khubar; Yanbu c
Oman al-Ibadiyya.g; Madjlis.4.A.xiii; Mahkama.4.ix; Nabhan; Sihafa.l.(xiii); 'Uman
see also [in Suppl.] al-Harithi
dynasties Bu Sa'id; Ya c rubids
physical geography 'Uman.l
salt flats Umm al-Samim
population 'Awamir; al-Batahira; al-Djanaba; al-Duru'; Hina; al-Hubus; al- c Ifar; (Banu)
Kharus; Mahra; Mazru'i; Nabhan; Wahiba; [in Suppl.] 'Uman.iii
and -> Tribes.arabian peninsula
toponyms
islands Khuryan-muryan; Masira
regions al-Batina; Ra's Musandam; al-Rustak; al-Sharkiyya; Zafar; al-Zahira
towns al-Buraymi; Hasik; 'Ibri; Kalhat; Maskat; Matrah; al-Mirbat; Nizwa; al-Rustak;
Salala; Suhar
see also (Djazirat) al- c Arab; Wabar.2; [in Suppl.] Gwadar
Onomastics Ba; Ibn; Ism; Kisra; Kunya; Lakab; Nisba.2
see also al-Asma 5 al-Husna; Oghul; Sikilliya.2
epithets Ata; Baba; Ghufran; Humayun; al-Siddik; Tadj
in form of address Agha; Akhund; Beg; Begum; Celebi; Efendi; Kh w adja; Khatun:
Khudawand; Shaykh; Ustadh
see also Akhi; Sharif.(3)
proper names Ahmad; Dhu '1-Fakar; Huma; Marzpan; Mehemmed; Mihragan. iv.2; Sonkor;
Iha'laba; Toghril
see also al-Asad; Payghu; Yaylak
titles
African Diglal; Sultan.3; [in Suppl.] Mai
Arabic c Amid; Amir al-Mu'minin; Amir al-Muslimin; Asad al-Dawla; c Aziz Misr; c Izz
al-Dawla; c Izz al-Din; Khadim al-Haramayn; Khidiw; Malik; Mihmindar; Mushir;
Sardar; Sayyid; Shaykh al-Balad; Shaykh al-Islam.l; Sultan. 1; Tubba c
see also Dawla.2
Central Asian Afshin; Ikhshid; Kosh-begi; Shar; [in Suppl] Atalik; Diwan-begi; Inak
Indo-Muslim Asaf-Djah; Kh w adja-i Djahan; Khan Khanan; Nawwab; Nizam; Peshwa;
Sahib Kiran; Sardar; Shar; Ulugh Khan
ONOMASTICS — OTTOMAN EMPIRE 107
Mongolian Noyan; Sahib Kiran; Tarkhan
Persian Agha Khan; Ispahbadh; Ispahsalar; Ptimad al-Dawla; Kh w adja; Marzpan; Mir;
Mirza; Molla; Padishah; Sadr; Salar; Sardar; Sarkar Aka; Shah; Tekfur; Ustandar
Southeast Asian Penghulu; Sultan.2
Turkish Alp; Beglerbegi; Damad; Darya-begi; Dayi; Giilbaba; Kh w adjegan-i Diwan-i
Humayun; Khakan; Khan; Khudawendigar; Mir-i Miran; Mushir; Pasha; Payghu;
Sadr-i A'zam; Shaykh al-Islam.2; Su Bashi; Tekfur; Tigin; Yabghu
see also Corbadji; Terken Khatun; Tughra
Optics Kaws Kuzah; Manazir
see also Mir'at; Sarab
works on Ibn al-Haytham; Kamal al-Din al-Farisi; Uklidis
see also Kutb al-Din Shirazi
Ottoman Empire Anadolu.iii.2 and 3; Ertoghrul.l; Istanbul; Lale Devri; Othmanli:
Tanzimat
see also Bab-i 'Ali; Hidjaz Railway; Pasha Kapusu; Shenlik; Tursun Fakih; [in Suppl.]
Siirgiin; and -> Dynasties.anatolia and the turks; Europe.eastern; Law.ottoman;
Military.OTTOMAn; and the section Ottoman Period under individual countries
administration Beratli; Dabtiyya; Diwan-i Humayun; Eyalet; Imtiyazat.ii; Khass; Khazine;
Mashwara; Millet.3; Mukhtar; Mulazemet; Mulazim; Mulkiyya; Nahiye; Nishandji; Re'is
ul-Kiittab; Sandjak; Timar; Ulak; Zi'amet; [in Suppl.] Da'ira Saniyya
see also Kada'; Ma'mur; Odjak; Wakf.IV (and [in Suppl.] Wakf.II.2); [in Suppl.] Nizam
c Askari.3; and -+ Documents.ottoman; Law.ottoman; Military.ottoman
archives and registers Basvekalet Arsivi; Daftar-i Khakani; Kanun.iii; Masraf Defteri;
Miihimme Defterleri; Sal-name; Sidjill.3; Tahrir
see also Daftar.III; Feridun Beg; Mahlul
financial Arpalik; Asham; Bayt al-Mal.II; Daftardar; Dar al-Darb; Dirlik; Djayb-i
Humayun; Duyun-i 'Umumiyye; Irsaliyye; Ka'ime; Khazine; Maliyye; Muhasaba.2;
Mukhallefat; Musadara.3; Ruznamedji; Saliyane; Siyakat; c Ulufe; [in Suppl.] Sanad
see also Bakhshish; Surra
fiscal Dariba.3; Djizya.ii; Hisba.ii; Kharadj.IH; Muhassil; Miiltezim; 'Othmanli.II; Resm;
Tahrir; Tapu; Tekalif; Timar; Zi'amet
see also Mutasarrif; Shehir Ketkhiidasi
agriculture Filaha.iv; Ma J .8; Ra c iyya.2
and -+ Agriculture
architecture -> Architecture.regions.turkey
court ceremony Ca'ush; Khirka-yi Sherif; Marasim.4; Mawakib.4; Mehter; Selamllk
cuisine Matbakh.2
diplomacy Balyos; Consul; Elci; Hiba.v; Pence
see also Beratli; Imtiyazat.ii; Kawwas; and -» Diplomacy
education Ghalata-sarayi; Kiilliyye; Ma'arif.I.i; Makhredj; Mulkiyya; Sahn-i lhaman; Softa;
[in Suppl.] Tibbiyye-i c Adliyye-i Shahane
see also Harbiye; and -> Education; Reform.educational
functionaries Ameddji; A'yan; Bazirgan; Bostandji; Bostandjl-bashi; Caklrdji-bashi;
Cashnagir-bashi; Dabit; Dabtiyya; Daftardar; Dilsiz; Doghandji; Elci; Emin; Ghulam.iv:
Hekim-bashi; Ic-oghlani; c Ilmiyye; Ka'im-makam; Kapu Aghasi; Kawwas; Ketkhuda.l;
Khaznadar; Kh w adjegan-i Diwan-i Humayun; Ma'mur; Mewkufatci; Mlr-Akhur; Mushir;
Mustashar; Mutasarrif; Nishandji; Re'is ul-Kiittab; Ruznamedji; Sadr-i A'zam;
Shahnamedji; Shehir Emaneti; Shehir Ketkhiidasi; Tardjuman.2; Telkhisdji; Tulumbadji;
'Ulama'J; Waka c -nuwis; Wali; Wazir.III; Yazidji; [in Suppl.] Segban
108 OTTOMAN EMPIRE PAKISTAN
see also 'Adjami Oghlan; 'Asas; Bala; Baltadji; Balyos; Birun; Enderun; al-Haramayn;
Khasi.III; Khass Oda; Khasseki; Mabeyn; and ->■ Law. ottoman; Military. ottoman
history 'Othmanli.I; [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l
and -> Dynasties.anatolia and the turks.ottomans; Literature.historical.
Turkish; Turkey.ottoman period; and the section Toponyms in the countries once
falling within the Ottoman Empire
industry and trade Harir.ii; Karwan; Kutn.2; Milh.3; 'Othmanli.II; Suk.7
see also Ma'din.3; [in Suppl.] Sarraf
law ->• Law.ottoman
literature ->• Literature
military -> Military.ottoman
modernisation of Baladiyya. 1 ; Hukuma.i; Hurriyya.ii; Islah.iii; Ittihad we Terakki r^em'iyyeti;
Madjlis.4.A.i; Madjlis al-Shura; Tanzimat
and -> Turkey.ottoman period
mysticism ->• Mysticism.mystics.turkish
reform of Tanzimat; Yeni 'Othmanlilar
Pakistan Djinah; Dustur.xiv; Hizb.vi; Hukuma. v; MadjlisAC; al-Mar'a.5; Pakistan; Urdu. 1 ;
Ziya 5 al-Hakk; [in Suppl.] Djarida.vii; Mahkama.5; Nizam c Askari.4
see also Ahl-i Hadith; Dar al- c Ulum.c; Djam c iyya.v; F^unagafh; Hind.ii and iv; Kashmir.ii;
Kawmiyya.vi; Khaybar; Muhadjir.3; Pashtunistan; Sind.2; and ->■ India
architecture ->• Architecture.regions
education Djami'a
language Urdu.l
see also Pakistan; and ->• Language.indo-european.indo-iranian.indian
literature Urdu.2
and -> the subsection Urdu under Literature.poetry and prose
physical geography
see also Pakistan
mountains Sulayman
waters Kurram; Mihran; Zhob
population Afridi; Dawudpotras; Mahsud; Mohmand; Mullagori; Waziris; Yusufzay; [in
Suppl.] Demography. VII; Gurcani
see also Djirga
statesmen Djinah; Liyakat 'All Khan; Ziya' al-Hakk
see also Mawdudi
toponyms
ancient Ciniot; Daybul; Kandabil; Khayrabad.ii; Turan
present-day
districts Chitral; Hafizabad; Hazara; Kharan; Khayrpur; Kilat.2; Kohat; Kwatta;
Mastudj; Sibi
regions Balucistan; Dardistan; Deradjat; Dir; Djahlawan; Kacchi; Las Bela; Makran;
Pandjab; Sind; Swat; Waziris
towns Amarkot; Badjawr; Bahawalpur; Bakkar; Bannu; Bhakkar; Gudjranwala;
Gudjrat; Hasan Abdal; Haydarabad; Islamabad; Karaci; Kilat. 1 ; Kusdar; Kwatta:
Lahawr; Mastudj; Peshawar; Rawalpindi; Shikarpur.l; Sibi; Siyalkut; Ucch; Zhob;
[in Suppl.] Gilgit; Gwadar
PALESTINE/ISRAEL — PAYMENTS
Palestine/Israel Djarida.i.A; Filastin; Hizb.i; MadjlisAA.xxiii; MahkamaAv; Mandates;
Sihafa.l.(v)
see also Djarrahids; Kays 'Aylan; al-Khalidi; al-Samira; Shahin, Al; Yashrutiyya; [in Suppl.]
Demography.III; Wakf.II.2; and -* Crusade(r)s
architecture Kubbat al-Sakhra; al-Kuds; al-Masdjid al-Aksa
see also Kawkab al-Hawa'
belletrists Sayigh, Tawfik
historians of Mudjir al-Din al-'Ulaymi
Ottoman period Zahir al- c Umar al-Zaydani
physical geography
deserts al-Nakb; SIna 5
see also al-Tih
mountains/ hills al-Tur.2, 3 and 4
waters Bahr Lut; al-Hula; Nahr Abi Futrus; al-Urdunn. 1 ; Yarmuk. 1
toponyms
ancient Arsuf; 'Athllth; 'Ayn Djalut; Bayt Djibrin; al-Darum; Irbid.II; Sabastiyya.l;
Subayta
present-day
regions al-Ghawr.l; Mardj Ban! c Amir; al-Nakb
towns l Akka; 'Amwas; 'Askalan; Baysan; Bayt Lahm; BIr al-Sab c ; Ghazza; Hayfa;
Hittin; al-Khalil; al-Kuds; Ladjdjun; Ludd; Nabulus; al-Nasira; Rafah; al-Ramla;
Riha. 1 ; Safad; Tabariyya; Tulkarm; Yafa
see also Kaysariyya; Sihyawn
under British mandate Filastin.2; Muhammad c Izzat Darwaza; [in Suppl.] Amin al-Husayni
see also Mandates
Panarabism Kawmiyya; Pan-Arabism; 'Uruba; [in Suppl.] al-Djami c a al- c Arabiyya; Ta c rib.2
see also Wataniyya
partisans of al-Kawakibi; Nuri al-Sa'id; Rashid Rida; al-Zahrawi, 'Abd al-Hamid; [in Suppl.]
c Abd al-Nasir; Muhibb al-Din al-Khatib; Sati c al-Husri
see also al-Kazimi, c Abd al-Muhsin
Panislamism Kawmiyya; Pan-Islamism; al-Rabita al-Islamiyya
see also Dustur.xviii; Islah.ii; Khilafa; Mu'tamar; Takrib
partisans of c Abd al-Hamid II; Djamal al-Din al- Afghani; Fitrat; Gasprali (Gasprinski), Isma'il;
Hali; Kucak Khan Djangali; Ma' al- c Aynayn al-Kalkami; Mehmed c Akif; Rashid Rida;
Safar; [in Suppl.] Andjuman-i Khuddam-i Ka'ba; al-Bakri
see also Djadid
Panturkism Kawmiyya.iv; Pan-Turkism
partisans of Gasprali (Gasprinski), Isma'il; Gokalp, Ziy a; Rida Nur; Su'awi, c Ali; Yusuf Akcura
see also Turk Odjaghi
Papyrology Kirtas; Papyrus
see also Diplomatic.i.15; and -> Documents
Paradise al- c Ashara al-Mubashshara; Dar al-Salam; Djanna; Hur; Kawthar; Ridwan;
Salsabil; Tasnim. 1
see also al-A c raf
Payments Adjr.2; c Ata'; Djamakiyya; Hawala; In'am; Mai al-Bay c a; Ma'una; Rizk.3; Sila.3;
110 PAYMENTS PHILOSOPHY
Soyurghal; Surra; 'Ulufe
see also Wazlfa.l; [in Suppl.] Sakk; and -> Treaties.tributes
bribery Marafik; Rashwa
Perfume Ban; Hinna 3 ; Kafur; Misk
see also al- c Attar; Ma c din.4; 'Ud.I.l; [in Suppl.] Tughdj
Persia ->■ Iran
Pharmacology Adwiya; Akrabadhin; al-Saydana; Tibb
see also Diyuskuridis; Djalinus; Nabat; and -> Botany; Drugs; Medicine
pharmacologists Ibn al-Baytar; Ibn Samadjun; Ibn al-Tilmidh; Ibn Wafid; al-K6hen al- c Attar;
Sabur b. Sahl; [in Suppl.] al-Ghafiki; Ibn Biklarish; Ibn al-Rumiyya
see also al- c Ashshab; al- c Attar; al-Biruni; al-Suwaydi; Yahya b. al-Bitrik
Philately Posta
and ->■ Transport.postal service
Philippines Philippines
see also [in Suppl.] al-Mar'a; and -> Asia.east
Philosophy Falasifa; Falsafa; Hikma; Ma ba c d al-Tabi'a; Mantik; Nazar
see also 'Alam.l; Allah.iii.2; al-Makulat; Mukhtasar; Sharh.IV
logic Mantik
terms Ala.iii; c Arad; Dalil; Fasl; Fi'l; Hadd; Hakika.2; Hudjdja; Hukm.I; Huwa huwa.A;
Mukaddam; Natidja; Shart.2; Ta c rif.l
see also Kat c ; al-Sufista'iyyun
philosophers Falasifa; [in Suppl.] Mashsha'iyya
Christian Ibn al-Tayyib; Ibn Zur'a; Matta b. Yunus; Yahya b. c Adi; Yahya al-Nahwi
Greek Aflatun; Anbaduklis; Aristutalis; Balinus; Batlamiyus; Buruklus; Djalinus;
Fithaghuras; Furfuriyus; al-Iskandar al-Afrudisi; al-Sufista 3 iyyun; Sukrat;
Thamistiyus
see also Hunayn b. Ishak al-'Ibadi; Isaghudji; Ishak b. Hunayn; Lawn; al-Makulat;
Matta b. Yunus; Nikula'us; al-Shaykh al-Yunani; Ustath; Uthuludjiya; Yahya b. al-
Bitrik; Yahya al-Nahwi; Yunan; [in Suppl.] Mashsha'iyya
Islamic
biographers of al-Shahrazuri, Shams al-Din
9th century Abu '1-Hudhayl al- c Allaf; al-Kindi, Abu Yusuf; al-Sarakhsi, Abu '1-
c Abbas
see also Dahriyya; Falasifa; Lawn
10th century Abu Sulayman al-Mantiki; al-Farabi; Ibn Masarra; al-Mawsili; al-
Razi, Abu Bakr; [in Suppl.] al- c Amiri
11th century Abu Hayyan al-Tawhidi; Bahmanyar; Ibn Hazm; Ibn Sina; Miskawayh
12th century Abu '1-Barakat; al-Batalyawsi; Ibn Badjdja; Ibn Rushd; Ibn Tufayl;
al-Suhrawardi, Shihab al-Din Yahya; c Umar Khayyam
see also al-Ghazali; Hayy b. Yakzan; Ishrakiyyun; al-Shahrastani, Abu '1-Fath
13th century al-Abhari; Ibn Sab c in; al-Katibi; Sadr al-Din al-Kunawi; al-Shahrazuri,
Shams al-Din; al-Tusi, Nasir al-Din
see also Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
14th century Djamal al-Din Aksarayi
16th century al-Maybudi.2
PHILOSOPHY — POLITICS 111
17th century al-Damad; al-Faruki, Mulla; Lahidji.2; [in Suppl.] Findiriski
19th century Sabzawari; [in Suppl.] Abu '1-Hasan Djilwa
Jewish Ibn Gabirol; Ibn Kammuna; Ishak b. Sulayman al-Isra'ili; Judaeo-Arabic.iii; Sa'adya
Ben Yosef
see also Abu '1-Barakat
terms Abad; 'Adam; 'Akl; 'Amal.l and 2; Anniyya; Awwal; Baslt wa-Murakkab; Dhat;
Dhawk; Didd; Djawhar; Djins; Djism; Djuz'; Fard.g; Hadd; Haraka wa-Sukun.I.l; Hay'a;
Hayat; Hayula; Hiss; Huduth al-'Alam; Hulul; Huwiyya; Ibda'; Idrak; Ihdath; Ikhtiyar;
c Illa.ii; c Inaya; Insaf; 'Ishk; Ishrak; al-Kada' wa 'l-Kadar.A.3; Kawn wa-Fasad; Kidam;
Kuwwa.4, 6 and 7; Ma'ad; Mahiyya; Mahsusat; Malaka; Ma c na.2; Nafs; Nihaya; Nur.2;
Sa'ada; Sabab.l; Shakhs; Shakk.2; Shay'; Shubha; Jafra; Takhyil.2; Tawallud; Tina;
c Unsur; Wahda.2; Wahm; Wudjud.l; al-Zahir wa '1-Batin; Zaman.l; [in Suppl.]
Mashsha'iyya
see also Athar.3; c Ayn; Dahriyya; Insan; Kat'; Kiyama; Siyasa.2; Takwin; and ->■
Philosophy.logic.terms
Physiognomy Firasa; Kiyafa; Shama; [in Suppl.] Aflimun
and -> Anatomy; Divination
Pilgrimage c Arafa; al-Djamra; Hadjdj, Hady; Ihram; Ka'ba; Mina; Mutawwif; al-Muzdalifa;
Radjm; al-Safa.l; Sa c y; Shi'ar.l; Talbiya; Tarwiya; Tashrik; Tawaf; 'Umra; al-Wukuf;
Zamzam; Ziyara
see also Amir al-Hadjdj; Hidjaz Railway; Karwan; Kazimayn; Makka; lhabir; al-
Tha'labiyya; [in Suppl.] 'Atabat; Darb Zubayda; Fayd; and -> Islam; Sacred Places
pilgrimage literature Ziyara. 1 .d and e
Piracy Kursan
see also al-'Annaba; Djarba; Husayn Pasha (Kiiciik); Lewend; [in Suppl.] Kiiciik c Ali
Oghullari
corsairs 'Arudj; Hasan Baba; Husayn Pasha, Mezzomorto; Kemal Re'is; Khayr al-Din Pasha;
Selman Re'is; Torghud Re'is; c Uludj 'All; Umur Pasha
Plague 'Amwas; Waba'
see also Ibn Khaldun. Wali al-Din; and ->■ Death; Illness
treatises on Ibn Khatima; Ibn Ridwan; al-Masihi
Poland Leh
see also Islam Giray; Kamanica; Kopriilii; Lipka; Muslimun.l.A.l; and ->■ Ottoman Em-
pire
Politics Baladiyya; Dawla; Djumhuriyya; Dustur; Himaya.2; Hizb; Hukuma; Hurriyya.ii;
Istiklal; Kawmiyya; Madjlis; Makhzan; Mandates; Mashyakha; Medeniyyet; Musawat;
Muwatin; Na'ib.2; Shura.3; Siyasa; Takhtit al-Hudud; Tawazun al-Sulutat; Thawra;
Wataniyya; Zulm.2; [in Suppl.] Azadi; al-Djami'a al- c Arabiyya; Nizam 'Askari; Ta c rib.2
see also Ahl al-Hall wa 'l-'Akd; Imtiyazat; Mashwara; Saltana; and ->■ Administration;
Diplomacy; Ottoman Empire
doctrines Hizb.i; Ishtirakiyya; Mark(i)siyya; Shuyu'iyya; Ta 5 mim; [in Suppl.] Hidjra; Ta c rib.2
see also Musawat; Muslimun.4; Radj'iyya; Tawazun al-Sulutat; and -> Panarabism;
Panislamism; Panturkism
movements Djadid; Djangali; Istiklal; Ittihad we Terakki Djem'iyyeti; Khaksar; Khilafa; al-
Rabita al-Islamiyya
112 POLITICS — PRE-ISLAM
see also Fitrat; Hamza Beg; Hizb; Hurriyya.ii; Kucak Khan Djangali; Tatarruf; Thawra:
'Urabi Pasha; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Bari; and ->■ Panarabism; Panislamism; Panturkism;
Reform.politico-reugious
parties Demokrat Parti; Hizb; Hiirriyet we I'tilaf Firkasi; Partai Islam se Malaysia (Pas);
Shuyu'iyya.1.2; Terakki-perver Djumhuriyyet Firkasi; Wafd
see also Andjuman; Djam'iyya; (Tunali) Hilmi; Hizb.i; Ishtirakiyya; Khiyabani, Shaykh
Muhammad; Leff; Lutfi al-Sayyid; Mark(i)siyya; Mustafa Kamil Pasha; Sarekat Islam;
[in Suppl.] 'Abd al-Nasir; and -> Communism; Reform
reform -> Reform
terms Sha'b.2; Tatarruf; lhawra; Za'im; Zulm.2; [in Suppl.] Khar
Portugal Burtukal; Gharb al-Andalus
see also Habesh; and -> Andalusia; Spain
toponyms Badja; Kulumriya; al-Ma c din; Mlrtula; Shantamariyyat al-Gharb; Shantarin; Shilb:
Shintara; Ukshunuba; (al-)Ushbuna; Yabura; [in Suppl.] Kasr Abi Danis
Prayer Adhan; Dhikr; Djum'a; Du'a'; Fatiha; Ikama; Khatib; Khutba; Kibla; Kunut; Ku'ud;
Mahya; Masdjid; Mihrab; Mikat; Musalla; Rak'a; Ratib; Salat; Salat al-Khawf; Subha;
Sutra; Tahadjdjud; Tarawih; Wazifa.2; Wird; Witr
see also Amin; Dikka; Gha'ib; Gulbang; Isti'naf; Makam Ibrahim; al-Mash c ala '1-Khuffayn;
Namazgah; Takbir; Tashahhud; and -»■ Ablution; Architecture. mosques; Islam
bowing Sadjda
carpet Sadjdjada
collections of
shiite Zayn al-'Abidin
of petition Istiska'; Munashada
Pre-Islam al-'Arab.i; (Djazirat) al-'Arab.vii; Arminiya.II.l; Badw.III; Djahiliyya; Ghassan:
Kinda.l and Appendix; Lakhmids; Lihyan; Ma'in; Makka.l; Nabat; Rum
see also Hayawan.2; Ilah; al-Kalbi.II; Libiya.2; and -> Assyria; Byzantine Empire; Idola-
try; Military.battles; Zoroastrians
customs! institutions 'Atira; Baliyya; Ghidha'.i and ii; Hadjdj.i; Hilf; Hima; Himaya; Istiska';
Kahin; Khafara; Mawla; Nusub; Rada'.2; Sadin; Tawaf; 'Ukaz; c Umra; c Urs; Wa'd al-
Banat; [in Suppl.] al-Washm.l
see also Fay 3 ; Ghanima; Ilaf; Karkur; Nar; Sada; Shayba; Tahannuth; Thabir
gods Dhu '1-Khalasa; Dhu '1-Shara; Hubal; Isaf wa-Na'ila; Kaws Kuzah; al-Lat; Manaf; Manat;
Nasr; Shams. 1; Shay' al-Kawm; Su'ayr; al-Sudjdja; Suwa c ; Taghut.1; Tafiri; al-Ukaysir;
al-'Uzza; [in Suppl.] Wadd; Yaghuth; Ya'Qk
see also Aghathudhimun; c Amr b. Luhayy; Djahiliyya; Hirmis; Hurmuz; Ilah; Ka'ba.V;
al-Kamar.II; Mawkif.3; Rabb; Sanam; Shaytan; Zun
in Arabian peninsula Abraha; (Djazirat) al- c Arab.i and vi; Bakr b. Wa'il; Djadhima al- Abrash;
Ghumdan; Habashat; Hadjib b. Zurara; Hadramawt; Hashim b. c Abd Manaf; Hind bint
al-Khuss; Hums; Kataban; Kayl; Kusayy; Kuss b. Sa c ida; Marib; Nusub; Saba'; Sadj'.l;
Salhin; Ta'rikh.I.l.iv; Thadj; Tubba 1 ; 'Ukaz Yahud.l; [in Suppl.] Hadramawt.i
see also Badw.III; Dar al-Nadwa; Hanif.4; Kinda.Appendix; Thabir; Zabur; and -> Idola-
try; Literature. poetry.arabic; Military.battles; Oman.toponyms; Saudia
Arabia.toponyms; Tribes.arabian peninsula; United Arab Emirates.toponyms;
Yemen.toponyms
in Egypt -> Egypt.before islam
in Fertile Crescent Khursabad; Manbidj; Maysan; Nabat; al-Zabba'; [in Suppl.] Athur
see also Bitrik.I; Harran; Shaharidja; Shahrazur; Tadmur; [in Suppl.] Iyas b. Kabisa;
PRE-ISLAM — PROFESSIONS 113
and ->■ MlLITARY.BATTLES
Ghassdnids Djabala b. al-Ayham; Djillik; Ghassan; al-Harith b. Djabala; [in Suppl.]
Djabala b. al-Harith
Lakhmids 'Amr b. c Adi; 'Amr b. Hind; al-Hira; Lakhmids; al-Mundhir IV; al-Nu'man
(III) b. al-Mundhir
in Iran -> Iran.before islam
in Southeast Asia [in Suppl.] Mataram. 1
in Turkey Tafirl; Turks. 1. 1
Predestination Adjal; Allah.II.B; Idtirar; Ikhtiyar; Istita'a; al-Kada' wa M-Kadar;
Kadariyya; Kasb; Kisma
see also 'Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani; Bada'; Dahr; Du'a'.II.b; Kada'; Shakawa
advocates of Djabriyya; Djahmiyya; al-Karabisi.2; Sulayman b. Djarir al-Rakki; Zayd b. 'Ali
b. al-Husayn
opponents of Ghaylan b. Muslim; Kadariyya; Katada b. Di'ama; Ma c bad al-Djuhani
Press Djarida; Makala; Matbaa (and [in Suppl.]); Sihafa
Arabic 'Arabiyya.B.V.a; Baghdad (906b); Bulak; Djarida.i; Kissa.2; Makala. 1; al-Manar;
Matba'a.l; al-Ra'id al-Tunusi; Sihafa
see also Nahda; Zakhir
journalism Abu Naddara; al-Baruni; Djabran Khalil Djabran; Djamal al-Din al- Afghani;
Djamil; Faris al-Shidyak; Ibn Badis; Ishak, Adib; al-Kawakibi; al-Khadir; Khalil
Ghanim; Khalil Mutran; Kurd 'Ali; Lutfi al-Sayyid; al-Ma c luf; Mandur; al-Manufi.7;
al-Mazini; Mustafa c Abd al-Razik; al-Muwaylihi; al-Nadim, c Abd Allah; Nadjib al-
Haddad; Nimr; Rashid Rida; Safar; Sa c id AbQ Bakr; Salama Musa; Salim al-Nakkash;
Sarruf; Sha'ul; Shaykhu, Luwis; Shina; Shumayyil, Shibli; Taha Husayn; Yahya
Hakki; al-Yazidji.2 and 3; Yusuf, c Ali; al-Zahrawi, c Abd al-Hamid; Zaydan, Djurdji;
[in Suppl.] Abu Shadi; al-Bustani; Muhibb al-Din al-Khatib
see also al-Mahdjar
Indian Matba c a.4; [in Suppl.] Djarida.vii
journalism Muhammad 'Ali; Ruswa; Shabbir Hasan Khan Djosh; [in Suppl.] Azad; Hasrat
Mohani
see also Nadwat al-'Ulama'
Persian Djarida. ii. Makala; Matba'a.3; [in Suppl.] Sihafa.4
journalism Furughi.3; Lahuti; Malkom Khan; Rashid Yasimi; Yaghma'i; Yazdi; [in Suppl.]
Amiri
Turkish Djarida. iii; Djem'iyyet-i c Ilmiyye-i 'Othmaniyye; Ibrahim Miiteferrika; Makala;
Matba'a.2; Mesh c ale; Mizan; [in Suppl.] Sihafa.5
see also Adhari.ii
journalism Ahmad Ihsan; Ahmad Midhat; Djewdet; Ebiizziya Tevfik; Gasprali
(Gasprinski), Isma'il; Hasan Fehmi; (Ahmed) Hilmi; Hisar; Husayn Djahid; Ileri,
Djelal Nuri; inal; Kasab, Teodor; al-Kazimi, Mehmed Salim; Kemal; Kemal, Mehmed
Namik; Khalid Diya'; Koprulu (Mehmed Fuad); Manastirli Mehmed Rif at; Mehmed
c Akif; Mizandji Mehmed Murad; Orik, Nahid Sirri; Orkhan Seyfi; Ortac, Yusuf Diya;
Rida Nur; Sahir, Djelal; Sami; Shinasi; Su c awi, c Ali; Tewfik Fikret; Yusuf Akcura;
Ziya Pasha; [in Suppl.] Aghaoghlu; Atay; Caylak Tewfik; Eshref; Tahir Beg
see also Badrkhani; Fedjr-i Ati; Khalil Ghanim; Sa c id Efendi
Professions al- c Attar; Bakkal; Baytar; Dallal; Djanbaz; Djarrah; Hammal; Kannas; Katib;
Kayn; Kayna; Khayyat; Mukari; Munadi; Munadjdjim; al-Nassadj; Sabbagh; Sa'igh; Sakka 5 ;
Sasan; Sha c badha; Sha c ir; Shamma 1 ; Tabbakh; Tabbal; Tadjir; Tahhan; Tardjuman; Tarrar;
114 PROFESSIONS — QURXn
Thalladj; Tulumbadji; 'Ulama'; Warrak; [in Suppl.] Dabbagh; Djammal; Djazzar; Fassad;
Ghassal; Ha'ik; Hallak; Iskaf; Sarraf
see also Asad Allah Isfahan!; Aywaz. 1 ; Khadim; Shawiya; Sinf; Ustadh; and -*■ Law.offices;
MlLITARY.OFFICES
craftsmanship Sinaa
craftsmen and tradesmen
artisans Sabbagh; Sa'igh; Warrak; [in Suppl.] Ha'ik; Iskaf
labourers Hammal; Kannas; Kayn; Khayyat; Shamma'; Tahhan; [in Suppl.] Dabbagh;
Djazzar; Ghassal; Hallak
merchants al-' Attar; Bakkal; Mukari; Tadjir; Tammam; lhalladj; [in Suppl.] Djammal
see also Tidjara; and -> Finance.commerce.functions
performers Djanbaz; Kayna; Sha'ir.l.E; Tabbal
see also al-Sim
Property Mai; Milk; Ta c awun; Wakf; Zamindar; [in Suppl.] c Akar
see also Munasafa; Shufa; Soyurghal; Tiyul; and ->• Taxation. taxes and tithe-lands
Prophethood Nubuwwa; Rasul; Wahy
and -> Muhammad, the Prophet
prophets Adam; Alisa'; Ayyub; Harun b. Tmran; Hizkil; Hud; Ibrahim; Idris; Ilyas; Irmiya;
Tsa; Ishak; Isma'il; Lut; Muhammad; Musa; Nuh; Salih; Shamwil; Sha'ya; Shith;
Shu'ayb; Yahya b. Zakariyya 5 ; Ya'kub; Yunus; Yusha' b. Nun; Yusuf; Zakariyya'
see also Fatra; Hanzala b. Safwan; 'Isma; Khalid b. Sinan; Lukman; Mubtada 5 .2; Zayd
b. 'Amr; and ->■ Muhammad, the Prophet
false prophets Ha-Mim; Musaylima; Sadjah; Tulayha
lives of al-Kisa'i; Kisas al-Anbiya'; al-Thaiabi, Ahmad b. Muhammad; 'Umara b.
Wathima; Wahb b. Munabbih; Wathima b. Musa
Proverbs Mathal; Tamthil.2
see also Iyas b. Mu'awiya; Nar; and ->■ Animals.and proverbs; Literature.proverbs in
collections of Abu 'Ubayd al-Kasim b. Sallam; al-'Askari.ii; Hamza al-Isfahani; al-Maydani;
Rashid al-Din (Watwat); Shinasi; al-Tha'alibi, Abu Mansur 'Abd al-Malik; al-Yusi; al-
Zamakhshari; [in Suppl.] al-Mufaddal b. Salama
Punishment 'Adhab; 'Ukuba
in law Diya; Djaza'.ii; Hadd; Katl.ii; Kisas; Salb; Ta c zir; 'Ukuba
see also 'Abd.3.i; Kaffara; Siyasa.l; and ->■ Law.penal law
in theology 'Adhab; 'Adhab al-Kabr; Djaza'; Munkar wa-Nakir
see also Kiyama; Maskh
physical Falaka; Salb
see also Radjm
Qatar Katar; Madjlis.4.A.xi; MahkamaAix; Sihafa. 1 .(xi)
toponyms al-Dawha; Hadjir; al-Zubara
see also al-'Udayd
QurXn Allah.i; Aya; Fasila; I'djaz; Kira'a; al-Kur'an; Mukatta'at; Mushaf; Naskh; Sura;
Tafsir; Umm al-Kitab; [in Suppl.] Nazm.2
see also 'Arabiyya.A.ii; Basmala; Fadila; Hamza; Indjil; Islah.i.B.l; Khalk.II; Khawass al-
QUR'AN 115
Kur'an; 'Umum wa-Khusus; Zayd b. Thabit
commentaries Mukhtasar; Sharh.III; Tafsir; Ta'wil
see also al-Zahir wa '1-Batin
in Arabic c Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani; Abu '1-Fadl 'Allami; Abu Hayy an al-Gharnati; Abu
'1-Layth al-Samarkandi; Abu '1-Su'ud; Abu c Ubayda; al- c Askari.ii; al-Baghawi; Baki
b. Makhlad; al-Baydawi; al-Bulkini.4; al-Damad; al-Darimi; Djiwan; Fakhr al-DIn
al-RazI; Faydi; Ghulam Husayn Khan Tabataba'I; GIsu Daraz; Gurani; Ibn Abi '1-
Ridjal; Ibn 'Adjiba; IbnBarradjan; Ibn Kathir, Tmad al-Din; Isma'Il Hakki; al-Kalbl.I;
Kallm Allah al-Djahanabadi; Kemal Pasha-zade; al-Kurtubi, Abu 'Abd Allah; al-
Kushayrl.l; al-Mahalli; al-Maturldi; Mudjahid b. Djabr al-Makki; Mudjlr al-Din al-
'Ulayml; Muhsln-i Fayd-i Kashani; Mukatll b. Sulayman; al-NIsaburi; al-Raghib al-
Isfahani; al-Rummani; Sahl al-Tustarl; al-Shahham; al-Shahrastani, Abu '1-Fath; al-
Sharif al-Radi; al-Suhrawardl, Shihab al-DIn Abu Hafs; al-Sulami, Abu c Abd al-
Rahman; al-Suyuti; al-Tabari, Abu Dja'far; al-TabrisI, Amln al-Din; al-Tha'alibi.
c Abd al-Rahman; al-Tha'labl, Ahmad b. Muhammad; al-Wahidl; al-Yadali; [in Suppl.]
'Abd al-Wahhab Bukhari; Abu '1-Fath al-Daylaml; al-Asamm; al-Zamakhshari.2;
al-Zarkashi
see also 'Abd Allah b. al- c Abbas; Abu Nu'aym al-Mula'I; Ahmadiyya; al-'Alami; al-
Dihlawi, Shah Wall Allah; Djafr; Djllwatiyya; HadjdjI Pasha; Hind.v.e; Ibn Mas'ud;
Kutb al-Din Shirazi; al-Manar; al-Suddi; Sufyan b. 'Uyayna; al-Sulami, c Izz al-DIn;
f hanesari.3; al-Tufi; Warka 3 b. 'Umar; [in Suppl.] Sa'id b. Djubayr
late 19th and 20th centuries al-Alusi.2; Atfiyash; Mawdudi; Muhammad b. Ahmad
al-Iskandarani; Muhammad Abu Zayd; Muhammad Farid Wadjdi; Sayyid Kutb;
Shaltut, Mahmud; [in Suppl.] Djawhari, Tantawi
in Persian Abu '1-Futuh al-Razi; al-Dawlatabadi; Djami; Kashifi; al-Maybudi.l;
Musannifak; al-Taftazani
in Turkish Ak Hisari.b
in Urdu Ashraf c Ali
createdness of Mihna
see also Djahmiyya; al-Zuhri, Harun
readers 'Abd Allah b. Abi Ishak; Abu 'Amr b. al-'Ala 1 ; al-A'mash; ' Asim; al-Dani; Hamza b.
Habib; Ibn 'Amir; Ibn Kathir; 'Isa b. 'Umar; al-Kisa J i; Nafi' al-Laythi; al-Sadjawandi,
Abu 'Abd Allah
see also Abu 'l-'Aliya al-Riyahi; al-Darakutni; Hafs b. Sulayman; Ibn al-Djazari; Ibn
al-Fahham; Ibn Mudjahid; Ibn Shanabudh; al-Kastallani; Makki; al-Malati; Mudjahid
b. Djabr al-Makki; [in Suppl.] Ibn Miksam
transmitters al-Yazidi. 1
reading Ada'; Harf; Kat'; Khatma; Kira'a; Tadjwid
see also al-Shatibi. Abu '1-Kasim; al-Sidjistani; Ta'awwudh; Tahadjdjud; Wasl; Yahya
b. Adam; [in Suppl.] Lafz.2
recitation competition [in Suppl.] Musabaka
recensions 'Abd Allah b. al-Zubayr; 'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan; Abu '1-Darda'; 'A'isha bint
Abi Bakr; al-Ash'ari, Abu Musa; 'Asim; al-Dimyati; al-Hadjdjadj b. Yusuf; Ibn Mas'ud;
Nafi' al-Laythi; Ubayy b. Ka'b
see also Abu '1-Aswad al-Du'ali; 'Arabiyya.ii. 1 and 2; al-Husri.II; Warsh; Zayd b. Thabit
stories 'Ad; Adam; Ashab al-Kahf; Ayyub; Bilkis; Dawud; Djalut; Fir'awn; Habil wa Kabil;
Hawwa'; Ibrahim; 'Isa; al-Iskandar; al-Khadir; Lut; Maryam; Musa; Nuh; Sulayman b.
Dawud; Yunus; Yusuf; Zakariyya'
see also Kisas al-Anbiya'; Shaytan.2; al-Tha'labi, Ahmad b. Muhammad; Yafith; and
->■ BlBLE.BIBLICAL PERSONAGES
suras al-Ahkaf; Ashab al-Kahf; Fatiha; al-Fil; Ghashiya; Kawthar; Lukman; al-Mu'aw-
116 QURAN — REFORM
widhatan'; al-Muddaththir and al-Muzzammil; al-Musabbihat; Sadjda; al-Saffat;
Ja-Ha
see also Hayawan.3; Sura
terms Adjr. 1 ; Ahkam; 'Alam; Amr; al-A'raf; 'Asa; Ashab al-Kahf; Ashab al-Rass; Ashab al-
Ukhdud; Aya; Bahira; al-Bahrayn; Ba'l; Bara'a; Baraka; Barzakh; Birr; Dabba; Da'wa;
Dharra: Din; Djahannam; Djahiliyya; Djanna; Djinn; Dunya; Fakir; Fara'id; Fitna; Fitra;
Furkan; al-Ghayb; Hadd; Hakk; Hanif; Hatif; Hawari; Hayat; Hidjab; Hisab; Hizb;
Hudjdja; Hur; Iblis; Ilaf; Ilham; 'Illiyyun; Kaffara; Kafir; Kalima; Karin; Karya; Kawm;
Kayyim; Khalk; KhatPa; Kiyama; Kursi; Kuwwa.2; Lawh; Madjnun; Makam Ibrahim;
Milla; Millet; Miskin; Mithak; al-Munafikun. 1 ; Nadhir; Nafs.I; Nar; Rahma; Rizk;
Rudju c ; Rukn; Sabr; Sadr; al-Saffat; Sahifa; Sakina; Salam; al-Salihun; Shakawa;
Shakk.l; Shirk; al-Siddik; Sidjdjil; Sidjdjin; Sidrat al-Muntaha; Siradj; Sirat; Subhan;
Sultan; Takhyil.3; Umm al-Kitab; Umm al-Kura; Umma.l; Ummi.l; Wahy; Yatim.l;
al-Zabaniyya; Zabur; Zulm; [in Suppl.] Asatir al-Awwalin; Lafz.2; Mala'. 1
see also Hikaya.I; Sabab.l; SamaM
translations Kur'an.9
see also Aljamia
into English Ahmadiyya; Pickthall
into Malay c Abd al-Ra'uf al-Sinkili
into Persian al-Dihlawi, Shah Wall Allah
see also Khatt.ii
into Swahili Kenya (891a)
into Urdu c Abd al-Kadir Dihlawi; Djawan; Rafi' al-Din
Raids Baranta; Ghanima; Ghazw
and -> Bedouins; Military.expeditions
Rebellion Fitna; Thawra; [in Suppl.] Marid
Recreation Cinema; Karagoz; Khayal al-Zill; Masrah; Orta Oyunu
games Djerid; Kharbga; Kimar; La'ib; al-Maysir; Mukharadja; Nard; Shatrandj
see also Ishara; Kurds.iv.C.5; May dan; and -> Animals.sport
sports Cawgan; Pahlawan; Zurkhana
Reform Djam c iyya; Islah
see also Baladiyya; Hukuma; al-Manar; and -> Women.emancipation
educational Ahmad Djewdet Pasha; Ahmad Khan; al-Azhar.IV; Habib Allah Khan; Ma'arif;
Miinif Pasha; Nadwat al-'Ulama'; Yiicel, Hasan 'All; [in Suppl.] al-'AdawI; Muhammad
c Abd Allah; Sati c al-Husri
see also al-Marsafi
financial Muhassil
land Ta c awun
legal Medjelle; Mirath.2; Nikah.II; Talak.II; Talfik; Tashri'; Wakf.II.5
see also Djaza'.ii; Imtiyazat.iv; Mahkama; [in Suppl.] Makasid al-Shari'a
reformers Abu 'l-Su'ud; Ahmad Djewdet Pasha; Kticiik Sa c id Pasha; al-Sanhuri, 'Abd al-
Razzak
see also Ileri, Djelal Nuri; Khayr al-DIn Pasha
military Nizam-i Djedid
REFORM — RIVERS 117
-► Numismatics
Ottoman Tanzimat
politico-religious Atatiirk; Djamal al-Din al-Afghani; Ileri, Djelal Nuri; Ibn Badls;
(al-)Ibrahimi; Isma c il Sidki; Kasim Amln; Khayr al-Din Pasha; Midhat Pash;
Muhammad c Abduh; Muhammad Bayram al-Khamis; Nurculuk; Padri; Rashid Rida;
Shaltut, Mahmud; al-Subkiyyun; Taha, Mahmud Muhammad; Taki al-Din al-Nabhani;
[in Suppl.] c Abd al-Nasir
see also Baladiyya; Bast; Djam'iyya; Dustur; Harbiye; Ibrahim Muteferrika; al-Ikhwan
al-Muslimun; Islah; Mappila.5.ii; Salafiyya; Sha'b; al-Shawkani; Tadjdid; Takrib; [in
Suppl.] Abu 'l-'Aza'im; and -> Politics
militant al-Banna 1 ; Fida J iyyan-i Islam; Hamaliyya; Ibn Badis; al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun;
Mawdudi; Sayyid Kutb; al-Takfir wa '1-Hidjra; Tatarruf; Usuliyya.2; 'Uthman b.
Fudi
see also Ibn al-Muwakkit; Mudjahid; [in Suppl.] al-Djanbihi
Religion c Akida; Din; al-Milal wa'1-Nihal; Milla; Millet. 1
see also Hanif; Tawhid; Umma; and -> Bahais; Buddhism; Christianity; Druzes; Is-
lam; Judaism; Zoroastrians
dualism Daysaniyya; Mani; Mazdak; Thanawiyya; Zindik
see also Iran.vi; Kumun; al-Nazzam
pantheism 'Amr b. Luhayy; Djahiliyya; Hindu; Ka'ba.V
see also Haririyya; Hadjdj.i; Ibn al- c Arabi; Ibn al-'Arif; Kafiristan; Kamal Khudjandi;
and -> Idolatry; Pre-Islam.gods
popular -^ ISLAM.POPULAR BELIEFS
religious communities Babis; Baha'is; Djayn; Duruz; Hindu; Islam; Madjus; Nasara; Sabi 5 ;
Sabi'a; al-Samira; Sikhs; Sumaniyya; Yahud; Yazidi; Zindik
see also al-Baramika. 1; Ibahatiya; Kitab al-Djilwa; al-Milal wa'1-Nihal; Millet; Nanak;
al-Shahrastani, Abu '1-Fath; and -► Bahais; Buddhism; Christianity; Druzes;
India. religion; Islam; Judaism; Sects; Zoroastrians
Rhetoric Badi'; Balagha; Bayan; Fasaha; Hakika. 1 ; Ibtida'; Idjaza; Iktibas; Intiha 5 ; Isti'ara;
Kinaya; al-Ma c ani wa '1-Bayan; Madjaz; Mubalagha; Mukabala.3; Muwaraba; Muzawadja;
Muzdawidj; Ramz.l; Ta'adjdjub; Tadjnis; Tadmin; Takhyil.4; Tamthil.2; Tarsi'; Tashbih;
Tawriya; Tibak
see also Ishara
treatises on al-'Askari.ii; Hazim; Ibn al-Mu'tazz; al-Kazwini (Khatib Dimashk); al-Raduyani;
Rashid al-Din Watwat; al-Sakkaki; al-Sidjilmasi; Yahya b. Hamza al-'Alawi; [in Suppl.]
al-Djurdjani; Ibn Wahb; al-Zandjani
Rhyme Kafiya; Luzum ma la yalzam
and -^ Literature.poetry; Metrics
Rituals c Akika; 'Ansara; 'Ashura'; Khitan; Rawda-kh w ani; [in Suppl.] Ramy al-Djimar
see also Bakka'; Hammam; al-Maghrib.VI; Zar; [in Suppl.] Dam; and -► Customs;
Islam. five pillars of islam and popular beliefs
Rivers Nahr
see also Ma'sir; and -> Navigation
waters al-'Adaym; 'Afrin; Alindjak; al- c Alkami; AmQ Darya; al- c Asi; Atbara; Atrek; Bahr
al-Ghazal.l; Barada; Caghan-rud; Congo; Coruh; Cu; Dar'a; Daw'an; Dehas; Didjla;
Diyala; Djamna; Djayhan; al-Furat; Ganga; Gediz Cayi; Goksu; al-Hamma; Hari Rud;
118 RIVERS — SAINTHOOD
Ibruh; Hi; Isly; Itil; Kabul. 1; Karkha; Karun; Khabur; Khalkha: al-Khazir: Kizil-irmak;
Kizil-iizen; Kuban; Kunduz; Kur; Kurram; Lamas-su; Mand; Menderes; Meric; Mihran;
al-Mudawwar; Nahr Abl Futrus; Niger; al-Nil; Ob; Orkhon; Ozi; al-Rass; Safid Rud;
Sakarya; Sandja; Sayhan; Shatt al- c Arab; Shebelle; Sir Darya; Tadjuh; Taraz; Tarim;
Terek; Tuna; Turgay; al-Urdunn. 1 ; (al-)Wadi al-Kabir; Wadi Yana; Wakhsh; Wardar;
Yarmuk.l; Yayik; Yeshil irmak; al-Zab; Zarafshan; Zayanda-Rud; Zhob; [in Suppl.]
Gumal; Irtish
see also Hind.i.j; c Isa, Nahr; Urmiya.2; Zabadani; and ->■ the section Physical Geogra-
phy under individual countries
Romania Boghdan; Dobrudja; Eflak; Erdel; Isakca
see also Budjak; Muslimun.l.B.2; [in Suppl.] Kantimir, Demetrius
toponyms
districts Deli-Orman
islands Ada Kal c e
towns Babadaghi; Bender; Biikresh; Ibrail; Kostendje; Medjidiyye; Nagyvarad;
Temeshwar; [in Suppl.] Yash
Russia ->■ Europe.eastern Europe
Sacred Places Abu Kubays; al-Haram al-Sharif; Hudjra; Ka'ba; Karbala'; Kazimayn; al-
Khalil; al-Kuds.II; al-Madina; Makka; al-Mukattam; al-Nadjaf; Tuba; Zamzam; [in Suppl.]
Kadamgah
see also Hawta; Hima; Kasiyun; Mawlay Idris; Mudjawir; Shah c Abd al-'Azim al-Hasani;
Shayba; Wali; and ->■ Architecture.monuments; Sainthood
for Hindus, see Allahabad; Buxar; Djunagafh; Dwarka; Ganga; Hasan Abdal; Surat; Udjdjayn
pilgrimage to Ziyara
Sacrifices 'Akika; 'Atlra; Baliyya; Dhabiha; Fidya; Hady; Kurban; Shi'ar.2 and 3
see also Ibil; c Id al-Adha; Kaffara; Nadhr; [in Suppl.] Dam
Sainthood Mawlid
see also 'Ababda; Mawla.I; Ziyara; and ->■ Christianity; Hagiography; Mysticism
saints Wali
see also Karama; Ziyara; and ->■ Sacred Places
African Shaykh Husayn
see also Ziyara. 9
Arabic Ahmad b. 'Isa; Ahmad al-Badawi; Nafisa
see also Kuna; Ziyara. 1 and 2; and ->■ Mysticism.mystics
North African Abu Muhammad Salih; Abu Ya'azza; c A J isha al-Mannubiyya; al-
Badisi.l; al-Dakkak; al-Djazuli, Abu c Abd Allah; Hmad u-Musa; Ibn c Arus; al-
Kabbab; Kaddur al-'Alami; al-Khasasi; Muhriz b. Khalaf; al-Sabti; al-Shawi; [in
Suppl.] Hamadisha
see also al-Maghrib.VI; Sab c atu Ridjal; Wali.2; Ziyara.4; and ->■ Mysticism,
mystics
Central Asian Ahmad Yasawi; Uways al-Karani; Zangi Ata
see also Wali.5; Ziyara.6; and ->■ Mysticism.mystics
Indian Abu c Ali Kalandar; Ashraf Djahangir; Badi' al-Din; Badr; Baha' al-Din Zakariy y a;
SAINTHOOD — SAUDI ARABIA 1 19
Cishti; Farid al-DIn Mas'ud "Gandj-i Shakar"; Ghazi Miyan; GIsu Daraz; Imam
Shah; Kh w adia Khidr; Maghribi; Makhdum al-Mulk Manlri; Mas'ud; Nizam al-DIn
Awliya'; Nur Kutb al-'Alam; Ratan; Shah Muhammad b. c Abd Ahmad; [in Suppl.]
Baba Nur al-Din Rishi; Gada'I Kambo; Gangohl; Hamid al-DIn Kadi Nagawrl; Hamid
al-DIn Sufi Nagawrl Siwall; Kanbo
see also Hasan Abdal; Pak Patan; Wali.6; Ziyara.7; and -> Mysticism.mystics
Indonesian Ziyara.8
and -> Mysticism.mystics
Persian 'All al-Hamadani; Baba-Tahir
see also Ziyara.5; and -> Mysticism.mystics
Southeast Asian and Chinese Wali.7 and 8
Turkish Akhl Ewran; Emir Sultan; HadjdjI Bayram Wall; Hakim Ata; Koyun Baba; Merkez;
Sari Saltuk Dede
see also Wali.4; Ziyara.6; and -*• Mysticism.mystics
terms Abdal; Ilham
Saudi Arabia (Djazlrat) al-'Arab; Djarida.i.A; Djami'a; Dustur.vii; al-Hidjar; al-Ikhwan;
Madjlis.4.A.viii; MahkamaAvii; Sihafa. 1 .(viii); al-Su'udiyya, al-Mamlaka al-'Arabiyya;
Wahhabiyya
see also Ba 'Alawi; Badw; Baladiyya.2; Barakat; Makka; [in Suppl.] Demography .III; and
-> PRE-ISLAM.IN ARABIAN PENINSULA; TRIBES.ARABIAN PENINSULA
before Islam ->■ Pre-Islam.in Arabian peninsula
dynasties Hashimids (2x); Rashid, Al; Su'ud, Al
and ->■ Dynasties.arabian peninsula
historians of al-Azrakl; Dahlan; al-Fakihi; al-FasI; Ibn Fahd; Ibn Manda; Ibn al-Mudjawir;
Ibn al-Nadjdjar; al-Samhudl
see also al-Diyarbakrl
physical geography Nadjd. 1
deserts al-Ahkaf; al-Dahna'; Nafud; al-Rub c al-Khali
see also Badw .II; Harra
mountains Djabala; Hira'; Hufash; Radwa; al-Sarat; Thabir; al-Tuwayk
see also Adja' and Salma
plains 'Arafa; al-Dibdiba; al-Samman
wadis al-'Atk; al-Batin; Bayhan; Bayhan al-Kasab; Djayzan; Fa'w; Hamd, Wadi al-; al-
Rumma; al-Sahba'; Sirhan; Tabala; Turaba.l; Wadi Hanlfa
waters Daw'an
population -^ Tribes.arabian peninsula
toponyms
and ->■ the section Physical Geography above
ancient Badr; al-Djar; Fadak; al-Hidjr; al-Hudaybiya; Kurh; Madyan Shu'ayb; al-Rabadha;
al-Tha c labiyya; Wadi '1-Kura
see also Fa'w
present-day
districts al-Afladj; al-Djawf; al-Kasim; al-Khardj
islands Farasan
oases al-Dir c iyya; Dumat al-Djandal; al-Hasa; al-Khurma; al- c Uyayna
regions 'Aslr; Bayhan; al-Hadina; Haly; al-Hawta; al-Hidjaz; Kurayyat al-Milh;
Nadjd; Nafud; Ra's (al-)Tannura; al-Rub c al-Khali; Tihama
towns Abha; Abkayk; Abu 'Arish; Burayda; al-Dammam; al-Djawf; Djayzan; al-
Djubayl; al-Djubayla; Djudda; Fakhkh; Ghamid; Hayil; al-Hufuf; Huraymila;
Karya al-Sufla; Karya al- c Ulya; al-Kasab; al-Katif; Khamis Mushayt; Khaybar;
120 SAUDI ARABIA SECTS
al-Khubar; al-Kunfudha; al-Madina; Makka; Mina; al-Mubarraz; Nadjran;
Rabigh; al-Riyad; Tabala; TabQk; al-Ta'if; Tayma'; Turaba.2 and 3; al-'Ula;
c Unayza; al-Yamama; Yanbu'; (al-)Zahran; [in Suppl.] Fayd; Sabya
see also (Djazirat) al-'Arab; al-'Arid; Bisha; Dariyya
Science c Ilm; Mawsu'a
see also Ibn Abi Usaybi'a; Shumayyil, Shibli; [in Suppl.] al-Bustani; Ibn al-Akfani.3; Ibn
Farighun; and -> Alchemy; Astrology; Astronomy; Botany; Mathematics; Mechan-
ics; Medicine; Optics; Pharmacology; Zoology
Sects 'Adjarida; Ahl-i Hadith; Ahl-i Hakk; Ahmadiyya; 'Alids; Azarika; al-Badjali; Bakliyya;
Bih'afrid b. Farwardin; Bohoras; Burghuthiyya; Djabriyya; Djahmiyya; al-Djanahiyya; al-
D^arQdiyya; Duruz; Fara'idiyya; Ghurabiyya; Haririyya; Hashishiyya; Hulmaniyya;
Hurufiyya; al-Ibadiyya; Karmati; Karramiyya; Kaysaniyya; al-Khalafiyya; Kharidjites:
Khashabiyya; Khattabiyya; Khodja: Khubmesihis; Khurramiyya; Kuraybiyya; Mahdawis;
Mansuriyya; al-Mughiriyya; Muhammadiyya; Mukhammisa; Mutarrifiyya; al-Mu c tazila;
Nadjadat; Nawusiyya; al-Nukkar; Nuktawiyya; Nurbakhshiyya; Nusayriyya; al-Rawandiyya;
Rawshaniyya; Salmaniyya; Sarliyya; Satpanthis; Shabak; Shabashiyya; Shaykhiyya;
Shumaytiyya; Sufriyya; Tablighi Djama'at; 'Ulya'iyya; 'Uthmaniyya; Yazidi; [in Suppl.]
Dhikris; Pirpanthi
see also Abu 'l-Ma'ali; c Ali Ilahi; Baba'I; Babis; Bayazid Ansari; Bishar'; Dahriyya; al-
Dhammiyya; DIn-i Ilahi; Ghassaniyya; Ghulat; Ha-Mim; Imam Shah; 'Irak.vi; Kasrawi
Tabrizi; al-Kayyal; Kazim Rashti; Kizil-bash; al-Malati; Mazdak; Mudjtahid.III; Salimiyya;
Sultan Sehak; and -> Mysticism.orders
Alids 'Abd Allah b. Mu'awiya; Abu c Abd Allah Ya'kub; Abu '1-Aswad al-Du'ali; Abu Hashim;
Abu Nu'aym al-Mula 5 !; Abu Salama al-Khallal: Abu '1-Saraya al-Shaybani; 'Ali b.
Muhammad al-Zandji; 'Alids; al-Djawwani; Hani 5 b. c Urwa al-Muradi; al-Hasan b. Zayd
b. Muhammad; Hasan al-Utrush; Hudjr; al-Husayn b. c Ali, Sahib Fakhkh; Ibrahim b. al-
Ashtar; Khidash; Muhammad b. c Abd Allah (al-Nafs al-Zakiyya); al-Mukhtar b. Abi
'Ubayd; Muslim b. 'Akil b. Abi Talib; Sulaym b. Kays; Sulayman b. Surad; al-Ukhaydir,
Banu; Yahya b. 'Abd Allah; Yahya b. Zayd; Zayd b. c Ali b. al-Husayn
see also Dhu '1-Fakar; al-Djanahiyya; al-Djarudiyya; Ghadir Khumm; al-Ma'mun; Sharif;
Zaynab bt. c Abd Allah al-Mahd; [in Suppl] al-Nadjashi; and ->■ Shiites
Bdbism Bab; Babis; Kashani; Kurrat al-'Ayn; Mazhar; Muhammad c Ali Barfurushi;
Muhammad c Ali Zandjani; Muhammad Husayn Bushru'i; Subh-i Azal
see also al-Ahsa'i; Mudjtahid.III; Nuktat al-Kaf; al-Sabikun
Druzes -> Druzes
Hindu Barahima; Ibahatiya; Nanak; [in Suppl.] Pirpanthi
Ibadis c Abd al-'Aziz b. al-Hadjdj Ibrahim; Abu Ghanim al-Khurasani; Abu Hafs 'Urnar b.
Djami c ; Abu Hatim al-Malzuzi (and al-Malzuzi); Abu '1-Khattab al-Ma c afiri; Abu
Muhammad b. Baraka; Abu '1-Mu'thir al-Bahlawi; Abu Zakariyya 5 al-Djanawuni; Abu
Zakariyya 1 al-Wardjlani; Atfiyash; al-Barradi; al-BughtQri; al-Dardjini; Djabir b. Zayd;
al-Djaytali; al-Djulanda; al-Ibadiyya; Ibn Baraka; Ibn Dja'far; al-Irdjani; al-Lawati;
Mahbub b. al-Rahil al- c Abdi; al-Mazati; al-Nafusi; al-Shammakhi al-Ifrani; al-Tanawuti;
al-Wisyani; [in Suppl.] Abu 'Ammar; al-Harithi; Talib al-Hakk
see also c Awamir; Azd; Halka; al-Khalafiyya; (Banu) Kharus; and~> Dynasties.spain
and north africa.rustamids; Law; Sects.kharidjites
historians of Abu '1-Mu'thir al-Bahlawi; Abu Zakariyya' al-Wardjlani; al-Barradi; al-
Bughturi; al-Dardjini; Ibn al-Saghir; Ibn Salam; al-Lawati; Mahbub b. al-Rahil al-
c Abdi; al-Mazati; al-Salimi
see also al-Nafusi
SECTS — SHIITES 121
Jewish -> Judaism
Kharidjites Abu Bayhas; Abu Fudayk; Abu Yazid al-Nukkari; al-Dahhak b. Kays al-Shaybani;
Hurkus b. Zuhayr al-Sa c di; 'Imran b. Hittan; Katari b. al-Fudja'a; Kharidjites; Kurra';
Ku'ud; Mirdas b. Udayya; Nafi' b. al-Azrak; al-Nukkar; Shabib b. Yazid; c Ubayd Allah
b. Bashir; al-Walid b. Tarif
see also 'Adjarida; Azarika; Harura'; al-Ibadiyya; Ibn Muldjam; Imama; Isti'rad; al-
Mansur bl 'llah; Nadjadat; Sufriyya; al-Tirimmah; 'Ubayd Allah b. Ziyad; [in Suppl.]
al-Kaff
Shiite -> Shiites
Sedentarism Sart; [in Suppl.] Iskan
see also Sha'b.l; and -> Architecture.urban; Geography.urban
Senegal Djolof; Senegal
see also Muridiyya
physical geography Senegal. 1
toponyms Tuba; [in Suppl.] Dakar
Sexuality c Azl; Bah; Djins; Khitan; Liwat; Sihak; [in Suppl.] Bigha 1 ; Mukawwiyat
see also Djanaba; Khasi; Tanzim al-Nasl; and -»■ Adultery; Circumcision; Love.erotic
treatises on al-Tifashi
Shiites c Abd Allah b. Saba 3 ; c Alids; Ghulat; Imama; Isma'iliyya; Ithna c Ashariyya; Sab'iyya;
Shi c a; Takiyya; Wilaya.2; Zaydiyya
see also Abu '1-Saraya al-Shaybani; c Ali b. Abi Talib; c Ali Mardan; Madjlis.3; Ta'ziya; [in
Suppl.] Batriyya; and -»■ Shiites.sects
branches Isma'iliyya; Ithna c Ashariyya; Karmati; Nizariyya; Zaydiyya
see also Hind.v.d; Imama; Sab'iyya; and -»■ Shiites.sects
Carmathians (Djazirat) al- c Arab.vii.2; al-Djannabi, Abu Sa c id; al-Djannabi, Abu Tahir;
Hamdan Karmat; al-Hasan al-A'sam; Karmati
see also c Abdan; al-Bahrayn; Bakliyya; Da c wa; Shabashiyya
Ismd'iliyya c Abd Allah b. Maymun; Abu c Abd Allah al-S_hi c i; Abu '1-Khattab al-Asadi;
Allah.iii.l; (Djazirat) al- c Arab.vii.2; Bab; Batiniyya; Da c i; Da c wa; Fatimids; Haka'ik;
Hind.v.d; Ibn c Attash; Ikhwan al-Safa 3 ; Imama; Isma'iliyya; Lanbasar; Madjlis.2;
al-Mahdi 'Ubayd Allah; Mala'ika.2; Mansur al-Yaman; Maymun-diz; Sab'iyya;
Shahriyarb. al-Hasan; al-Tayyibiyya; Yam; Zakarawayh b. Mihrawayh; [in Suppl.]
Dawr; Satr
see also Hawwa 3 ; Ikhlas; Masyad; Sab c ; Salamiyya; Sulayhids; Umm al-Kitab.2; al-
Zahir wa '1-Batin; [in Suppl.] Pirpanthi; and -> Caliphate.fatimids; Shiites.imams
authors Abu Hatim al-Razi; Abu Ya c kub al-Sidjzi; al-Kirmani; al-Mu'ayyad fi '1-
Din; al-Nasafi.l; Nasir-i Khusraw: [in Suppl.] Dja'far b. Mansur al-Yaman
and -> the sections Musta'll-Tayyibis and Nizdris below
Musta'li-Tayyibis Bohoras; al-Hamidi; Lukmandji; al-Makrami; Makramids;
Muhammad b. Tahir al-Harithi; Shaykh Adam; Sulayman b. Hasan; Sulaymanis;
Tahir Sayf al-Din; al-Tayyibiyya; [in Suppl.] c Ali b. Hanzala b. Abi Salim; c Ali
b. Muhammad b. Dja'far; AmindjI b. Djalal b. Hasan; Hasan b. Nuh; Idris b. al-
Hasan
see also Isma c iliyya
Nizdris Agha Khan; Fida'i; Khodja; Mahallati; Nizar b. al-Mustansir; Nizariyya;
Pir Sadr al-Din; Pir Shams; Rashid al-Din Sinan; Sabz c Ali; Shah Tahir; al-
Shahrastani, Abu '1-Fath; Shams-al-Din Muhammad; Shihab al-DIn al-Husayni;
122 SHIITES
al-Tusi, Nasir al-DIn; [in SuppL] Khayrkh w ah-i HaratI
see also Sarkar Aka; Satpanthls
of Alamut Alamut.ii; Buzurg-ummid; Hasan-i Sabbah; Hashishiyya; Nur al-
DIn Muhammad II; Rukn al-Din Khurshah; [in SuppL] Muhammad III b. Hasan
see also Fida'I
Sevener Sab'iyya
see also Sab c
Twelver Imama; Ithna 'Ashariyya; Mudjtahid.II; Mutawali; al-Rafida; Usuliyya.l; [in
SuppL] Akhbariyya
see also Buwayhids; al-Zahir wa '1-Batin; and -> the sections Imams, Jurists and
Theologians below
Zaydiyya al-Djarudiyya; Mutarrifiyya; Zaydiyya; [in SuppL] Batriyya
see also Imama; Rassids; and -> Dynasties. Arabian peninsula. zaydIs
scholars al-Hasan b. Salih b. Hayy al-Kufi; Ibn Abi '1-Ridjal; al-Rassi; Sulayman
b. Djarir al-Rakki; Yahya b. Hamza al-'Alawi; Zayd b. 'All b. al-Husayn; [in
SuppL] Abu '1-Barakat; Abu '1-Fath al-Daylami; Ahmad b. c Isa; Dja c far b. Abi
Yahya; al-Hakim al-Djushami
for Zaydi imams of Yemen -> Dynasties.arabian peninsula. zaydis
for Zaydi imams of the Caspian, see al-Hasan b. Zayd b. Muhammad; Hasan al-
Utrush; Muhammad b. Zayd; al-Nasir li-Din Allah.I; al-lha'ir fi 'llah; Yahya b.
c Abd Allah; Yahya b. Zayd; Zaydiyya. 2
for others, see Ibn Tabataba
doctrines and institutions Batiniyya; Djafr; Ka'im Al Muhammad; Khalk.VII; Madjlis.2 and
3; al-Mahdl; Mala'ika.2; Mardja c -i Taklid; Mazhar; Mazlum; Mudjtahid.II; Mut'a.V;
Radj c a; Safir.l; Tanasukh.2; Ta'wll; al-Zahir wa '1-Batin; [in SuppL] Ayatullah
see also Adhan; Ahl al-Bayt; c Akida; Bab; Ghayba; Hudjdja; Imama; 'Ilm al-Ridjal;
Imam-bara; Imamzada; Molla; Umm al-Kitab.2; Ziyara.l.a and 5; and -> Theology.
TERMS.SHIITE
dynasties Buwayhids; Fatimids; Safawids; Zaydiyya.3
see also Musha'sha 1 ; al-Ukhaydir, Banu
imams c Ali b. Abi Talib; c Ali al-Rida; al-'Askari; Dja'far al-Sadik; (al-)Hasan b. C AH b. Abi
Talib; (al-)Husayn b. c Ali b. Abi Talib; Muhammad b. C A1I al-Rida; Muhammad b. c Ali
(al-Bakir); Muhammad al-Ka'im; Musa al-Kazim; Zayn al- c Abidin; [in SuppL]
Muhammad b. Isma'il al-Maymun
see also Bab; Ghayba; Imamzada; Mala'ika.2; Mazlum; Rida.2; Safir. 1
jurists al-'Amili; al-Damad; al-Hilli.l and 2; al-Hurr al-'Amili; Ibn Babawayh(i); Ibn
Shahrashub; al-Karaki; Kashani, Ayatullah; Kashif al-Ghita 3 ; Kh w ansari. Sayyid Mirza;
Kh w ansari. Sayyid Muhammad; Khiyabani, Shaykh Muhammad; Khurasani; al-Kulayni,
Abu Dja c far Muhammad; Madjlisi; Madjlisi-yi Awwal; al-Mamakani; al-Mufid;
Muhammad b. Makki; al-Murtada; Mutahhari; Na'ini; al-Shahid al-Thani; Sharaf al-
Din; Shari'atmadari; Shirazi; al-Tabrisi, Abu Mansur; al-Tabrisi, Amin al-Din; Tabrisi;
al-Tusi, Muhammad b. al-Hasan; [in SuppL] Aka Nadjafi; Ansari; Bihbihani; Burudjirdi;
Fayd-i Kashani; Ha'iri; Ibn Abi Djumhur al-Ahsa 3 I; al-Katifi; Khumayni; Musa al-Sadr
see also c Akila; Mardja c -i Taklid; Molla; Mudjtahid.II; Mut c a.V; Usuliyya.l; [in SuppL]
Akhbariyya
places of pilgrimage Karbala'; Kazimayn; al-Nadjaf; Samarra 3 ; [in SuppL] c Atabat; Kadamgah;
Mashhad.3
see also Shah c Abd al- c Azim al-Hasani; Ziyara. 1 .a and 5
rituals Rawda-kh w anl
sects Ahl-i Hakk; c Alids; Bakliyya; Bohoras; Djabir b. Hayy an; al-Djanahiyya; al-Djarudiyya;
Ghurabiyya; Hurufiyya; Ibaha.II; Kaysaniyya; Khashabiyya; Khattabiyya; Khodja;
SHIITES — SOMALIA 123
Khurramiyya: Kuraybiyya; Mansuriyya; al-Mughiriyya; Muhammadiyya; Mukhammisa;
Mutarrifiyya; al-Mu'tazila; Nawusiyya; Nurbakhshiyya; Nusayriyya; al-Rafida; al-
Rawandiyya; Salmaniyya; Satpanthls; Shaykhiyya; Shumaytiyya; Tawusiyya;
c Ulya J iyya; al-Wakifa; [in Suppl.] Kamiliyya
see also 'Abd Allah b. Saba'; Batiniyya; Bayan b. Sam'an al-Tamimi; Bektashiyya;
Ghulat; Hind.v.d; Imam Shah; Kat'; al-Kayyal; Kazim Rashti; Kizil-bash; Mudjtahid.III;
Musha'sha 1 ; Tawwabun; [in Suppl.] Ibn Warsand; and -> Bahais; Druzes; Sects. alids
Kaysaniyya Abu Hashim; Kaysan; Kaysaniyya
see also al-Sayyid al-Himyari
Khattabiyya Abu '1-Khattab al-Asadi; Bashshar al-Sha'iri; Bazigh b. Musa; Khattabivya
see also Mukhammisa; al-Samit
Khurramiyya Babak; [in Suppl.] Badham
Mukhammisa Mukhammisa
see also al-Muhassin b. c Ali
Shaykhism al-Ahsa'i; Rashti, Sayyid Kazim; Shaykhiyya
terms ->• Theology.terms.shiite
theologians al-Damad; al-Hilli; Hisham b. al-Hakam; al-Hurr al- c Amili; Ibn Babawayh(i);
Ibn Shahrashub; al-Karaki; Kashif al-Ghita'; Kh w ansari. Sayyid Mirza; al-Kulayni,
Abu Dja'far Muhammad; Lahidji.2; Mir Lawhi; al-Mufid; Mulla Sadra Shirazi;
al-Nasafi.l; Shay tan al-Tak; Tabrisi; al-lhakafi, Ibrahim; al-Tusi, Muhammad b. al-
Hasan; al-Tusi, Nasir al-Din; [in Suppl.] Akhbariyya; Ibn Abi Djumhur al-Ahsa'i; Ibn
Mitham
see also al- c Ayyashi; Hudjdja; Imama; Khalk.VH; Molla; Shari'ati, c Ali; and ->■ the
section Jurists above
traditionists ->■ Literature.tradition-literature.traditionists.shiites
Siberia Sibir
physical geography
waters Ob; [in Suppl.] Irtish
see also Tobol
population Bukharlik; Tobol
toponyms ->■ Europe. eastern Europe
Sicily Benavert; Kalbids; Sikilliya
see also Aghlabids.iii; Asad b. al-Furat; Fatimids; Tari
local rulers Ibn al-Hawwas; Ibn al-Thumna
poets Ibn Hamdis; Ibn al-Khayyat
scholars Ibn al-Birr; Ibn al-Katta c ; Ibn Makki
see also al-Idrisi
toponyms Balarm; Benavent; Djirdjent; Kasryannih; Sirakusa
see also al-Khalisa
Slavery c Abd; Ghulam; Kayna; Khasi; Mamluk; Mawla; al-Sakaliba; Umm al-Walad
see also Habash.i; Habshi; Hausa; Tdda.5; Istibra'; Khadim; Kul; Matmura; Sidi; [in Suppl.]
Nafaka; and ->■ Music. song.singers
manumission c Abd.3.j; Ttkname; Tadbir.2
slave revolt Zandj.2
Somalia Sihafa.l.(xv); Somali
see also Habesh; Muhammad b. c Abd Allah Hassan; Ogaden; and ->• Africa.east Africa
physical geography Somali.2
religious orders Salihiyya
see also Somali.4
toponyms
regions Guardafui
see also Ogaden
towns Barawa; Berbera; Hargeisa; Makdishu; Merka; Shungwaya; Zayla*
South(-east) Asia ->■ Asia
Soviet Union -»• Caucasus; Central Asia. former soviet union; Communism;
europe.eastern europe; siberia
Spain Aljamia; Almogavares; al-Burt; al-Busharrat; Moriscos
see also Ibn al-Kitt; Ifni; al-'Ikab; and -*■ Andalusia; Dynasties. spain and north Africa
physical geography al-Andalus.ii and iii.2
see also Wadl.3
mountains al-Sharat
waters al-Hamma; Ibruh; al-Mudawwar; Shakura; Tadjuh; (al-)Wadi al-Kabir; Wadi Yana;
[in Suppl.] Araghun; Wadi Lakku
toponyms
ancient Barbashturu; Bulay; Kastiliya.l; al-Madlna al-Zahira; Shaduna; Shakunda;
Shakura; Shantabariyya; Takurunna; Talablra; Tudmir; [in Suppl.] Afrag; Balyunash
see also Rayya
present-day
islands al-Djaza J ir al-Khalida; Mayurka; Minurka; Yabisa
regions Alaba wa 'l-Kila 1 ; Djillikiyya; Fahs al-Ballut; Finish; Kanbaniya; Kashtala;
Navarra; Wadi '1-Hidjara; Walba; [in Suppl.] Araghun; al-Sharaf
towns Alsh; Arkush; Arnit; Badjdjana; Balansiya; Balish; Banbaluna; Barshaluna;
al-Basit; Basta; Batalyaws; Bayyana; Bayyasa; Bitrawsh; al-Bunt; Burghush;
Daniya; Djarunda; Djayyan; al-Djazira al-Khadra'; Djazirat Shukr; Finyana;
Gharnata: Ifragha; Ilbira; Ishbiliya; Istidja; Kabra; Kadis; Kal c at Ayyub; Karat
Rabah; Kantara.2; Karmuna; Kartadjanna; al-Kulay c a; Kunka; Kuriya; Kurtuba;
Labia; Lakant; Larida; Lawsha; LiyQn; Lurka; al-Ma c din; Madinat Salim; Madinat
al-Zahra 5 ; Madjrit; Malaka; Marida; al-Mariyya; Mawrur; al-Munakkab; Mursiya;
Runda; Sarakusta; Shakubiya; Shalamanka; Shaltish; Shant Mankash; Shant
Yakub; Shantamariyyat al-Shark; Sharish; Shatiba; Tarifa; Tarrakuna; Tulaytula;
Turtusha; Tutila; Ubbadha; Uklish; Urdjudhuna; Uryula; Wadi Ash; Washka;
[in Suppl.] Ashturka
see also al-Andalus.iii.3; Balat; Djabal Tarik; al-Kal c a; and -»• Portugal
Sri Lanka Ceylon; Sarandib
and ->■ India.population.tamils
Sudan Dar Fur; Dustur.xiii; Hizb.i; Madjlis.4. A.xvii; al-Mahdiyy a; Sihafa. 1 .(ii); Sudan; [in
Suppl.] Nizam c Askari.l.(d)
see also Baladiyya.2; Fundj; Habesh; Nuba; and -> Africa.east Africa
history [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.8
Mahdist period c Abd Allah b. Muhammad al-Ta'a'ishi; Khalifa.iv; al-Mahdiyya; c Uthman
Dikna; [in Suppl.] Manshurat
see also Awlad al-Balad; Dar Fur; Emin Pasha; Rabih b. Fadl Allah; Ta c a J isha; [in Suppl.]
al-Madjadhib
pret
SUDAN SYRIA 125
modern period
influential persons Taha, Mahmud Muhammad
see also al-Tunisi, Muhammad; al-Tunisi, Shaykh Zayn al-'Abidln
physical geography
waters al-Nil
population 'Ababda; c Alwa; (Banu) 'Amir; Bakkara; Barabra; Dja'aliyyun; Ghuzz.iii; Nuba.4;
Rasha'ida; Shaykiyya; Ta'a'isha; Zaghawa
see also Bedja; Fallata
religious orders MIrghaniyya
see also [in Suppl.] al-Madjadhlb
toponyms
'Aydhab; Soba
■nt-day
provinces Bahr al-Ghazal.3; Berber.2; Dar Fur; Fashoda; Kasala
regions Fazughli; Kordofan
towns Atbara; Berber.3; Dongola; al-Fashir; Kasala; KerrI; al-Khurtum; Omdurman;
Sawakin; Shandi; Sinnar; al-Ubayyid; Wad MadanI; Wadi Haifa
Superstition 'Ayn; Fa'l; Ghurab; Hinna'; Khamsa; Sada
see also c Akik; Barih; Lakab
Syria Dimashk; al-Sham
see also [in Suppl.] Wakf.II.2; and -> Lebanon
architecture -> Architecture.regions
before Islam -> Pre-Islam.in fertile crescent
dynasties 'Ammar; Ayyubids; Burids; Fatimids; Hamdanids; Mamluks; Umayyads; Zangids
see also [in Suppl.] al-Djazzar Pasha; and -> Dynasties.egypt and the fertile cres-
cent; Lebanon
historians of al-'Azimi; Ibn Abi Tayyi'; Ibn al-'Adim; Ibn 'Asakir; Ibn al-Kalanisi; Ibn Kathir;
Ibn Shaddad; Ibn Tulun; Kurd 'Ali; al-Kutubi; al-Yunini; Yusuf b. 'Abd al-Hadi; [in
Suppl.] Matar
see also [in Suppl.] Ta'rikh.II.l.(c); and -> Dynasties.egypt and the fertile cres-
cent
modern period Djarida.i.A; Djami'a; Dustur.ix; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iii; Madjlis.4.A.v; Madjma'
'Ilmi.i.2.a; Mahkama.4.ii; Mandates; Maysalun; Salafiyya.2(b); al-Sham. 2. esp. (b) and
(c); Sihafa.l.(iv); [in Suppl.] Nizam c Askari.l.(b)
see also Baladiyya.2; Kurd 'Ali; Mardam.2; [in Suppl.] Demography .III
belletrists
poets al-Khuri; Mardam.2; [in Suppl.] Butrus Karama; Kabbani
historians [in Suppl.] Matar
statesmen al-Khuri; Mardam. 1 ; al-Zahrawi, 'Abd al-Hamid; al-Za'im
physical geography al-Sham. 1
mountains Kasiyun; al-Lukkam
waters 'Afrin; al- c Asi; Barada; al- c Utayba; Yarmuk.l; Zabadani; [in Suppl.] Kuwayk
toponyms
ancient Afamiya; 'Arban; al-Bakhra'; al-Bara; Barka'id; Dabik; Diyar Mudar; Diyar Rabi c a;
al-Djabiya; al-Djazira; Djillik; Manbidj; Namara.l; al-Rahba; Ra's al-'Ayn; Riha.2;
al-Rusafa.3; Shayzar; [in Suppl.] Kurus
present-day
districts al-Bathaniyya; al-Djawlan
regions al-Ghab; Hawran; Kinnasrin.2; Ladja 3 ; al-Safa.2
SYRIA — THEOLOGY
see also Ghuta
>wns Adhri'at; Baniyas; Bosra; Buza'a; Dayr al-Z6r; Dimashk; Djabala; al-
Djabbul; Djisr al-Shughr; Halab; Hamat; Harim; Hims; Huwwarin; Kanawat;
Karkisiya; Khawlan.2; Kinnasrin.l; al-Ladhikiyya; Ma'arrat Masrin; Ma'arrat
al-Nu c man; Ma'lula; Maskana; Masyad; al-Mizza; Namara.2 and 3; al-Rakka;
Safitha; Salamiyya; Salkhad; Tadmur; Tartus; Zabadani
see also al-Markab
Tanzania Dar-es-Salaam; Kilwa; Mikindani; Mkwaja; Mtambwe Mkuu; Tanzania
see also Swahili; and -> Africa. east africa
Zanzibar Barghash; Bu Sa'Id; Kizimkazi; Zandjibar
see also Tumbatu
Taxation Badj; Bayt al-Mal; Dariba; Djizya; Kanun.ii and iii; Kharadj; Tahrir; Tahsil; Takslt;
c Ushr; [in Suppl.] Darlba.7
see also Dabt; Djahbadh; Ma'; Ma'sir; Ra'iyya; Takdir.2; Ta'rikh.I.l.viii; Zakat
collectors c Amil; Dihkan; Muhassil; Miiltezim; Mustakhridj
see also Amir; Tahsil
taxes c Arus Resmi; 'Awarid; Bad-i Hawa; Badal; Badj; Bashmaklik; Bennak; Cift-resmi;
Djawali; Djizya; Filori; Furda; Ispendje; Kharadj: Kubcur; Maks; Malikane; MM;
Mukasama; Mukata'a; Pishkash; Resm; Tamgha; Tekalif; 'Ushr
see also Hisba.ii; Kati'a; Wazifa. 1
land taxes Bashmaklik; Bennak; Cift-resmi; Kharadj; MM; Mukasama; 'Ushr; [in Suppl.]
Ta'alluk
see also Daftar; Daftar-i Khakani: Kabala; Kanun.iii.l; Rawk; Ustan
tithe-lands Day'a; Ighar; Ikta'; Iltizam; Khalisa; Khass: Safi; Timar; Zamindar; Zi'amet
see also Ba c 1.2.b; Dar al- c Ahd; Fay'; Filaha.iv; Za'im
treatises on Abu Yusuf; al-Makhzumi; al-Tahanawi; Yahya b. Adam
see also Abu 'Ubayd al-Kasim b. Sallam
Thailand Patani; Thailand
see also [in Suppl.] al-Mar J a
Theology 'Akida; Allah; Din; Djanna; Tim al-Kalam; Imama; Iman; Kalam; al-Mahdl;
Usui al-Din
see also 'Alam.l; Hilal.i; and ->■ Islam
disputation Masa'il wa-Adjwiba; Munazara; Radd; [in Suppl.] c Ibadat Khana
see also Mubahala
treatises on al-Samarkandi, Shams al-DIn
schools
Shiite Isma'iliyya; Ithna c Ashariyya; Karmati; Usuliyya.l; [in Suppl.] Akhbariyya
see also Mu'tazila
Sunni Ash/ariyya; Hanabila; Maturidiyya; Mu'tazila
see also 'Ilm al-Kalam.II; Kadariyya; Karamat c Ali; Murdji'a; al-Nadjdjariyya
terms Adjal; Adjr; c Adl; c Ahd; Ahl al-ahwa'; Ahl al-kitab; Akhira; c Akida; c Akl; 'Akliyyat;
'Alam^.; c Amal.2; Amr; al-Aslah; Ba c th; Batiniyya; Bid c a; Birr; Da c wa; Din; Djama'a;
Djaza 5 ; Djism; Du c a'; Fard.g; Fasik; FiT; Fitna; Fitra; al-Ghayb; Ghayba; Ghufran; Hadd;
Hakk; Haraka wa-Sukun.1.2 and 3; Hisab; Hudjdja; Huduth al-'Alam; Hulul; Fdjaz;
THEOLOGY 127
Idtirar; Ikhlas; Ikhtiyar; 'Illa.ii.III; Imama; Iman; Islam; 'Isma; Istita'a; Ittihad; al-Kada'
wa '1-Kadar; Kaffara; Kafir; Kalima; Karama; Kasb; Kashf; Khalk; Khati'a; Khidhlan;
Kidam; Kumun; Kunut; Kuwwa.3; Lutf; Ma'ad; al-Mahdi; al-Manzila bayn al-
Manzilatayn; al-Mughayyabat al-Khams; al-Munafikun.2; Murtadd; Mutlak; Nafila;
Nafs; Namus.l; Nur Muhammadi; Riya'; Rizk; Rudju'; Ru'yat Allah; Sabil.l; Shubha;
Sifa.2; Ta'a; Tahsin wa-Takbih; Taklid; Takllf; Tanasukh; Tashbih wa-TanzIh; Tawallud;
Tawba; Tawfik; Wara'; al-Zahir wa '1-Batin; Zulm; [in Suppl.] Hal; Ithm; Kabira; al-
Nahy 'an al-Munkar; Takwa
see also Abad; Allah.ii; In Sha' Allah; 'Inaya; Sura; and -> Eschatology; Quran.terms
Shiite Bada 5 ; Ghayba; Ibda c ; Kashf; Lahut and Nasut.5; Mazhar; Mazlum; al-Munafikun.2;
Nakd al-Mithak; Radj'a; al-Sabikun; Safir.l; al-Samit; Sarkar Aka; Tabarru 5 ;
Tanasukh.2; Wasi
and ->■ Shiites.doctrines and institutions
theologians 'Ulama 5
see also Sharh.III
in early Islam Djahm b. Safwan; al-Hasan al-Basri; Wasil b. 'Ata 5 ; [in Suppl.] al-Asamm;
al-Hasan b. Muhammad b. al-Hanafiyya; Ibn Kullab
Ash'ari al-Amidi; al-Ash'ari, Abu '1-Hasan; al-Baghdadi; al-Bakillani; al-Bayhaki; al-
Djuwayni; al-Fadali; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi; al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid; Ibn Furak; al-
Idji; al-Isfarayini; al-Kiya al-Harrasi; al-Kushayri; al-Sanusi, Abu c Abd Allah; al-
Simnani; [in Suppl.] al-TQsi
see also Allah.ii; c Ilm al-Kalam.II.C; Imama; Iman; [in Suppl.] Hal
Hanbali c Abd al-Kadir al-Djilani; Ahmad b. Hanbal; al-Ansari al-Harawi; al-Barbahari;
Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab; Ibn 'Akil; Ibn Batta al- c Ukbari; Ibn al-D^awzi; Ibn Kayyim al-
Djawziyya; Ibn Kudama al-Makdisi; Ibn Taymiyya; al-Khallal
see also Iman; and ->• Law
Maturidi c Abd al-Hayy; Bishr b. Ghiyath; al-Maturidi
see also Allah.ii; 'Ilm al-Kalam.II.D; Imama; Iman
Mu'tazill c Abbad b. Sulayman; c Abd al-Djabbar b. Ahmad; Abu '1-Hudhayl al- c Allaf;
Ahmad b. Abi Du'ad; Ahmad b. Habit; c Amr b. 'Ubayd; al-Balkhi; Bishr b. al-
Mu'tamir; Dja'far b. Harb; D^a c far b. Mubashshir; D^ahiz; al-Djubba'i; Hisham
b. c Amr al-Fuwati; Ibn al-Ikhshid; Ibn Khallad; al-Iskafi; al-Khayyat; Mu'ammar b.
'Abbad; al-Murdar; al-Nashi 5 al-Akbar; al-Nazzam; al-Shahham; Thumama
b. Ashras; al-Zamakhshari; [in Suppl.] Abu 'Abd Allah al-Basri; Abu '1-Husayn al-
Basri; Abu Rashid al-Nisaburi; Dirar b. 'Amr; al-Hakim al-Djushami; Ibn Mattawayh
see also Ahl al-Nazar; Allah.ii; Hafs al-Fard; Ibn 'Abbad, Abu '1-Kasim; Ibn Abi '1-
Hadid; Ibn al-Rawandi; 'Ilm al-Kalam.II.B; Imama; Khalk. V: Lawn; Lutf; al-Ma'mun;
al-Manzila bayn al-Manzilatayn; al-Wa 5 d wa '1-Wa'id; [in Suppl.] al-Asamm; Hal;
Muhammad Ibn Shabib
Shiite ->■ Shiites
Wahhabi Ibn 'Abd al-Wahhab; Ibn Ghannam
Indo-Muslim 'Abd al-' Aziz al-Dihlawi; 'Abd al-Kadir Dihlawi; Ashraf ' Ali; Bahr al-'Ulum;
al-Dihlawi, Shah Wall Allah; al-'Imrani; 'Iwad Wadjih; [in Suppl.] 'Abd Allah
Sultanpurl; Farangi Mahall
see also Hind.v.b; al-Ma'bari; Mappila; Sulh-i kull; Tablighi Djama'at; 'Ulama'.4
Christian Ibn Zur'a; Yahya b. 'Adi; Yahya al-Nahwi
and ->■ Christianity.denominations
Jewish Ibn Maymun; Sa'adya Ben Yosef
19th and 20th centuries Muhammad 'Abduh; Muhammad Abu Zayd
see also Sunna.3
128 TIME — TRIBES
Time Abad; Dahr; Kidam; Zaman
see also Ibn al-Sa'ati
calendars Djalali; Hidjra; Nasi 3 ; Ta'rikh.I; [in Suppl.] Ilahi Era
see also Nawruz; Rabi' b. Zayd; Sulayman al-Mahri; Takwim; 'Umar Khayyam
day and night 'Asr; 'Atama; Layl and Nahar; al-Shafak; Yawm
see also Ta'rikh.I. 1 .iii; Zidj
days of the week Djum'a; Sabt
months
see also al-Kamar
Islamic al-Muharram; Rabi c ; Radjab; Ramadan; Safar; Sha'ban; Shawwal
see also Ta'rikh.I. 1 .iii
Syrian Nisan; Tammuz; Tishrin
Turkish Odjak
timekeeping Anwa'; al-Kamar; Mikat; Mizwala; Sa'a.l
see also Asturlab; Ayyam al-'Adjuz; Hilal.i; Rub c ; Ta'dil al-Zaman
Togo Kabou; Kubafolo; Togo
Transport Nakl {and [in Suppl.])
and -> Animals.camels and equines; Hostelry; Navigation
caravans Azalay; Karwan; Mahmal; c Ukayl.2; [in Suppl.] Djammal
see also Anadolu.iii.5; Darb al-Arba'in; Khan
mountain passes Bab al-Lan; Biban; Dar-i Ahanin; Deve Boynu; Khaybar
see also Chitral
postal service Barid; Fuyudj; Hamam; Posta; Rakkas; Ulak; Yam
see also Anadolu.iii.5
stamps Posta
railways Hidjaz Railway; Sikkat al-Hadid
see also Anadolu.iii.5; al-Kahira (442a); Khurramshahr; Zahidan
roads Shari'; [in Suppl.] Tarik
wheeled vehicles c Adjala; Araba
Travel Rihla; Safar
and ->■ LlTERATURE.TRAVEL-LITERATURE
supplies Mifragh
and -+ Nomadism
Treasury Bayt al-Mal; Khazine; Makhzan
and ->■ Administration.financial
Treaties Bakt; Kiiciik Kaynardja; Mandates; Mondros; Muahada; Turkmen Cay (i);
Zsitvatorok
see also Dar al- c Ahd; Hilf al-Fudul; Mithak-i Milli; Tudmir
tributes Bakt; Parias; [in Suppl.] Khuwwa
and -► Taxation
Tribes 'Alia; 'Ashira; Hayy; Kabila; Sayyid
see also c Asabiyya; Hilf; Khatib; Sharif.(l); Shaykh; [in Suppl.] Bisat.iii; Iskan; al-Ridda;
Siirgiin; and ->■ Custom.tribal customs; Law.customary law; Nomadism; and the sec-
tion Population under entries of countries
Afghanistan, India and Pakistan Abdali; Afridi; Bhatti; Cahar Aymak; Dawudpotras; Djat;
TRIBES 129
Durrani; Gakkhaf; Gandapur; Ghalzay; Giidjar; Khatak; Khokars; Lambadis; Mahsud;
Me'6; Mohmand; Mullagori; Samma; Sumera; Wazlris; Yusufzay; [in Suppl.] Gurcani;
Kakar; Sulayman Khel
see also Afghan.i; Afghanistan.ii
Africa 'Ababda; 'Amir; Antemuru; Bedja; Beleyn; Bishann; Dankali; Dja'aliyyun; Kunta;
Makua; Marya; Mazru'I; Shaykiyya; Zaghawa
see also Diglal; Fulbe; al-Manasir; Mande; for North Africa, see the section Egypt and
North Africa below
Arabian peninsula
ancient 'Abd al-Kays; al-AbnaU; c Ad; 'Akk; 'Amila; 'Amir b. Sa'sa'a; al-Aws; Azd;
Badjila; Bahila; Bakrb. Wa'il; Dabba; Djadhima b. c Amir; Djurhum; Fazara; Ghani
b. A'sur; Ghassan; Ghatafan; Ghifar; Hamdan; Hanifa b. Ludjaym; Hanzala b. Malik:
Harith b. Ka'b; Hawazin; Hilal; c Idjl; Iram; Iyad; Kalb b. Wabara; al-Kayn; Khafadj;
Khath'am; al-Khazradj; Kilab b. Rabi'a; Kinana; Kinda; Khuza'a; Kuraysh; Kushayr;
La'akat al-Dam; Lihyan.2; Ma'add; Ma'afir; Mazin; Muharib; Murad; Murra; Nadir;
Nawfal; Riyam; Sa c d b. Bakr; Sa c d b. Zayd Manat al-Fizr; Salih; Salul; Shayban;
Sulaym; Taghlib b. Wa'il; Tamim b. Murr; Tanukh; Tasm; Taym Allah; Taym b.
Murra; Thakif: Ihamud; 'Udhra; 'Ukayl.l; Yafi'; Yarbu 1 ; Yas; [in Suppl.] Kathiri:
Ku'ayti
see also Asad (Banu); Habash (Ahabish); al-Hidjaz; Makhzum; Musta'riba
Muta'arriba; Nizar b. Ma'add; Numayr; Rabi'a (and Mudar); Shayba; Tha'laba; al-
Ukaysir; Wabar; Wufud; Zarka' al-Yamama; Zuhayr b. Djanab; Zuhra; [in Suppl.]
A'yas; al-Ridda
present-day 'Abdali; 'Akrabi; c Awamir; c Awazim; Banyar; al-Batahira; Bukum; al-
Dawasir; al-D_hi J ab; Dja'da ( c Amir); al-Djanaba; al-Duru c ; Ghamid; Hadjir; Hakam
b. Sa c d; Hamdan; al-Harasis; Harb; Hashid wa-Bakil; Hassan, Ba; Hawshabi; Hina;
al-Hubus; Hudhayl; Hudjriyya; Hutaym; al-Huwaytat; al- c Ifar; Kahtan; Khalid;
(Banu) Kharus; Khawlan; Kuda'a; Madhhidj; Mahra; al-Manasir; Mazru c i; Murra;
Mutayr; Muzayna; Nabhan; Ruwala; Shammar; Shararat; Subay c ; Subayhi; Sudayri;
Sulayb; lhaklf; c Utayba; Wahiba; Yam
see also (Djazirat) al- c Arab.vi; Badw; al-Hidjaz; Shawiya.2; 'Utub; al-Yaman.4
Central Asia, Mongolia and points further north Cawdors; Dughlat; Emreli; Gagauz; Goklan;
Karluk; Kungrat; Mangit; Mongols; Ozbeg; Pecenegs; Salur; Sulduz; Tatar; Tobol;
Toghuzghuz; Turkmen; Turks.1.2; Yaghma; [in Suppl.] Sarik; Yomut
see also Ghuzz; Ilat; Kayi; Khaladj; Kishlak; Yaylak
Egypt and North Africa c Ababda; Ahaggar; al-Butr; Djazula; Dukkala; Ifoghas; Khult; Kumiya;
al-Ma c kil; Mandil; Riyah; Zmala
see also Khumayr: and ->■ Berbers
Fertile Crescent
ancient Asad; Bahra 3 ; Djarrahids; Djudham; Lakhm; Muhanna; al-Muntafik.l; Taghlib
b. Wa J il; TayyP; Waththab b. Sabik al-Numayri; [in Suppl.] al-Namir b. Kasit
see also Tanukh.2; al-Ukaysir; Unayf
present-day 'Anaza; Asad (Banu); Badjalan; Bilbas; Dafir; Djaf; Djubur; Dulaym;
Hamawand; al-Huwaytat; Kurds.iv.A; Lam; al-Manasir; al-Muntafik.2; Sakhr;
Shammar
see also al-Batiha; Shawiya.2
Iran BazQkiyyun; Bilbas; Djaf; Eymir.2 and 3; (Banu) Ka c b; Kara GozlQ; Kurds.iv.A; Lak;
Lam; Shahsewan; Shakak; Shakaki; Sindjabi
see also Daylam; Dulafids; Firuzanids; Goklan; Ilat; Shulistan
Turkey Afshar; Bay at; Bayindir; Begdili; Cepni; Doger; Eymir.l; Kadjar; Kayi; Takhtadji;
Takkalu; Torghud; Yoriik; [in Suppl.] Cawdor
130 TRIBES — TURKEY
see also Shakak; Shakaki: Tamgha
Tunisia Baladiyya.3; Djami'a; Djam'iyya.iv; Djarida.i.B; Dustur.i; Hizb.i; Hukuma.iv;
Istiklal; al-Khalduniyya: Ma'arif.2.A; MadjlisAA.xix; Salafiyya.l(a); Tunisia; [in Suppl.]
Demography. IV; MahkamaAxii
see also Fallak; Himaya.ii; Khalifa b. 'Askar; Safar; [in Suppl.] Inzal; and -> Berbers;
DYNASTIES.SPAIN AND NORTH AFRICA
historians of Ibn Abi Dinar; Ibn Abi '1-Diyaf; Ibn 'Idhari; [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Wahhab
see also Ibn al-Rakik; al-Tidjani, Abu Muhammad; and -*■ Dynasties. Spain and north
AFRICA
institutions
educational al-Sadikiyya; Zaytuna; [in Suppl.] Institut des hautes etudes de Tunis
see also [in Suppl.] c Abd al-Wahhab; Kabadu
musical al-Rashidiyya
press al-Ra'id al-Tunusi; Sihafa.2.(v)
language c Arabiyya.A.iii.3; Tunisia.IV
literature Malhun; Tunisia.V; and ->■ Literature
belletrists Sa c id Abu Bakr; al-Shabbi; al-Tunisi, Mahmud Bayram; al-Tunisi, Muhammad;
al-Warghi
nationalists al-Tha c alibi, c Abd al-'Aziz; [in Suppl.] al-Haddad, al-Tahir
Ottoman period (1574-1881) Ahmad Bey; al-Husayn (b. c Ali); Husaynids; Khayr al-DIn Pasha;
Muhammad Bayram al-Khamis; Muhammad Bey; Muhammad al-Sadik Bey; Mustafa
Khaznadar; Tunisia.II.c; [in Suppl.] Ibn Ghidhahum
physical geography Tunisia.I.a
pre-Ottoman period c Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri; Aghlabids; Hafsids; Hassan b. al-Nu'man al-
Ghassani; (Banu) Khurasan; Tunisia.II.b
and ->■ Berbers; Dynasties.spain and north africa
toponyms
ancient al- c Abbasiyya; Haydaran; Kal c at Ban! Hammad; Manzil Bashshu; Rakkada;
Sabra (al-Mansuriyya); Subaytila
present-day
districts Djarid
islands Djarba; Karkana
regions Djazirat Sharik; Kastiliya.2; Nafzawa; Sahil.l
towns Badja; Banzart; Halk al-Wadi; Kabis; al-Kaf; Kafsa; Kallala; al-Kayrawan;
al-Mahdiyya; Monastir; Nafta; Safakus; Susa; Tabarka; Takruna; Tunis; Tuzar;
Uskiidar
Turkey Anadolu; Arminiya; Istanbul; Kara Deniz; Turks.1.5
see also Libas.iv; and ->■ Ottoman Empire
architecture ->■ Architecture.regions
dynasties ->■ Dynasties.anatolia and the turks; Ottoman Empire
language ->■ Languages.turkic
literature ->■ Literature
modern period (1920- ) Baladiyya.l; Demokrat Parti; Djami c a; Djarida.iii; Djumhuriyyet
Khalk Firkasi; Dustur.ii; Hizb.ii; Ishtirakiyya; Khalkevi; Koy Enstitiileri; Kurds.iii.C;
MadjlisAA.ii; Mithak-i Milli; Shuyu c iyya.3; Terakki-perver Djumhuriyyet Firkasi;
Turks.1.5; [in Suppl] Demography.III; Nizam c Askari.3; Sihafa.5
see also Djam c iyya.ii; IskandarQn; Islah.iii; Ittihad we Terakki Djem'iyyeti; Karakol
Djem'iyyeti; Kawmiyya.iv; Kemal; Kirkuk; Ma'arif.l.i; Maliyye; Nurculuk; Yuzellilikler;
and -" Literature; Press
educators [in Suppl.] Ismail Hakki Baltadjioghlu; Tongue
religious leaders Nursi
statesmen/women Atatiirk; Cakmak; Husayn Djahid; Ileri, Djelal Nuri; Kazim Karabekir;
Khalide Edib; Koprlilii (Mehmed Fuad); Mehmed 'Akif; Menderes; Okyar; Orbay,
Hiiseyin Ra'uf; Shems al-Din Giinaltay; Sheref, c Abd al-Rahman; Yegana, 'Ali Miinif;
Yucel, Hasan 'Ali; [in Suppl.] Adlvar; Aghaoghlu; Atay; Esendal; ismet inonii; Ozal
see also Cerkes Edhem; Gokalp, Ziya; Hisar; and -»■ Turkey.ottoman period.young
TURKS
mysticism -»■ Mysticism.mystics; Sainthood.saints
Ottoman period (1342-1924) Hizb.ii; Istanbul; Ittihad-i Muhammedi Djem'iyyeti; Ittihad we
Terakki Djem'iyyeti; Ma'arif. 1 .i; Madjlis.4. A.i; Madjlis al-Shura; Matbakh.2; Othmanli;
Turk Odjaghi; Yeni 'Othmanlilar; [in Suppl.] Nizam c Askari.3
see also Aywaz.l; Derebey; Djam'iyya.ii; Khalifa.i.E; [in Suppl.] Demography .II; Djalali;
and -»■ Ottoman Empire
Young Ottomans and Young Turks Yeni 'Othmanlilar
see also Djam'iyya; Djewdet; Dustur.ii; Fadil Pasha; Hukuma.i; Hurriyya.ii; Ittihad
we Terakki Djem'iyyeti
individuals Djawid; Djemal Pasha; Enwer Pasha; (Tunali) Hilmi; Ishak Sukuti;
Kemal, Mehmed Namik; Mizandji Mehmed Murad; Niyazi Bey; Sabah al-Din;
Shiikrii Bey; Su'awi, 'Ali; Tal'at Bey; Yegana, c Ali Miinif; Yusuf Akcura; Ziya
Pasha
physical geography
mountains Aghri Dagh; Ala Dagh; Aladja Dagh; Beshparmak; Bingol Dagh; Deve Boynu;
Elma Daghi; Erdjiyas Daghi; Gawur Daghlari; Toros Daglan; Ulu Dagh
see also Tur 'Abdin
waters Boghaz-ici; Canak-kal'e Boghazi; Coruh.I; Djayhan; Gediz Cayi; Goksu; Kizil-
irmak; Lamas-su; Marmara Defiizi; Menderes; al-Rass; Sakarya; Sayhan; Tuz Golii;
Wan. 1 ; Yeshil irmak
population Yortik; Zaza; Zeybek; [in Suppl.] Demography .II
see also Muhadjir.2; Tiirkmen.3
pre-Islamic period -»■ Pre-Islam; Turkey.toponyms
pre-Ottoman period Mengiicek
see also Kitabat.7; and -> Dynasties.anatolia and the turks; Turkey.toponyms
toponyms
ancient 'Ammuriya; Ani; Arzan; 'Ayn Zarba; Baghras; Balis; Beshike; Buka; al-Djazira;
Duluk; Dunaysir; Harran; Ladhik.l; Shabakhtan; Sis; Sultan 6nu; Torghud Eli
see also Diyar Bakr; Shimshat
present-day
districts Shamdinan; Terdjan; Yalowa
islands Bozdja-ada; Imroz
provinces Aghri; Coruh; Diyar Bakr; Hakkari; Icil; Kars; Kastamuni; Khanzit;
Kodja Eli; Mush; Newshehir; Tundjeli
regions al-'Amk; Cilicia; Dersim; Diyar Mudar; Djanik; Menteshe-eli; Teke-eli;
Tur 'Abdin; Tutak
towns Ada Pazari; Adana; Adiyaman; Afyun Kara Hisar; Ak Hisar. 1 and 2; Ak
Shehr; Akhlat; Ala Shehir; Alanya; Altintash; Amasya; Anadolu; Anamur;
Ankara; Antakiya; Antalya; 'Arabkir; Ardahan; Artvin; Aya Soluk; Ayas; Aydin;
'Ayntab; Aywalik; Babaeski; Bala; Bala Hisar; Balat; Balikesri; Balta Limani;
Bandirma; Bayazid; Bayburd; Baylan; Bergama; Besni; Beyshehir; Bidlis; Bigha;
Biledjik; Bingol; Biredjik; Birge; Bodrum; Bolu; Bolwadin; Bozanti; Burdur;
Bursa; Cankiri; Cataldja; Ceshme; Colemerik; Corlu; Corum; Denizli; Diwrigi;
132 TURKEY WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS
Diyar Bakr; Edirne; Edremit; Egin; Egridir; Elbistan; Elmali; Enos; Eregli; Ergani;
Ermenak; Erzindjan; Erzurum; Eskishehir; Gebze; Gelibolu; Gemlik; Giresun;
Goksun; Gordes; Giimiish-khane; al-Haruniyya; Hisn Kayfa; Iskandarun; Isparta;
Istanbul {and [in Suppl.]); Iznik; Kara Hisar; Karadja Hisar; Kars; Kastamuni;
Kaysariyya; Kemakh; Killiz; Kirk Kilise; Kirmasti; Kirshehir; Koc Hisar; Konya;
Koprii Hisari; Koylu Hisar; Kozan; Kula; Kutahiya; Ladhik.2 and 3; Laranda;
Luleburgaz; Maghnisa; Malatya; Malazgird.l; Malkara; Ma c murat al- c Aziz;
Mar'ash; Mardin; al-Massisa; Mayyafarikin; Menemen; Mersin; Merzifun; Milas;
Mudanya; Mughla; Mush; Nasibin; Newshehir; Nigde; Niksar; Nizib; Oramar;
c Othmandjik; Payas; Rize; al-Ruha; Sabandja; Samsun; Sail; Sarudj; Si c ird; Silifke;
Simaw; Sinub; Siwas; Siwri Hisar; Sogud; Sumaysat; al-Suwaydiyya; Tall Bashir;
Tarabzun; Tarsus; Tekirdagh; Tire; Tirebolu; Tokat; Tundjeli; 'Ushak; Wan.2;
Wezir Kopru; Wize; Yalowa; Yeni Shehir; Yeshilkoy; Yozgat; Zaytun; Zindjirli;
Zonguldak; [in Suppl.] Ghalata; Izmid; Izmir; Kaysum
see also Fener; Karasi.2; (al-)Kustantiniyya
u
Umayyads -»■ Caliphate; Dynasties.spain and north Africa
United Arab Emirates al-Kawasim; MadjlisAA.xii; Mahkama.4.ix; Sihafa.l.(x); [in
Suppl.] al-Imarat al- c Arabiyya al-Muttahida
population Mazru'i
see also Yas; and -* Tribes.arabian peninsula
toponyms Abu Zabi; al-D^iwa'; Dubayy; al-Fudjayra; Ra's al-Khayma; al-Sharika; Sir Bani
Yas; Umm al-Kaywayn; al-Zafra; [in Suppl.] c Adjman
see also (Djazirat) al-'Arab; al-Khatt; Tunb; al- c Udayd
Urbanism -> Architecture.urban; Geography.urban; Sedentarism
for city planning, see [in Suppl.] Madina; for rowdy urban groups, see Zu"ar;/or urban
militia, see Ahdath
(former) USSR -> Caucasus; Central Asia. former soviet union; Communism;
Europe.eastern europe; Siberia
Virtues and Vices
virtues c Adl; Dayf; Futuwwa; Hasab wa-Nasab; Hilm; Trd; Muru'a; Sabr; Zarif; [in Suppl.]
Karam
see also Sharaf; Sharif and -* Ethics; Humour
vices Bukhl
see also Kaffara; and -> Adultery; Drugs.narcotics; Gambling; Law.penal law;
Obscenity; Wine
w
Weights and Measurements Aghac; Arpa; Dhira c ; Dirham. 1 ; Farsakh; Habba; Isba c ; Istar;
WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTS — WOMEN 133
Makayil; Marhala; Mikyas; Misaha; al-Mizan; Sa<; Sanadjat; Tola; Tuman.2; Wazn.l; [in
Suppl.] Gaz
see also al-Karastun
Wine Khamr; SakI
see also Karm
bacchic poetry Khamriyya
Arabic Abu Nuwas; Abu Mihdjan; Abu '1-Shis; c Adi b. Zayd; Haritha b. Badr al-Ghudani:
(al-)Husayn b. al-Dahhak; Ibn al-'Afif al-Tilimsani; Ibn Sayhan; Tamlm b. al-Mu'izz
li-DIn Allah; Tamim b. al-Mu'izz; al-Walid.2
see also al-Babbagha'; Ibn al-Farld; Ibn Harma; al-Nawadji; Yamut b. al-Muzarra'
Turkish Rewani; Riyadi
boon companions Ibn Hamdun; al-Kashani; Khalid b. Yazld al-Katib al-Tamlmi
see also Abu '1-Shis; 'All b. al-Djahm
Women c Abd; Harim; Hayd; Hidjab.I; c Idda; Istibra 3 ; Khafd; al-Mar'a; Nikah; Sihak; [in
Suppl.] Bigha 3
see also c Arus Resmi; Bashmaklik; Khayr; Khidr-ilyas; Litham; Tunisia.VI; c Urf.2.II;
Zanana; and -+ Divorce; Life Stages.childbirth and childhood; Marriage
and beauty al-Washm
and ->• Cosmetics
and literature al-Mar'a. 1
see also Kissa; Shahrazad
Arabic authors al-Ba'uni.6; Hafsa bint al-Hadjdj; c Inan; al-Khansa 3 ; Layla al-Akhyaliyya;
Mayy Ziyada; 'Ulayya; Wallada; al-Yazidji.4; [in Suppl] Fadl al-Sha c ira
see also c Abbasa; 'Atika; Khunatha; Kissa.2; Shilb; Uksusa
Persian authors Kurrat al-'Ayn; Mahsati; Parwin Ttisami
see also Gulbadan Begam; Makhfi
Turkish authors Fitnat; Khalide Edib; Layla Khanim (2x); Mihri Khatun
see also Kissa. 3(b)
and religion Tax
mystics c A'isha al-Mannubiyya; Djahanara Begam; Nafisa; Rabi'a al- c Adawiyya al-
Kaysiyya
see also Wali.5
concubinage c Abd.3.f; Khasseki; Umm al-Walad
emancipation Kasim Amin; Malak Hifni Nasif; Sa'id Abu Bakr; Salama Musa; Talak.II.3;
[in Suppl.] al-Haddad, al-Tahir
see also Hidjab; Ileri, Djelal Nuri; al-Mar'a; Wuthuk al-Dawla; al-Zahawi, Djamil
Sidki; [in Suppl.] Ashraf al-Din Gilani
influential women
Arabic c A J isha bint Talha; Asma 5 ; Barira; Buran; Hind bint 'Utba; al-Khay zuran bint ' Ata'
al-Djurashiyya; Khunatha; Shadjar al-Durr; Sitt al-Mulk; Subh; Sukayna bt. al-
Husayn; Zubayda bt. Dja'far; [in Suppl.] Asma'
see also al-Ma'afiri; Zumurrud Khatun; and -> Muhammad, the Prophet.family
OF.DAUGHTERS and WIVES
Indo-Muslim Nur Djahan; Samru
Mongolian Baghdad Khatun; Khan-zada Begum; Toregene Khatun
Ottoman c Adila Khatun; Khurrem; Kosem Walide; Mihr-i Mah Sultan; Nilufer Khatun:
Nur Banu; Safiyye Walide Sultan; Shah Sultan; Shebsefa Kadin; Turkhan Sultan
see also Walide Sultan
Turkish Terken Khatun; Zumurrud Khatun
134 WOMEN — YEMEN
legendary women al-Basus; Bilkis; Hind bint al-Khuss
see also Asiya; Zarka' al-Yamama
musicians! singers c Azza al-Mayla'; Djamila; Hababa; Ra'ika; Sallama al-Zarka'; Shariya;
Siti Binti Saad; c Ulayya; Umm Kulthum; [in Suppl.] Badhl al-Kubra; al-Djaradatan';
Fadl al-Sha'ira; Habba Khatun
see also 'Alima; Kayna; Taktuka
mystics ->■ the section And Religion above
Writing Khatt (and [in Suppl.])
see also Ibn Mukla; Kitabat; and ->• Art.calligraphy; Epigraphy
manuscripts and books Daftar; Hashiya; Kitab; Mukabala.2; Nuskha; Tadhkira; Ta'lik;
Tashlf; Tasnif; Tazwir; 'Unwan; Warrak; [in Suppl.] Abbreviations
see also Kat c ; Maktaba
blockprinting Tarsh
bookbinding Ilkhans; Kitab; Nuskha; 'Othmanli.VII.c; [in Suppl.] Mamluks.iii.b.D.iii
booktitles c Unwan.2(=3); Zubda
materials Djild; Kaghad; Kalam; Khatam; Kirtas; Midad; Papyrus; Rakk; [in Suppl.] Dawat
see also c Afs; Afsantin; Diplomatic; Ilkhans; Ma c din.4
scripts Khatt; Siyakat; Tawki c .2; Tifinagh; Tughra.2(d)
see also Nuskha; Swahili; Taiik; Warrak; Zabur; and ->• Art.calligraphy; Epigraphy
for Persian scripts, see [in Suppl.] Iran.iii.f.ii.V
for non-Arabic, non-Latin scripts, see [in Suppl.] Turks.II.(vi)
Yemen Djarida.i.A; Dustur.viii; MadjlisAA.xiv and xv; MahkamaAviii; Sihafa.l.(xiv);
Yahya b. Muhammad; al-Yaman: [in Suppl.] Nizam c Askari. 1 .(e)
see also c Asir; Isma'iliyya; Mahri; Makramids; Taghut.2; c Urf.2.I.A.2; [in Suppl.] Abu
Mismar; and ->• Dynasties.arabian peninsula
architecture -> Architecture.regions
before Islam al-AbnaMI; Abraha; Dhu Nuwas; (^azirat) al- c Arab; Habashat; Hadramawt;
Kataban; Kayl; Marib; al-Mathamina; Saba 3 ; al-Sawda 5 ; Wahriz; Yazan; [in Suppl.]
Hadramawt
see also [in Suppl.] Badham
British protectorate of Hadramawt period (1839-1967) c Adan; Wahidi
see also [in Suppl.] Hadramawt.ii.l; Kathiri; Ku'ayti
dynasties Hamdanids; Mahdids; Rasulids; Sulayhids; Tahirids.3; Yu'firids; Zaydiyya.3;
Ziyadids; Zuray'ids; [in Suppl.] Kathiri; Ku'ayti
see also Rassids; and -► Dynasties.arabian peninsula
historians of al-^anadi; al-Khazradji; al-Mawza'i; al-Nahrawali; al-Razi, Ahmad b. c Abd
Allah; al-Sharif Abu Muhammad Idris; al-Shilli; c Umara al-Yamani
see also Ibn al-Mudjawir
language al-Yaman.5; [in Suppl.] Hadramawt.iii
and -► Languages.afro-asiatic.arabic and south Arabian
Ottoman periods (1517-1635 and 1872-1918) Mahmud Pasha; al-Mutahhar; Ozdemir Pasha;
Rldwan Pasha; [in Suppl.] Yemenli Hasan Pasha
see also Baladiyya.2; Khadim Suleyman Pasha
physical geography
mountains Hadur; Haraz; Hisn al-Ghurab; al-Sarat; Shahara; Shibam.4; [in Suppl.] al-
Sharaf
YEMEN ZOROASTRIANS 135
see also al-Yaman.2
wadis Barhut; al-Kharid; al-Sahul; Turaba.l
population 'Abdali; 'Akrabi; Banyar; Hamdan; Hashid wa-Bakil; Hawshabi; Hudjriyya;
Kahtan; Khawlan; Madhhidj; Mahra; Yafi c
see also Yam; al-Yaman.4; Yazan; and -> Tribes.arabian peninsula
toponyms
ancient al-'Ara; Shabwa; Sirwah; Zafar
see also Nadjran
present-day
districts Abyan; c Alawi; 'Amiri; 'Awdhali; Dathlna; Fadli; Haraz; Harib; al-Hayma;
Hudjriyya
islands Kamaran; Mayyun; Sukutra
regions 'AwlakI; Hadramawt; Lahdj; al-Shihr; Tihama; [in Suppl.] Hadramawt.ii
towns c Adan; c Athr; Bayt al-Fakih; Dhamar; Ghalafika; Habban; Hadjarayn; Hami;
Hawra; al-Hawta; al-Hudayda; Ibb; 'Irka; Ka'taba; Kawkaban; Kishn; Lahdj; al-
Luhayya; Marib; al-Mukalla; al-Mukha; Rayda; Sa'da; al-Sahul; San'a'; Say'un;
Shahara; al-Shaykh Sa c id; Shibam; al-Shihr; Ta'izz; Tarim; al-Tawila; Thula;
Zabid; Zafar; [in Suppl.] 'Inat
see also (Djazirat) al-'Arab
(former) Yugoslavia Dzabic; Khosrew Beg; Muslimun.l.B.6; Pomaks; Ridwan Begovic;
Yugoslavia; [in Suppl.] Handzic; Malkoc-oghullari
see also c Omer Efendi; Topal 'Othman Pasha.2
literature ->■ Literature.in other languages
toponyms
provinces [in Suppl.] Dalmatia
regions Yeni Bazar. 1
republics Bosna; Karadagh; Kosowa; Makadunya; Sirb
towns Ak Hisar.3; Aladja Hisar; Banjaluka; Belgrade; Eszek; Ishtib; Karlofca; Livno;
Manastlr; Mostar; Nish; Okhri; Pasarofca; Pirlepe; Prishtina; Prizren; Raghusa;
Sarajevo; Siska; Travnik; Uskiib; Waradin; Yeni Bazar.2; [in Suppl.] Semendire
see also Zenta
Zaire Katanga; Kisangani
Zanzibar -+ Tanzania
Zoology Hayawan.7
and ->■ Animals
writers on al-Damiri; al-Marwazi, Sharaf al-Zaman
see also al-Djahiz
Zoroastrians Gabr; Iran.vi; Madjus; Mobadh; Zamzama
see also Bih'afrid b. Farwardin; Ghazal.ii; Gudjarat.a; Parsis; Pur-i Dawud; Sarwistan; Shiz;
al-Sughd; Sunbadh; Ta'rikh.I.l.vii; Ustadhsis; Yazd.l; Zamzam; Zindik
dynasties Masmughan
gods Bahram
GLOSSARY AND INDEX OF TERMS
The entries in this Glossary are listed alphabetically following the Roman alphabet. The
entry appears where possible under the singular form of the word, with the plural form,
provided it was found in the Encyclopaedia, following in parentheses. If the plural form
has the more important technical meaning, or the singular was not specified in the
Encyclopaedia, the plural form will have an entry of its own.
Although the root system common to Semitic languages is for the most part ignored,
some terms, such as adjectives, plurals, adjectival plurals, etc. of a word, will be included
under that word's entry, e.g. 'askari is included under 'askar, 'akliyydt is included under
'akl, etc. Where it might not be obvious to someone searching alphabetically, and for
facility of use, a cross-reference in the Glossary is provided, e.g.
furu' -► far'
Entries marked in bold refer to articles in the Encyclopaedia. All cross-references to
entries within the Glossary are given in small capitals. A term made up of more than one
component, as e.g. ahl al-'ahd, is generally listed under the first element; thus ahl al-'ahd
is found under ahl.
Where found in the Encyclopaedia, the term's etymological origin has been noted; see
the List of Abbreviations on p. 139. The transcription in the Glossary follows for the most
part that of the Encyclopaedia. Certain words such as Baghdad and sultan, which are now
part and parcel of the English language, have not been transcribed, and for easy recogni-
tion, Qur'an is written thus and not as Kur'an. In words of Berber or North African ori-
gin, a schwa has been used to reproduce a neutral vowel.
The index is not comprehensive; multiple page references are given only for pages that
note a significantly different definition or translation from one already listed, or for those
pages that treat the term more than just in passing.
a'aban (Mor) : a large outer wrap for Berber men. V 745b
ab (P) : water; and -* abdar-bashI; abshar
♦ ab-anbar -+ misna'a
♦ ab-i gusht (P) : a stew on the basis of mutton stock, which seems to have become
the staple of the poor in the course of the 19th century. XII 611a
aba : roughly-spun cloth. X 371b
'aba' (A), or 'abd'a : a coat, shoulder mantle, worn by both sexes in the Arab East. V
740a
'aba'a -+ 'aba'
abad (A) : time in an absolute sense. I 2a
In philosophy, ~ or abadiyya is a technical term corresponding to d(p0apt6<;, meaning
incorruptible, eternal a parte post, in opposition to azal or azaliyya. I 2a; V 95a
♦ abadi (A) : 'having no end'. I 333a
♦ abadiyya -► abad
142 AB'ADIYYA — ABNA 3
ab'adiyya (A, pi. abd'id), or ibadiyya : uncultivated or uncultivable land in Egypt under
Muhammad c Ali; estates reclaimed from lands uncultivated at the time of the 1813-14
cadaster and granted on favourable terms. II 149a; XII 379a
abadjad -»■ abdjad
abanus (A, P, T, < Gk) : ebony wood. I 3a
abardi -»■ bardi
'abaya (Alg) : a sleeveless, long overblouse for men; a sleeveless, flowing dress for
women. V 745b
abayan (A) : in zoology, the prawn and the shrimp. IX 40a, where many more synonyms
are given
'abaytharan (A) : in botany, a type of artemisia, also called rayhdn al-tha'alib 'the
foxes' basilicum'. IX 435a
'abbadiyya -> shakkaziyya
abbala : camel nomads in the central Sudan belt of Africa. IX 516a
'abbas (Alg) : a verb signifying in Algeria 'to go among the peasants to levy contribu-
tions of grain, butter, dried fruits, etc' in the name of Abu 'l-'Abbas al-Sabti, a
renowned Moroccan saint of the 12th century. VIII 692a
'abbasi (P) : in numismatics, a Safawid coin introduced by Shah 'Abbas I, the value of
which was 4 §hahi, 200 dinars, 50 per tuman. It remained the normal Persian denom-
ination for most of the remainder of the dynasty. VIII 790a; IX 203b
♦ 'abbasiyya (Mor) : in Morocco, charitable gifts of grain, fritters, fruit, meat or
fish, made to the poor in the name of Abu 'l-'Abbas al-Sabti, a renowned Moroccan
saint of the 12th century. VIII 692a
'abd (A, pi. c abld) : a slave, in particular a male slave, a female slave being termed ama
(pi. ima'). I 24b
In theology, ~ means 'the creature'. In the Qur'an, the angels are also called ~. IV 82b
♦ 'abd kinn (A) : a slave born in his master's house; later applied to the slave over
whom one has full and complete rights of ownership. I 25a,
♦ 'abd mamluka (A) : a purchased slave. I 25a
♦ 'abid al-bukhari (A) : descendants of the black slaves who had been imported in
large numbers by the Sa'dids into Morocco. I 34b; I 47a; I 356a
♦ 'abid al-shira' (A) : black Sudanese slaves bought for the army under the
Fatimids. II 858b
abda'a -»■ ithtoaghara
abdal (A, s. badal) : in mysticism, the highest rank in the sufi hierarchical order of
saints (syn. ghawth). I 69b; generally accepted as the fifth place descending from the
kutb. I 94b; ascetic or pietistic persons who are regarded as intercessors and dispensers
of baraka. VIII 498a
In the Ottoman empire, ~ was used for the dervishes in various dervish orders. I 95a;
later, when the esteem enjoyed by the dervishes declined, ~ (and budald', s. badll, both
used as a singular) came to mean 'fool' in Turkish. I 95a
abdar-bashi (P) : in Safawid times, an official in the royal kitchen in charge of drinks.
XII 609b
abdjad (A), or abadjad, abu djad : the first of the mnemotechnical terms into which the
twenty-eight consonants of the Arabic alphabet are divided. I 97a
abik (A) : a runaway slave. I 26b
'abkari (A) : a genie of great intelligence. IX 406b
abna' (A, s. ibn) : sons
As a denomination, it is applied to two tribes, viz. the descendants of Sa'd b. Zayd
Manat b. Tamim, and the descendants born in Yaman of Persian immigrants. I 102a;
X 173a; XII 115b
ABNA' — ABU 143
♦ abna 5 al-atrak (A) : a term sometimes used in the Mamluk sultanate to designate
the Egyptian or Syrian-born descendants of the Mamluks. I 102a; and ->■ awlad al-nas
♦ abna' al-daraza (A) : lit. sons of sewing, a proverbial expression current in the
'Abbasid period to refer to the tailors of Kufa, who had taken part in the revolt of Zayd
b. c Ali against the Umayyads (120-2/738-40). IV 1161a
♦ abna' al-dawla (A) : a term applied in the early centuries of the 'Abbasid
caliphate to the members of the 'Abbasid house, and by extension to patrons (mawdll,
s. mawla) who entered its service and became adoptive members. I 102a; Khurasanian
guards and officials in the 'Abbasid caliphate. V 57b
♦ abna-yi sipahiyan (T) : a term sometimes used in formal Ottoman usage, in place
of the more common sipahi oghlanlarl (-> dort boluk), to denote the first of the six
regiments of cavalry of the standing army. I 102a
♦ abna 1 al-watan (A) : inhabitants, natives, compatriots. XI 175b
abrak -> barka'
abramis (A) : in zoology, the bream. VIII 1023a
abshar (P) : in Muslim India, large water chutes, made of inclined and carved marble
slabs, which intercepted the flow of water in the long channels that ran the entire length
of gardens, providing the transition from one level to another. IX 175a
abu (A) : father
♦ abu barakish (A) : a name, no longer in use, given to two birds with brilliant
plumage: the Franciscan or Grenadier weaver-bird, or Durra-bird (Euplectes oryx fran-
ciscana), and the Porphyrion or Blue Taleva/Purple Gallinule (Porphyrio porphyrio),
better known as the Sultan-fowl. In the Hidjaz, ~ was used in place of birkish to denote
the chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs), also called shurshur. XII 19a; and -> hirba'
♦ abu '1-bayd -> salka'
♦ abu buz (A) : 'having a snout', a simple but functional transport vessel, driven
by a motor, with a prow which resembles that of a schooner and with a square stern,
built in Oman. VII 53b
♦ abu dhakan (A) : in zoology, the goat fish or mullet (Mullus barbatus). VIII 1021a
♦ abu djad -> abdjad
♦ abu 'l-hawl (A) : lit. father of terror; Arabic name for the sfinx of Giza. I 125b
♦ abu ishaki -> firuzadj
♦ abu kalamun (A) : originally, a certain textile of a peculiar sheen, then a pre-
cious stone, a bird, and a mollusc. In Persian, ~ is said to have the meaning of
chameleon. I 131a
♦ abu karn (A) : in zoology, the unicorn fish (Naseus unicornis). VIII 1021a; and
-> karkaddan
♦ abu marina (A) : in zoology, the monk seal. VIII 1022b
♦ abu mihmaz (A) : in zoology, the ray or skate. VIII 1022b
♦ abu minkar (A) : in zoology, the half-beak (Hemiramphus). VIII 1021a
♦ abu minshar (A) : in zoology, the sawfish (Pristis pristis). VIII 1021a
♦ abu mitraka (A) : in zoology, the hammer-head shark (Sphyrna zygaena). Other
designations are bakra, mitrdk al-bahr, and samakat al-Iskandar. VIII 1021a; VIII
1022b
♦ (a)bu mnir (A) : in zoology, the seal. VIII 1022b
♦ (a)bu nawwara (A) : lit. the one with the flower; in zoology, a Saharan name
which is used for the hare as well as for the fox. XII 85b
♦ abu '1-rakhwa -» salwa
♦ abQ sansun (A) : in zoology, the sansun kingfish. VIII 1021b
♦ abu sayf (A) : in zoology, the swordfish {Xiphias gladius). VIII 1021a
♦ abu shinthiya ->■ shih
♦ abu sunduk (A) : in zoology, the coffer fish (Ostracion nasus). VIII 1021a
♦ abu thalalhjn -»■ salka'
abyad (A) : the colour white; also, saliva, a sword, money, and paradoxically, in Africa,
coal. In the Qur'an, ~ and aswad express the contrast between light and dark rather
than white and black. V 700a, where are listed many other terms to denote white; and
->■ ZAHR
'ad (A) : from the expression min al-'dd, it has been suggested that ~ means 'the ancient
time' and that the tribe 'Ad arose from a misinterpretation of this. I 169b
♦ 'adi : very ancient. I 169b
'ada (A), or 'urf : a (pre-Islamic) custom; customary law. I 170a; I 744b; I 1179a; IV
155a ff.; VIII 486a
ada' (A) : lit. payment, accomplishment.
In law, ~ is a technical term to designate the accomplishment of a religious duty in the
time prescribed by the law, a distinction being drawn between the perfect accomplish-
ment, al-add' al-kdmil, and the imperfect, al-add' al-nakis. I 169b
In the reading of the Qur'an, the traditional pronunciation of the letters (syn. kira'a).
I 169b
adab (A, pi. dddb) : originally, a habit, a practical norm of conduct, equivalent to
sunna; during the evolution of its sense, ~ came to mean an ethical 'high quality of
soul, good upbringing, urbanity and courtesy', in contrast to Bedouin uncouthness.
From the first century of the hidjra, it came to imply the sum of intellectual knowl-
edge which makes a man courteous and 'urbane', based in the first place on poetry,
the art of oratory, the historical and tribal traditions of the ancient Arabs, and also on
the corresponding sciences: rhetoric, grammar, lexicography, metrics. As a result of
contact with foreign cultures, this national concept of ~ gradually came to include a
knowledge of those sections of non-Arab literature with which Arab Muslim civilisa-
tion became familiar from the early 'Abbasid period; it widened its Arab content into
humanitas without qualification. In the modern age ~ and its plural dddb are synonyms
of literature. I 175b
In mysticism, the norms of conduct which govern relations between master and disci-
ples, and those between the disciples themselves. IV 94b
In military science, the plural form dddb is a synonym of hiyal, strategems in war. Ill
510b
♦ adab al-djadal : in theology and law, a method of debating in which were discussed
questions that were controversial. It was not a matter of finding the truth, but of con-
vincing the opponent of the greatest possible probability which one believes to have
found. VII 566a
adak ->■ nadhr-niyazmanlik
'adala (A) : the quality of 'adl; the state of a person who in general obeys the moral
and religious law. I 209b
In public law, ~ is one of the principal conditions for carrying out public functions,
while in private law, ~ belongs to the theory of evidence. I 209b
'adam (A) : the absence of existence or being, used by the Muslim philosophers as the
equivalent of Aristotle's azEpr\oiq. I 178b; V 578b
adan (J, Sun) : the Javanese and Sundanese form of adhan. VI 675b
'adas (A) : in botany, lentils, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
adat (Mai, < A 'Ada) : a custom, usage, practice; customary law, the juridical customs
of Indonesia. I 173a; for taxes and tolls having to do with adat, e.g. adat cap, adat
hakk. al-kalam, adat hariya, adat kain, etc., XII 200b
adat (A, N.Afr ddya) : in the Sahara of southern Morocco and Algeria, small basins
where the limestone of the hammadas has dissolved. Ill 136b
ADDAD — ADJR 145
addad (A, s. didd) : lit. opposites; in linguistics, words which have two meanings that
are opposite to each other. I 184b
'addan (A) : in Syria, a conventional rotation, according to which the distribution of the
separate sections of water in the irrigation of the ghuta is carried out. II 1105b
'adet-i aghnam -> koyun resmi
'adhaba (A, Egy dhu'dba) : the loose end of the turban, which usually hangs behind
from the turban. The usual length is four fingers long between the shoulders. X 611b;
X 612a; in mysticism, one of the initiatory rites is the practice of letting the ~ hang
down (irkhd' al-~). X 246a
'adhab (A) : 'torment, suffering, affliction', inflicted by God or a human ruler. I 186b
♦ adhab al-kabr (A) : in eschatology, the punishment in the tomb. I 186b; V 236b
adhan (A, T ezari) : 'announcement'; as technical term, ~ indicates the call to the divine
service of Friday and to the five daily prayers. I 187b; II 593b; VI 361b; VIII 927b
♦ ezan adi (T) : the regular name of a child, chosen at leisure by the family and
bestowed, with a recitation of the adhan, a few days after birth. IV 181a
adhargun (P, A adharyuri) : lit. flame-coloured; a plant about 2-3 feet high with finger-
long elongated leaves, of a red-yellow colour, and malodorous blossoms with a black
kernel, thought to be either the Buphthalmos or the Calendula officinalis 'marigold'.
I 191b
c adhra' -> sunbula
c adj (A) : ivory, exported in the Islamic period in all probability solely from East Africa.
1200a
'adja'ib (A) : 'marvels', especially the marvels of Antiquity, e.g. the Pharos of
Alexandria. I 203b
In the Qur'an, the ~ denote the marvels of God's creation. I 203b; II 583b
In geographical literature, the ~ form a peculiar literary genre, reaching its full devel-
opment in the cosmographies of the 8th/ 14th century. I 203b
adjal (A) : the appointed term of a man's life or the date of his death; the duration of
existence. I 204a
'adjala (A) : the generic term for wheeled vehicles drawn by animals; carriage. In
Mamluk Egypt, ~ was supplanted by c araba as a generic term. In modern Egypt, ~ is
now the word for bicycle. I 205a
'adjam (A) : people qualified by 'udjma, a confused and obscure way of speaking, as
regards pronunciation and language, i.e. non-Arabs, primarily the Persians. I 206a
♦ adjami oghlan (T) : 'foreign boy', the term applied to Christian youths enrolled
for service in the Ottoman sultan's palace troops. I 206b; II 1087a; IV 242b
♦ 'adjamiyya (A) : the term used for the writing of non-Arabic languages in Arabic
characters. I 207a; I 404b; and ->• aljamia
adjarib -*■ mazru c an
adjdha' (A), or al-djidhd' ■ the name for the group formed by four children of 'Awf b.
Ka'b, one of whose families held an office related to the Meccan pilgrimage which in
later times was considered one of the greatest merits of the Tamim. X 173a
adjir (A) : in the hierarchy of guilds, an apprentice (syn. mubtadi'). Other levels were
worker, sani', and master, mu'allim or usta. IX 644b; IX 794a
adjlaf -> atraf
adjnad ->• djund
adjsad -> djasad
adjr (A, < Akk) : reward, wages, rent.
In theology, the reward, in the world to come, for pious deeds. I 209a
In law, ~ denoted in Mecca, in the time of the Prophet, any payment for services ren-
dered. Later, the term was restricted to wages or rent payable under a contract of hire,
idjara. I 209a
146 ADJR — <AFS
♦ adjr al-mithl (A) : in law, the remuneration in a contract to hire that is determined
by the judge. Ill 1017a
♦ adjr musamma" (A) : in law, the remuneration in a contract to hire that is fixed
in the contract. Ill 1017a
adjurr (A, < P agur ?) : baked brick, used notably in public baths; of varying dimen-
sions, and sometimes cut on an angle or partly rounded off, ~ is used in parts of build-
ings where accuracy of line is important (pillars, pedestals, stairways, etc.) and
functions as horizontal tying material alternating with courses of rubble to maintain
regularity of construction. I 1226b; V 585b
c adjuz (A) : in prosody, the name for the second hemistich of an Arabic poem. I 668b;
VIII 747b; the name of the last foot of a verse. VIII 747b; another meaning of ~ in
prosody occurs in the context of mu'akaba, to describe the case of e.g. in the ramal
metre, the foot fd'ilatun having its last cord -tun shortened, thus fd'ildtu, when the first
cord fa- of the following foot is not shortened. VIII 747b
♦ 'adjuz hawazin (A), or a'djdz hawdzin : 'the rear part of the Hawazin'; in early
Islam, those tribes, viz. the Nasr b. Mu'awiya, Djusham b. Mu'awiya and Sa'd b. Bakr,
that did not rebel in the ridda. XII 693a
'adjwa -»■ tamr
'adjz (A) : in medicine, impotence. XII 641a
c adl (A) : justice; rectilinear, just.
In Mu'tazilite doctrine, ~ means the justice of God and constitutes one of the five fun-
damental dogmas. I 209a; I 334b; I 410a; III 1143b
In law, - (pi. 'udut) is a person of good morals, the 'udiil being the scriveners or
notaries in the judiciary administration. In public law, ~ is one of the principal condi-
tions for carrying out public functions, and in private law, it is a principal condition of
a witness for the bringing of evidence. I 209a ff.; IX 207a; professional witness in the
law courts. VIII 126a; IX 208a
In numismatics, ~ means 'of full weight'. I 210a
adrama (al-sabiyy) -»• ithihaghara
adrar (B) : 'mountain', Berber geographical term applied to a number of mountainous
regions of the Sahara. I 210b
adwiya -»• dawa'
afa (A) : in zoology, the viper; also other similar kinds of snakes. Most sources state
that ~ denotes the female, with the male being called uf'uwdn, but ~ is always
employed in a generic sense. I 214b
afadhan -»• kuniya
afarika : the descendants of the Graeco-Romans and the latinised Berbers, mostly Christians,
living in Gabes in Tunisia in the 3rd/9th century. They were no longer mentioned as a
separate ethnic group by the 7th/13th century. IV 338b ff.; X657b
afawih (A, pi. of afwdh, s. fuh) : spices, aromatic substances added to food and bever-
ages to increase pleasant flavour and promote digestion (syn. masdlih). The meaning
of ~ is not sharply marked off from 'itr, lib 'scents' and 'akkdr 'drugs'. XII 42a, where
many spices are listed
afghani (A) : in numismatics, a coin introduced in Afghanistan by Shir 'Ali in place of
the rupee. IX 446b
'afis (A) : the quality of food being pungent. II 1071b
afrag (B 'enclosure') : in Morocco, an enclosure of cloth, which isolates the encamp-
ment of the sovereign and his suite from the rest of the camp. ~ corresponds to the
Persian sardca or saraparda. I 236a; V 1206a
c afs (A) : in botany, the gall, an excrescence which forms on certain kinds of trees and
shrubs as the result of the sting of various insects. The Arabic term was probably
<AFS — AHBAR 147
applied to the oak-gall in particular, but also denotes the fruit of the oak or a similar
tree and the tree itself. I 239a; X 665b
afsantin (A, < Gk), or afsintin, ifsintin : in botany, the common wormwood (Artemisia
absinthium); other similar kinds of plants. In medicine, ~ is often called kashuth rumi.
I 239b; IX 434b; and -» shIh
afshin : a pre-Islamic title borne by princes in Central Asia. I 241a
afsun (P) : charm, incantation; now used in Iran to designate especially a charm against
the biting of poisonous animals. I 241b
'afur (A) : a sand devil; the word has an echo of 'ifrIt in it. Ill 1038a
c afw -> GHUFRAN
afwah -> afawIh
afvun (A, < Gk) : opium; in Iran and Turkey often called tiryak 'antidote'. I 243a
agadir (B, < Ph gadir) : in North Africa, one of the names of a fortified enclosure
among the Berbers, also called kasr (gasr), temidelt, ghurfa, kal'a (gelda), and igherm
(pi. igherman). I 244b; XII 512b
agdal (A, < B) : pasturage reserved for the exclusive use of the landowner. I 245b
In Morocco, ~ has acquired the sense of a wide expanse of pasture lands, surrounded
by high walls and adjoining the sultan's palace, reserved for the exclusive use of his
cavalry and livestock. I 245b; I 1346b; V 1206a; gardens. IV 685b
agha (T, P aka) : in Eastern Turkish, 'elder brother', 'grandfather', 'uncle', 'elder
sister'. I 245b; in Persian, ~ sometimes signifies eunuch. I 246a
In Ottoman times, ~ meant 'chief, 'master', and sometimes 'landowner'. As a title ~
was given to many persons of varying importance employed in government service,
usually of a military or non-secretarial character, and came to be also used for eunuchs
in the harems of the sultans of Constantinople. I 245b; V 472b
aghac (T) : in Ottoman Turkish, a 'tree', 'wood'. In Eastern Turkish, ~ means both 'the
male member' and a measure of distance, a parasang, three times the distance at which
a man standing between two others can make himself heard by them. I 247a
aghani -> maghani
aghit (T) : in Turkish folklore, lyrical compositions expressive of grief. They commem-
orate the deceased and treat of general aspects of death or express sorrow over collec-
tive calamities. VI 610a
aghlaf, aghral -> alkhan
aghrem (B) : 'settlement'. X 78a
aghriba (A), or aghribat al-'arab : lit. the crows [of the Bedouin]; a designation in early
Islam for poets of negroid maternal ancestry. IX 864a; an outcast [from a tribe]. X
910a
aghrum (B) : bread. V 41b
aghtham -> shayb
agurram (B) : among the Berbers of Morocco, the name for a saint. V 1201a
ahabish (A) : Abyssinians (-> habash); companies or bodies of men, not all of one
tribe. Ill 7b; possibly the Meccan militia of slaves of Ethiopian origin in the period
immediately before the hidjra. I 24b, but see III 8a
The word is also applied to men who formed a confederacy either at a mountain called
al-Hubshi or at a wadI called Ahbash. Ill 7b
ahad (A, s. ahad) : in the science of Tradition, ~ are Traditions from a relatively small
number of transmitters, not enough to make them mutawatir. Ill 25b; an isolated
report. X 932a; and -> fard
ahal (Touareg), or tende : grand parties held by unmarried young people in Touareg
society. X 380a
ahbar -> Kissls
148 <AHD AHL
'ahd (A, pi. 'uhud) : 'joining together'; a contract. I 255a; a written designation of
succession left by a caliph from the time of the Umayyad caliph c Abd al-Malik
onwards. I 255b; IV 938b; XI 126a; and -> ahl al- c ahd; walI al-'ahd
As a Qur'anic term, - denotes God's covenant with men and His commands, the reli-
gious engagement into which the believers have entered, political agreements and
undertakings of believers and unbelievers towards the Prophet and amongst each other,
and ordinary civil agreements and contracts. I 255a
In law, ~ is generally restricted to political enactments and treaties. I 255a; land which
had capitulated before conquest was known as ~ land. IV 14b
In mysticism, ~ is the covenant, consisting of religious professions and vows which
vary in the different orders, with which the dervish is introduced into the fraternity. II
164b
In the science of diplomatic, ~ was a supreme grade of appointment, which concerned
only the highest officials. It has fallen into disuse since the time of the Fatimids. II 302b
In Christian Arabic, al-'ahd al-'atik is the term for the Old Testament, and al-'ahd al-
djadld the term for the New Testament. I 255a
♦ 'ahdname (T) : in the Ottoman empire, the document drawn up to embody the
covenant, 'ahd, made with a harbI. The items in an ~ are called 'uhud, or shurut
(s. shart). Ill 1179b; treaty of dependence. IX 483b
ahdab (A) : hunchback. I 161a
ahdath (A) : lit. young men; a kind of urban militia, whose function was that of a
police, which played a considerable role in the cities of Syria and Upper Mesopotamia
from the 4th/10th to the 6th/12th centuries. I 256a; I 1332b; II 963a; VIII 402a; arbi-
trary actions at odds with the divine Law. I 384a
In Safawid Persia, the ~ were the night patrols in the cities, also called gezme and
'asas. I 687a
ahfara -> ithihaqhara
'ahira (pi. 'awahir) -> baqhiyy
ahkaf (A) : the title of sura xlvi of the Qur'an; in geography, a term variously trans-
lated as 'curved sand dunes', the name of a sand desert in Southern Arabia, and the
whole of al-Ramla or just its western half. I 257a
ahkam (A, s. hukm) : judicial decisions. I 257a; juridical and moral rules. IV 151b;
astrological signs. VII 558a
♦ al-ahkam al-khamsa (A) : in law, the 'five qualifications' (obligatory, recom-
mended, indifferent, reprehensible, forbidden), by one or the other of which every act
of man is qualified. I 257b; IX 324b; X 932a
♦ ahkam al-nudjum (A) : astrology (-> nadjm). VII 558a
♦ ahkami (A), or munadjdjim : an astrologer who interprets the astrological signs.
VII 558a
ahl (A, pi. ahdl) : family, inmates, people, meaning those dwelling in a defined area but
not specifically a nation. I 257b; IV 785b; in the tribal structure of the Bedouin, ~ (syn.
al) denotes offspring up to the fifth degree. I 700b; in combinations, ~ often means
'sharing in a thing, belonging to it' or 'owner of the same'. I 257b; in its plural form,
al-ahall means the indigenous, autochthonous peoples. XI 175a
♦ ahl al-'aba' -»■ ahl al-bayt
♦ ahl al- c ahd (A) : non-Muslims living outside the Islamic state. The term was
extended occasionally to both the musta'min, the foreigner granted the right of living
in Islamic territory for a limited period of time, and the dhimmI. I 255b
♦ ahl al-ahwa' (A) : term applied by orthodox theologians to those followers of
Islam whose religious tenets in certain details deviate from the general ordinances of
the sunni confession. I 257b
AHL 149
♦ ahl al-(bahth wa 'l-)nazar (A) : 'those who apply reasoning', a term probably
coined by the Mu'tazila to denote themselves; later, it came to mean careful scholars
who held a sound, well-reasoned opinion on any particular question. I 266a
♦ ahl al-bayt (A) : lit. the people of the house, viz. the family of the Prophet. The
term has been interpreted variously; the current orthodox view is based on a harmon-
ising opinion, according to which the term includes the ahl al-'aba' (the Prophet, 'Ali,
Fatima, al-Hasan and al-Husayn) together with the wives of the Prophet. I 257b; II
843b; IX 331a; among the shi'a, the ~ (which they call by preference Htra) is limited
to the ahl al-kisa' and their descendants. I 258a; IX 331a
♦ ahl al-buyutat (A) : those who belong to Persian families of the highest nobility;
later, the nobles in general. I 258b
♦ ahl al-dar (A) : lit. the people of the house; the sixth order in the Almohad hier-
archy. I 258b
♦ ahl al-da'wa -> madhhab
♦ ahl al-dhikr (A) : 'possessors of edification', a Qur'anic term signifying witnesses
of previous revelations. I 264a
♦ ahl al-dhimma -> dhimma
♦ ahl al-djama'a (A) : lit. the people of the community, an alternative of the appel-
lative ahl al-sunna wa 'l-g^amd'a, an early designation of one of the warring parties at
Siffin, and one of the 73 factions into which the Islamic community will be divided
and the only one which will eventually attain salvation. IX 880b
♦ ahl al-fadl (A) : aristocrats, in contrast to the rude and untutored masses (arddhil,
sufahd', akhissa'). IX 330a
♦ ahl al-hadith (A), and ashdb al-hadlth : the partisans of Traditions, hadIth; tra-
ditionists, as opposed to the ahl al-ra'y. I 258b
♦ ahl al-hall wa 'l-'akd (A) : 'those who are qualified to unbind and to bind'; term
for the representatives of the Muslim community who act on its behalf in appointing
and deposing a caliph or another ruler. I 263b
♦ ahl al-harb -> harbI
♦ ahl al-ikhtiyar -> ikhtiyar
♦ ahl al-ithbat (A) : 'people of the firm proof; an appellation for Dirar b. 'Amr and
his school by al-Ash'ari. Ill 1037a; III 1144a
♦ ahl al-ithnayn -> thanawiyya
♦ ahl al-kanif (A) : the poor and needy members of a tribe. X 910a
♦ ahl al-kibla (A) : the people of the kibla, viz. the Muslims. I 264a
♦ ahl al-kisa' (A) : the people of the cloak, viz. the Prophet and his daughter
Fatima, his son-in-law c Ali, and his grandsons al-Hasan and al-Husayn, whom the
Prophet sheltered under his cloak. I 264a; IX 331a
♦ ahl al-kitab (A) : lit. the people of the Book, viz. Jews and Christians, and later
also extended to Sabeans, Zoroastrians and, in India, even idolaters. I 264b; IV 408b
♦ ahl al-kiyas (A) : the name given to the Mu'tazila by their adversaries. II 102b
♦ ahl al-kudya (A) : 'vagabonds', one of the numerous terms for 'rascals, scoun-
drels' in the mediaeval and modern periods. XI 546a
♦ ahl al-madar (A) : people who lived in mud-brick houses in Arabia at the rise of
Islam. I 608b; V 585a
♦ ahl al-madhhab -+ madhhab
♦ ahl al-milla -> milla
♦ ahl al-nass -> ikhtiyar
♦ ahl al-nazar -> ahl al-(bahth wa 'l-)nazar
♦ ahl al-ra'y (A), and ashdb al-ra'y : partisans of personal opinion, as opposed to
the traditionists, ahl al-hadith. I 692a
150 AHL — AK DARYA
♦ ahl al-suffa (A) : a group of the Prophet's Companions who typify the ideal of
poverty and piety. I 266a
♦ ahl al-sunna (A) : the sunnis, i.e. the orthodox Muslims. I 267a; III 846a; IV
142a; party of the orthodox traditionists. I 694a; I 1039b; and -»■ ahl al-djama'a
♦ ahl al-taraf > kabIli
♦ ahl al-taswiya (A) : in early Islam, advocates of equality between non-Arabs and
Arabs. IX 514a
♦ ahl al-tathniya -»■ thanawiyya
♦ ahl al-tawhid (A) : 'monotheists', the definition used by certain authors for the
totality of Muslims, and by other groups, such as the Mu'tazila and the Almohads, for
themselves. X 389a
♦ ahl al-wabar (A) : Bedouin living in tents of camel's-hair cloth in Arabia at the
rise of Islam. I 608b; V 585a
♦ ahl-i hadith (A) : a designation used in India and Pakistan for the members of a
Muslim sect, who profess to hold the same views as the early ahl al-hadIth and not
be bound by any of the four sunni legal schools. I 259a
♦ ahl-i hakk (A) : 'men of God', a secret religion prevalent mainly in western
Persia. They are also called c Ali Ilahi, but this is an unsuitable title. The central point
in their dogma is the belief in the successive manifestations of God, the number of
these being seven. I 260a
♦ ahl-i waris (Mai, < P, < A) : inheritors, used among the Muslims of Indonesia.
I 267a
♦ ahll -»■ WAKF KHAYRl
♦ ahliyya (A) : a diploma from al-Azhar after a minimum of 8 years of study. I
818a; primary education, with tahsll (secondary) and 'dlimiyya (higher) following. XI
490a
In law, the legal capacity of an individual to be a subject of the law, either a right-
acquiring capacity, ahliyyat wudjub, or an execution capacity, ahliyyat idd'. IX 248a;
XI 208a; in Persian modern legal language, ahliyyat is used to mean nationality. IV
785b
ahlaf (A, s. hilf) : a group formed by all but one of Zayd b. c Abd Allah's descendants.
X 173b
ahliladj -»■ halIladj
ahliyya(t) -»■ ahl
ahmal (A) : one of two groups (al-ahmal) formed by the sons of Yarbu c b. Hanzala,
which was made up of four sons born by the same mother; three other sons formed a
group called al-'ukad (or al-'ukada'). X 173b
ahmar (A) : the colour red, the colour for which Arabic terminology is the richest. V
700b, where many synonyms are given; and -»■ zahr
ahmas, ahmasi, ahmasiyya -»■ hums
ahnaf (A) : the characteristic of having misshapen feet. I 303b
ahu : gazelles, or deer, on the island of Samos. IX 679b
ahwad (A) : in agriculture, the small squares into which a field is divided, which the
water reaches by channels. IV 683b
'a'id -»■ wusla
'a'ila (A) : family, given way today mostly to usra. I 305b
a'in (P) : 'law, rite, institution', found in a title translated from Pahlawi into Arabic by
Ibn Mukaffa' in the middle of the 2nd/8th century, and in later titles on Persian Islamic
history. I 306b
ak bircak -»■ ak sakal
ak darya -+ ak su
AK SAKAL — AKHBAR 151
ak sakal (P) : 'grey-beard', the elder of a Shahsewan group. Women elders were known
as ak bircak 'grey hairs'. IX 224a
ak su (T) : white water; as a technical term, ~ denotes the original bed of a river (syn.
ak darya). 1313b
aka -»■ agha
akaba (A, pi. 'ikab) : a mountain road, or a place difficult of ascent on a hill or accliv-
ity. The best-known place of this name is al-'akaba, between Mina and Mecca, where
the ritual stone-throwing of the pilgrimage takes place. I 314b
c akal (A), or brim : ringed cord or rope to go over the headscarf worn by men. V 740b;
X 611b
'akar (A) : in law, ~ denotes immovable property, such as houses, shops and land, and
as such is identical with 'realty' or 'real property' (ant. mdl mankul). The owner of ~
is also deemed to be the owner of anything on it, over it or under it, to any height or
depth. XII 55a
'akawwak (A) : thick-set. I 315b
akbaba -* nasr
akce (T) : 'small white', in numismatics, the name for the Ottoman silver coin referred
to by European authors as aspre or asper. I 317b; II 119a; V 974a; VIII 978a
In Ottoman administration, taxes and dues (riisum, -► rasm) which were paid in cash
were often called ~. VIII 486a
'akd (A) : the legal act, especially that which involves a bi-lateral declaration, viz. the
offer and the acceptance. I 318a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ is used for contract (syn. 'ahd, mithak), in particular
a civil contract, often more clearly defined by an additional genitive, such as 'akd al-
nikdh, 'akd al-sulh, etc. II 303a
In rhetoric, ~ 'binding' denotes the iktibas when it is put into verse and its source is
indicated. Ill 1091b
In archery, ~, or kafla, denotes the lock, locking, sc. the position on the bow-string of
the fingers of the right hand, and especially that of the thumb in the 'Mongolian' tech-
nique of locking. IV 800b
In grammar, the nexus linking the two terms of the nominal and verbal phrases. IV
895b
In astronomy, ~ means node (syn. c ukda), and it is often used, in combination with ra's
and dhanab, instead of djawzahar to indicate the two opposite points in which the
apparent path of the moon, or all planets, cuts the ecliptic. V 536a
akdar (A) : troubled, obscure; for some Muslim scholars, the origin of the name
akdariyya for a difficult question of law. I 320b
♦ akdariyya (A) : in law, the name of a well-known difficult question about inher-
itance, viz. whether a grandfather can exclude a sister from her inheritance in the case
of a woman leaving behind as her heirs her husband, her mother, her grandfather, and
her sister. I 320a
'akf (A) : a word used in the Qur'an to designate the ceremonial worship of the cult and
also the ritual stay in the sanctuary, which was done, for example, in the Meccan tem-
ple. VI 658a
akhawi (Touareg) : a woman's camel saddle, provided with semi-circular hoops attached
to the side, used by the Touareg of the Sahara. HI 667a
akhbar -> khabar
♦ akhbari (A) : an historian. XI 280b
♦ akhbariyya (A) : in Twelver shi'ism, those who rely primarily on the Traditions,
akhbar, of the imams as a source of religious knowledge, in contrast to the usuliyya,
who admit a larger share of speculative reason in the principles of theology and reli-
gious law. XII 56b
152 AKHDAR — 'AKlDA
akhdar (A) : the colour green, an adjective also associated with the notion of darkness,
since it sometimes denotes black, dark, grey. V 700b; and -»■ zahr
akfani -»■ kafan
akhfash (A) : nyctalope, or devoid of eyelashes. I 321a
akhi (T < aki 'generous') : a designation of the leaders of associations of young men
organised as guilds in Anatolia in the 7th-8th/l 3th- 14th centuries, who adopted the
ideals of the futuwwa. I 321a; II 966b ff.; a Turkish trade guild. IX 646a; one of
three grades in the ~ organisation, denoting the president of a corporation of fitydn
(s. fata) and owner of a meeting-house, zawiya. I 322b; II 967b; one of nine cate-
gories in the trade guild, itself divided into six divisions: the first three divisions were
ashab-tark, the experienced, and the last three, nakibler, the inexperienced. IX 646a
akhira (A) : the life to come, the condition of bliss or misery in the hereafter. I 325a
akhissa' -»■ ahl al-fadl
akhlafa (A) : a verb conveying the notion 'he [the child] passed the time when he had
nearly attained to puberty'. VIII 822a
akhlak (A, s. khuluk 'innate disposition') : in philosophy, ethics. I 325b
akhmas -»■ takhmis
akhnif (A), or khnlf : a short Berber cape of black wool, woven in one piece, with a
large red or orange medallion on the back, hooded for men, unhooded for women. II
1116a; V 745b
akhras (A) : mute. I 330b
akhriyan (< Gk 'agarlnos 'Hagarene') : the self-designation, documented from 835/1432,
by the Muslim Bulgarians living in the central Rhodoe between Nevrokop and
PazardZik, but having been adopted by the Ottomans to describe somewhat dubious
converts in the Balkans in a pejorative sense, it fell out of use, to survive only as a
Rumelian term. X 698b
akhtabegi -»■ akhurbeg
akhtal (A) : loquacious. I 331a
akhtam (A, s. khatm) : in Tunisia, a ceremony stemming from Hafsid days of the 'clos-
ing' of public readings of the canonical collections of al-Bukhari and Muslim and of
the Shifa' of al-Kadi 'Iyad, readings which finish on 27 Ramadan in the Great Mosque
in the presence of the head of state himself. X 657a
akhund (T, P) : a title given to scholars; in Persian it is current since Tlmurid times in
the sense of 'schoolmaster, tutor'. I 331b
akhur-salar -*■ salar
akhurbeg (IndP) : under the Dihli sultanate, the superintendent of the royal horses, there
being one for each wing of the army. Under the Mughals, this officer was known as
the dtbegi or akhtabegi. V 689b
'akib (A) : in law, a descendant. A charitable endowment that was characterised as mu'akkab
'for a descent group' was understood to apply to two or more generations of lineal
descendants who qualified as beneficiaries simultaneously. XI 70b
In anatomy, the heel. XI 254b
c akid (A) : a leader of a Bedouin raid. II 1055a; among the Jordanian tribes, in early
modern times, a specific leader of raids at the side of the chief, known in full as ~ al-
ghazw. IX 115b
In 19th-century Sudan, an imperial proconsul, a category of functionaries that differed
from the older royal courtiers not only in the great diversity of their ethnic origin but
also in that they were allowed to absent themselves for extended periods from the pres-
ence of the king. XI 11a
'akida (A, pi. c akd'id) : in theology, creed; doctrine, dogma or article of faith. I 332b;
IV 279b
'AKlK — AKLIGH 153
c akik (A) : cornelian; the name has been transferred to any kind of necklace which is
of a red colour. I 336a; VIII 269a
akika (A) : the name of the sacrifice on the seventh day after the birth of a child; also,
the shorn hair of the child, which is part of the seventh-day ritual. I 337a; IV 488a;
VIII 824b
'akil (A, pi. 'ukkdl) : 'sage'; in law, compos mentis. IX 63a; and ->■ 'ukala' al-
MADJANlN
Among the Druze, a member initiated into the truths of the faith; those not yet initi-
ated, yet members of the community, are called djuhhdl (-> djahil). II 633a
akila -► ikla
akila (A, pi. 'awdkil) : in penal law, the group of persons upon whom devolves, as the
result of a natural joint liability with the person who has committed homicide or
inflicted bodily harm, the payment of compensation in cash or in kind, the diya. I 29a;
I 337b
akin ->■ zbiraw
♦ akindji (T) : irregular cavalry during the first centuries of the Ottoman empire,
based on and primarily for service in Europe. I 340a
akit (A) : sour-milk cheese, made by pre-Islamic Arabs. II 1057b; X 901a
akkar (A, < Ar; pi. akara) : lit. tiller, cultivator of the ground; term applied to the peas-
antry of Aramaean stock in Syria and Iraq with a pejorative sense. XII 58b
c akkar ->■ afawIh
'akl (A) : reason; intellect or intelligence. I 341b; IV 157a
In neoplatonic speculation, ~ is the first, sometimes the second, entity which emanates
from the divinity as the first cause, or proceeds from it by means of intellectual cre-
ation. I 341b
In scholastic theology, ~ is a natural way of knowing, independently of the authority
of the revelation, what is right and wrong. I 341b
To the philosophers of Islam, who followed Aristotle and his Greek commentators,
more especially Alexander of Aphrodisias, ~ is that part of the soul by which it 'thinks'
or 'knows' and as such is the antithesis of perception. The Muslim philosophers recog-
nised a hierarchy of separate intelligences ( c ukul mufdrika), usually ten in number, each
lower one emanating from the higher. I 341b
In penal law, ~ (pi. 'ukul) is the compensation in cash or in kind required by the
c akila in cases of homicide or instances of bodily harm. I 338a; and ->■ diya
In prosody, a deviation from the proper metre, in particular a missing la in the foot
mufd'a[la]tun. I 672a; a case of zihaf where the fifth vowel is elided. XI 508b
In Druze hierarchy, the highest of the five cosmic ranks in the organisation. II 632a
♦ al- c akl al-awwal (A) : in c Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani's mystical thought, the Universal
Reason, which proceeds by a dynamic emanation from God. This is a spiritual sub-
stance and the first of the properties which the divine essence implies. I 89b
♦ 'akliyyat (A) : a technical term in scholastic theology, signifying the rational (and
natural) knowledge which the reason can acquire by itself. According to the Mu'tazili
tradition and Sa'adya al-Fayyumi, ~ denotes that which is accessible to the reason and
especially, on the ethical level, the natural values of law and morals. The term also
denotes a genus of theological dissertations, going back to the 6th/12th century. I 342b
aklaf ->■ ALKHAN
aklam ->■ kalam
aklat al-mahabba (A) : a feast-day meal among the Sarliyya in northern Iraq, once
every lunar year, to which everyone contributed a cock boiled with rice or wheat. IX
64a
akligh ->■ MUSAFFAHAT
154 AKRA' 'ALAM
akra' (A) : bald. I 343a
akrab (A, pi. 'alcdrib) : in zoology, the scorpion. I 343b
In astronomy, al-~ is the term for Scorpius, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations.
I 343b; VII 83b
akrabadhin (A, < Syr) : a title of treatises on the composition of drugs; pharma-
copoeias. I 344a
aksakal : in traditional Ozbeg society, the respected older headman of a village, who
mediated disputes. VIII 233b
aksima : a term usually translated as 'liquid, syrup', but, since one of the recipes men-
tions the presence of yeast among the ingredients of this drink, it must presumably be
a variety of sweetened beer such as fukka'. VI 721b; IX 225a
akunitun (A, < Gk) : in medicine, a particularly deadly poison originating from a plant
root. Synonyms are khanik al-nimr, khanik al-dhi'b, kdtil al-nimr, nabbdl, and blsh. XII
59b
akwal (A, B agwdl, gulldl) : a goblet-shaped drum, about 60 cm long, still to be found
in the Maghrib. In Tripolitania, a similar instrument called the tabdaba is used. X 33a
al (A) : a clan, a genealogical group between the family and the tribe. Later, ~ came to
mean the dynasty of a ruler. I 345b; a demon who attacks women in childbed, a
personification of puerperal fever. I 345b; in Persian administration, a royal seal. XI
192b; and -► ahl; sarab
ala (A, pi. dldt) : an instrument, utensil.
In grammar, ~ is found in expressions as dlat a/-TA c RiF, instrument of determination,
and dlat al-tashbih, instrument of comparison. I 345b
In the classification of sciences, dldt is the name of such attainments as are acquired
not for their own sake, but 'as a means to something else'. I 345b
In philosophy, ~ is another term for logic, following the peripatetic view that it is an
instrument, not a part, of philosophy. I 345a
For ~ in Moroccan music, -» qhina'
a'la (A) : higher; al-a c ld is used as an epithet to differentiate between the patron and the
client, when both are referred to as mawla. I 30b
alaaqad (Somali) : in Somali society, a woman specialist who relieves people of spirits
through the performance of a ritual. IX 723b
alaba (A) : a geographical term used to denote the northern part of the Iberian penin-
sula beyond the left bank of the upper valley of the Ebro. I 348b
♦ alaba wa '1-kila' (A) : a geographical expression used in the 2nd-3rd/8th-9th cen-
turies to denote that part of Christian Spain which was most exposed to the attacks of
summer expeditions sent from Cordoba by the Umayyad amIrs. I 348b
alabalgha (A) : the trout. VIII 1021a
alacigh (P) : the dwelling of the Shahsewan in Persia, which is hemispherical and felt-
covered; within each one lives a household of on average seven or eight people. IX
223b
aladja (T) : chintz with coloured stripes; used in many geographical names. I 348b; V
560a ff.
'alaf (A) : fodder. XI 412a; and -* 'ulufe
'alam (A, pi. a'ldm) : signpost, flag (syn. liwa\ raya). I 349a
♦ 'alamdar -» sandjakdar
♦ c alem-i nebewi -> sandjak-i sherif
'alam (A, pi. 'dlamun, 'awdlim) : world. I 349b
♦ 'alam al-djabarut (A) : 'the world of (divine) omnipotence', barzakh, to which
belong, according to al-Ghazali, the impressionable and imaginative faculties of the
human soul. I 351a
♦ 'alam al-malakut (A) : a Qur'anic term for 'the world of Kingdom, of Sover-
eignty', the world of immutable spiritual truths, and hence of the angelic beings, to
which are added all of Islamic tradition, the Preserved Table, the Pen, the Scales, and
often the Qur'an. I 351a
♦ c alam al-mulk (A) : a Qur'anic term meaning 'the world of kingship', i.e. the
world of becoming, the world here below. I 351a
alama (A, T 'aldmet) : emblem, presented by early Islamic rulers to their close pages
as a sign of honour. VIII 432b
In the science of diplomatic, the signature of the person drawing up the document, part
of the concluding protocol in the classical period. II 302a; X 392b
In the Muslim West, a mark of ratification or initialling, on all official chancery doc-
uments. I 352a; the formula of authorisation (wa 'l-hamdu U-lldhi wahdah), written in
large lettering at the head of despatches and commissions. II 331b
For ~ in dating, -»■ madkhal
alap (H) : the introductory improvisation, the first part in a performance of classical or
art music of India. Ill 454a
c alas (A) : in agriculture, a variety of wheat. II 1060b
alat ->■ ala
c alath (A) : in botany, the wild endive (hindibd' barrl), known under a variety of names:
ghalath, ya'did, bakla murra, tarkhashkuk and variants. XII 370b
alay (T, prob. < Gk allagion) : in Ottoman usage, a troop, a parade, and hence a crowd,
a large quantity. It was used from the time of the 19th-century military reforms to
denote a regiment. I 358a
♦ alay-beyi ->■ za'im
'alaya (A) : in Oman, the upper quarter of a wadi or water channel, frequently occupied
by a tribe in traditional rivalry with another tribe occupying the lower quarter, sifdla.
XII 818a
albasti : in Ozbeg folk tradition, a witch-like djinn. VIII 234b
'alem ->■ 'alam
alif ->■ HAMZA
♦ alif al-kat' -> kat'
♦ alif maksura (A) : a long a not followed by hamza. XI 222a
'alirn ->■ fakIh; 'ulama 5
♦ alima (A, pi. 'awdlim) : lit. a learned, expert woman, ~ is the name of a class
of Egyptian female singers forming a sort of guild, according to sources of the 18th
and 19th centuries. I 403b
♦ 'alimiyya ->■ ahliyya
'aliya (A, pi. 'awdll) : grand master, the highest rank in the game of chess. IX 367a
aljamia (Sp, < A al-'adjamiyya 'non-Arabic') : the name used by the Muslims of
Muslim Spain to denote the Romance dialects of their neighbours in the north of the
Iberian peninsula. In the later Middle Ages, ~ acquired the particular meaning which
is attributed to it today: a Hispanic Romance language written in Arabic characters.
The literature in ~ is termed aljamiada. 1 404b
alkhan (A) : a term for 'uncircumcised' in the ancient language (syn. aklaf, aghlaf,
aghral). V 20a
allah (A) : God, the Unique One, the Creator; already to the pre-Islamic Arabs, ~ was
one of the Meccan deities, possibly the supreme deity. I 406a
♦ allahumma (A) : an old formula of invocation, used in praying, offering, con-
cluding a treaty and blessing or cursing. I 418a
c alma -»■ ghaziya
almas (A, < Gk) : in mineralogy, the diamond. I 419a
156 ALMOGAVARES AMAZZAL
almogavares (Sp, < A al-mugbawir) : the name given at the end of the Middle Ages to
certain contingents of mercenaries levied from among the mountaineers of Aragon. I
419b
alp (T) : 'hero', a figure which played a great role in the warlike ancient Turkish soci-
ety (syn. batur (-> Bahadur), sokmen, capar); used also as an element in compound
proper names or as a title by Saldjuk and subsequent rulers. I 419b
altin (T), or altun : in mineralogy, gold, also used of gold coins. I 423b
alu-yi malkum (P) : lit. plums of Malcolm; potatoes, introduced into Persia in the 18th
century, called after Sir John Malcolm the British envoy, who is commonly but prob-
ably erroneously thought to have brought them. XII 610b
aluka -> ma'luka
aluwi (A, < Gk) : the aloe drug, i.e. the juice pressed from the leaves of the aloe. VIII
687b
alwan (A) : in music, a lute with a long neck and plucked strings. VI 215b
alya (A) : the fat tail of a sheep. II 1057b; XII 318a
ama -> 'abd
'ama (A) : in the mystical thought of 'Abd al-Karim al-Djili, the simple hidden pure
Essence before its manifestation, one of the important scales or 'descents' in which
Absolute Being develops. I 71a
amad (U) : in Urdu poetry, the part of the elegy, marthiya, where the army's prepara-
tion for battle is described, sometimes including a detailed description of the hero's
horse. VI 611b
'amal (A) : performance, action. I 427a; II 898a; 'that which is practised', the moral
action in its practical context and, secondarily, the practical domain of 'acting'. I 427b
In law, ~ is judicial practice. I 427b
As a legal and economic term, ~ denotes labour, as opposed to capital. I 428a
In later Muslim administration, ~ means 'fief. IX 153b; region. IX 739a
♦ 'amal bi '1-yad (A), or 'amal al-yad : in medicine, the early expression for
surgery, later replaced by djirdha. II 481b
♦ 'ilm 'amali -* 'ilm
♦ 'amaliyya (A) : the practical sciences, viz. ethics, economics and politics, as
determined by the philosophers. I 427b
'amala (A) : an administrative allowance, e.g. that given to an amir. I 439a
'amama -* 'imama
aman (A) : safety, protection.
In law, a safe conduct or pledge of security by which a non-Muslim not living in
Muslim territory becomes protected by the sanctions of the law in his life and property
for a limited period. I 429a; II 303b; III 1181b; and -► idhn
'amar al-dam (A) : among the Bedouin of Cyrenaica and the Western Desert of Egypt,
the vengeance group, which also functions as a blood-money group. Among the
Ahaywat Bedouin of central Sinai and their neighbours, the vengeance and blood-
money group is called a damawiyya or khamsih. X 442b f.
amarg -> tarab
'amari -» hawda
amazzal (B), and amzyad, amhaz, amhars, awrith : an institution concerning an individ-
ual, occurring in the case of a stranger to the group who, usually after committing
some offence in his own clan, has imposed the 'ar 'transfer of responsibility', and
obtained the protection of another group which he makes henceforward the beneficiary
of his work. The stranger becomes ~ when his protector has given to him in marriage
his own daughter or another woman over whom he holds the right of djabr. XII 79b
'AMD — AMIR 157
c amd (A) : in law, an intentional act; one that is quasi-deliberate is called shibh
(-» shubha) 'amd. II 341a; IV 768b; IV 1101b
ameddji (T, < P dmad) : an official of the central administration of the Ottoman empire,
who headed the personal staff of the re'Is ul-kuttab 'chief Secretary'. The office
seems to have come into being later than the 17th century and increased in importance
after the reforms. I 433a; II 339a; referendar or reporter of the Imperial Diwan. VIII
481b
amenokal (B) : any political leader not subordinate to anyone else. The title is applied
to foreign rulers, to high-ranking European leaders, and to the male members of cer-
tain noble families; in some regions of the Sahara, ~ is also given to the chiefs of small
tribal groups. I 433b; X 379a
amghar (B) : an elder (by virtue of age or authority); ~ is used for different functions
among the various Berber tribes. I 433b; X 379a
amhars -> amazzal
amhaz -» amazzal
'amid (A) : lit. pillar, support; a title of high officials of the Samanid-Ghaznawid admin-
istration, denoting the rank of the class of officials from whom the civil governors were
recruited. I 434a; under the Saldjuks, an official in charge of civil and financial mat-
ters. VI 275a; a designation for the tribal chief (syn. 'imdd). IX 115b
c amil (A, pi. 'umrndl, 'awdmil) : a Muslim who performs the works demanded by his
faith; as technical term, it came to denote tax-collector, government agent; (provincial)
governor [in North Africa and Spain] in charge of the general administration and
finance. I 435a; financial administrator. I 19b
In law, the active partner in a mudaraba partnership. I 435a
Among the Bohoras sect in India, ~ denotes a local officiant appointed by the head of
the sect to serve the community in respect of marriage and death ceremonies, and rit-
ual prayer. I 1255a
In grammar, ~ signifies a regens, a word which, by the syntactical influence which it
exercises on a word that follows, causes a grammatical alteration of the last syllable
of the latter. I 436a; IX 360a; IX 527b
♦ 'awamil al-asma 1 (A) : in grammar, the particles governing nouns. Ill 550a
amin (A) : safe, secure; with the more frequent form amin, a confirmation or corrobo-
ration of prayers, Amen. I 436b; (pi. umand') trustworthy; an overseer, administrator.
I 437a; VIII 270b
As a technical term, ~ denotes the holders of various positions 'of trust', particularly
those whose functions entail economic or financial responsibility. I 437a; and -*■ emin
In law, ~ denotes legal representatives. I 437a
In the Muslim West, ~ carried the technical meaning of head of a trade guild, which in
the East was called 'arif. I 437a
♦ amin al-'asima (A) : the chairmen of the municipalities of Damascus, Beirut, Baghdad
and Amman, thus called in order to emphasise their particular importance in relation
to the seat of the government; elsewhere in the Arab East, the original designation,
ra'is al-baladiyya, is retained. I 975b
♦ amin al-hukm (A) : the officer in charge of the administration of the effects of
orphan minors (under the early 'Abbasids). I 437a
amir (A, pi. umard'; T emir) : commander, governor, prince. I 438b; a person invested
with command (amr), and more especially military command. I 445a; III 45b; IV 941 ff.
♦ amir akhur (A) : the supervisor of the royal stables. I 442b; IV 217b; and -»
MIR-AKHUR
♦ amir dad (P) : the minister of justice under the Saldjuks. I 443b
158 AMIR — 'ANADIL
♦ amir djandar (< P) : in Mamluk Egypt, 'Marshal of the Court', under whose com-
mand the rikabdar 'groom' was. VIII 530a
♦ amir al-djuyush (A) : the commander-in-chief of the army. XI 188a
♦ amir al-hadjdj (A) : the leader of the caravan of pilgrims to Mecca. I 443b
♦ al-amir al-kabir, or amir kabir -»• atabak
♦ amir madjlis (A) : the master of audiences or ceremonies. Under the Saldjuks of
Asia Minor, the ~ was one of the highest dignitaries. Under the Mamluks, the ~ had
charge of the physicians, oculists and the like. I 445a
♦ amir al-mu'minin (A) : lit. the commander of the believers; adopted by 'Umar
b. al-Khattab on his election as caliph, the title ~ was employed exclusively as the pro-
tocollary title of a caliph until the end of the caliphate as an institution. I 445a
♦ amir al-muslimin (A) : lit. commander of the Muslims; title which the Almo-
ravids first assumed. I 445b
♦ amir shikar (A) : an institution, first known as amir al-sayd 'master of the
chases', established by the Umayyads. I 1152a
♦ amir silah (A) : the grand master of the armour. Under the Mamluks, the ~ was
in charge of the armour-bearers and supervised the arsenal. I 445b
♦ amir al-umara' (A) : the commander-in-chief of the army. I 446a; II 507b
♦ amiri (A) : a cotton product from Kh w arazm that enjoyed a great reputation. V
555a
♦ al-umara' al-mutawwakun -> sahib al-bab
'amir -» dayman
amladj (A) : in botany, the fruit of the Phyllanthus emblica, which was useful against
haemorrhoids. The Arabs and Europeans in the Middle Ages mistook it for a myrobal-
anus. XII 349b
'amluk (A) : the offspring of a djinn and a woman. Ill 454b
'aram (A, pi. a'mdm) : paternal uncle. IV 916b
♦ 'amm waddah (A) : a child's game described as searching (in the dark) for a very
white bone tossed far away, with the finder being allowed to ride upon his playmates.
The Prophet is said to have engaged in this as a child. V 615b
amma (A), or ma'muma : a wound penetrating the brain; a determining factor in the pre-
scription of compensation following upon physical injury, diya. II 341b
'amma (A, pi. 'awamm) : the plebs, common people. I 491a; I 900a ff.; IV 1098a; V
605b; and -> khass
♦ 'ammi (A) : one who is secular in religious matters. IX 185b; among the Twelver
Usuliyya, a lay believer. VIII 777b; one not trained in the law. IX 324b
♦ 'ammiyya (A) : a revolt among the common people. IX 270b
amr (A) : as Qur'anic and religious term, divine command. I 449a
For ~ in Ottoman Turkish, -> emr
amrad (A) : a handsome, beardless youth. XI 126b; XII 598a
'amud (A, pi. c umddn) : a tent pole; a monolithic column and capital; a constructed pil-
lar. I 457b; IV 1148a; the main stream of a river, in particular the Nile, as distin-
guished from the minor branches and the canals. VIII 38a
♦ 'amud al-kasida -»■ musammat
amzwar -» mizwar
amzyad -> amazzal
ana : originally, an Indian money of account, a sixteenth share, one rupee being 16 ~.
Later, the name was given to an actual coin. VI 121b
'ana -> istihdad
'ana' -» djalsa; kira' mu'abbad
'anadil (A) : a despised class of workmen, including such professions as barber, butcher,
cupper, etc. IV 819b
'ANAK — ANMAT 159
'anak (A) : in zoology, ~ or 'anak al-ard denotes a kind of lynx, the caracal (< T
karakulak). I 481a; II 739b; IX 98b; X 224a; and -► sakhla
In astronomy, 'andk al-ard is y Andromedae and 'anak al-bandt is the C, of the Great
Bear. I 481a
anayasa -► kanun-i esasI
anaza (A) : a short spear or staff, syn. harba. I 482a; XII 735b; and -► karkaddan
In North Africa, ~ survives as an architectural term signifying an external mihrab for
those praying in the court of the mosque. I 482a
anba (A) : in al-Buraymi in Arabia, the term for mangoe (syn. hanb). I 540b; in India,
a kind of sweet lemon, the fruit of which is salted while still green. VII 962b
'anbar (A) : ambergris (ambra grisea), a substance of sweet musk-like smell, easily
fusible and burning with a bright flame, highly valued in the East as a perfume and
medicine. I 484a; a large fish, also called bdl, which swallows a form of ambergris
called al-mablu' 'swallowed ambergris' or 'fish-ambergris', which floats on the sea; the
sperm-whale. I 484a; VIII 1022b
♦ 'anbar shihri (A) : ambergris. IX 439a
anbata (A) : a verb which conveys the meaning 'his [a boy's] hair of the pubes grew
forth, he having nearly attained the age of puberty'. VIII 822a
anbik (A, < Gk) : in alchemy, the part known as the 'head' or 'cap' of the distilling
apparatus (syn. ra's); also, the additional faucet-pipe which fits onto the 'cap'. I 486a
'andam -► bakkam
andargah (P, A mustaraka 'stolen') : epagomenae, the five odd days added at the end
of the Persian year as intercalary days. II 398a; generally known in Persian as the 'five
Gathas (pandj gdh) or 'stolen' (duzdidha) days. X 261b; also known as lawdhik
'appendages'. X 267a
andarz (P) : wisdom literature. X 231a
andjudhan -► hiltIt
andjuman (P, T endjiimen) : meeting, assembly, army. I 505a; for its modern use -►
DJAM'lYYA
anf (A) : in music, the nut of the c ud. X 769b
anfiya -► su'Ot
anflus -> mizwar
angham (A, s. naghm) : in music, musical modes. IX 101a
angusjit (P) : fingerbreadth; a unit of measurement under the Mughals which was stan-
dardised at 2.032 cm by the emperor Akbar at the end of the 10th/16th century. II 232a
angust : in zoology, the crawfish, spiny lobster (Palinarus vulgaris), also known as
ankush. IX 40a, where many more synonyms are given
anguza (Pash), or hing : in botany, term for the Ferula assafoetida, very abundant in
Afghanistan. I 223a
'anka' (A) : a fabulous bird approximating the phoenix, in all likelihood a type of heron.
1509a
In music, an ancient instrument described as having open strings of different lengths
but identically situated bridges. The name suggests a long-necked instrument, probably
a trapezoidal psaltery, one species of which was known later as the kanun. VII 191a
ankabut (A) : spider. I 509a; and -> samak 'ankabut
In astronomy, a movable part on the front of the astrolabe. I 723a
ankad (A) : a generic name for the tortoise and the hedgehog. V 389b
ankalis (A, L Anquilla) : the eel. VIII 1021a
ankush -► angust
anmat (A) : large carpets with fringes, said in a Tradition to have been the subject of
considerable expenditure by the Prophet for a wedding. X 900a
160 ANNIYYA — ARAK
anniyya (A) : an abstract term formed to translate the Aristotelian term to oti 'thatness'
of a thing (syn. al-anna); ~ is also used for non-existential beirig. I 513b
ansab -» nusub
ansar (A) : 'helpers'; those men of Medina who supported Muhammad. I 514a
'ansara (A) : the name of a festival. Among the Copts, ~ is the name for Pentecost,
while in North Africa, ~ denotes the festival of the summer solstice. I 515a
ans_huyah (A, < Sp anchoa), or andjuyah : in zoology, the anchovy (Engraulis boelema).
VIII 1021a, where many synonyms are found
c antari (A) : in Egypt, a story-teller who narrates the Romance of c Antar. I 522a; (< T)
a short garment worn under the kaftan; a lined vest ranging from short to knee length,
worn by women. I 522a; V 740b
anwa' (A, s. naw') : a system of computation based on the acronychal setting and heli-
cal rising of a series of stars or constellations. I 523a; VIII 98a; VIII 734a
'anz (A), or sqfiyya : a one-year old female goat, called thereafter, progressively, thanl,
rabd'l, sadls and, after seven years, sdligh. XII 319a
anzarut (A) : in botany, a gum-resin from a thorn-bush which cannot be identified with
certainty. It was used for medical purposes. XII 77b, where synonyms are found
apa : 'older sister', an important term in Ozbeg kinship terminologies. VIII 234a
apadana (MidP) : in architecture, a hypostile audience-hall of the Persian kings. I 609b f.
'ar (A) : shame, opprobrium, dishonour. XII 78a
In North Africa, ~ presupposes a transfer of responsibility and of obligation, arriving
at a sense of 'protection' for the suppliant, in default of which dishonour falls on the
supplicatee, who is obliged to give satisfaction to the suppliant. The most simple trans-
fer is by saying 'ar 'alik 'the ~ on you', and making a material contact with the per-
son to whom the appeal is made, for example touching the edge of his turban or laying
one's hand on him or his mount. ~ is also used towards saints, to whom sacrifices are
offered to obtain their intercession. Ill 396a; XII 78a
'arab (A) : Bedouins; Arabs. The tribes that were the first to speak Arabic after the con-
fusion of the tongues at Babel are known as al-'arab al-'driba, in contradistinction to
al-'arab oZ-muta'arriba (sometimes al-musta'riba), referring to the descendants of
Isma'il who learned Arabic by settling among the 'true' Arabs. X 359b
♦ al- c arab al-ba'ida (A) : the legendary extinct tribes of the Arabs. X 359a; XI 5a;
XI 461a
♦ c arabi -> kata; for - (hadrami), -» sukutrI
♦ 'arabiyya (A) : the Arabic language. I 561b; and -» 'araba
'araba (T, < A 'arrada), or 'arabiyya : a cart, introduced into Mamluk Egypt. Its name
supplanted 'adjala in popular use as a generic term for carriage. I 205b; I 556b
♦ 'araba pazari (T) : in certain Rumelian towns under the Ottomans, a market pre-
sumably located on the outskirts of the town or along a major road. IX 797a
♦ 'arabiyyat hantur (Egy, < Hun hinto), and 'arabiyyat kdrro (< It carro) : a cab. I
206a
'arad (A, pi. a'rdd) : the translation of the Aristotelian term o-uhPePtikck; 'accident',
denoting 1) that which cannot subsist by itself but only in a substance of which it is
both the opposite and the complement, and 2) an attribute which is not a constituent
element of an essence. I 128b; I 603b
aradhil -> ahl al-fadl
a'radj -» 'ardja
a'raf (A, s. 'urf) : 'elevated places'; a term used in the Qur'an, in an eschatological
judgement scene, and interpreted as 'Limbo'. I 603b
'ara'igh (A) : brushwood huts, in Western Arabia. I 106b; trellises of grape vines. I 604b
arak (A) : in medicine, insomnia. XI 563a
arak -> kabath
'ARAK — 'ARID 161
'arak (A) : wine made from the grape. VI 814b
'arakcin -»• 'arakiyya
'arakiyya (A) : a skull cap, often embroidered, worn by both sexes by itself or under the
head-dress in the Arab East; called 'arakcin in 'Irak. A synonym on the Arabian penin-
sula is ma'raka. V 740b ff.; X 611b; in the Turkish Kadiri dervish order, a small felt
cap which the candidate for admission to the order brought after a year and to which
the shaykh attached a rose of 18 sections; the cap is then called tad}. IV 382b; in ear-
lier times in Syria ~ was a sugar cone-shaped cap adorned with pearls worn by women.
X 611b
arandj (A) : a cotton product from Kjfarazm that enjoyed a great reputation. V 555a
'arasa (A) : in Mamluk times, an open unroofed space used e.g. for storing cereals. IX
793b
arasta -»• pasazh
arba'iniyya -»• Cilia
arba'un (A) : forty.
arba'un hadith™ (A, T kirk hadith, P cihil hadith) : a genre of literary and religious
works centred around 40 Traditions of the Prophet. XII 82b
ard (A) : earth, land.
♦ ard amiriyya (A) : in law, land to which the original title belongs to the State,
while its exploitation can be conceded to individuals. II 900b
♦ ard madhuna (A) : an expression occasionally heard in Saudi Arabia which is
used to distinguish the sands of al-Dahna' from those of al-Nafud, the colour of which
is said to be a lighter shade of red; ~ is also equated with ard mundahina 'land only
lightly or superficially moistened by rain'. II 93a
♦ ard mamluka (A) : in law, land to which there is a right of ownership. II 900b
♦ ard matruka ->■ matruk
♦ ard mawat -*■ mawat
♦ ard mawkufa (A) : in law, land set aside for the benefit of a religious endowment.
11900b
♦ ard mundahina ->■ ard madhuna
'ard (A) : review of an army or troops. I 24a; petition. IX 209a; and ->■ isti'rad
In astronomy, planetary latitude. XI 504a
♦ 'ard hal (T) : petition, used in the Ottoman empire. I 625a
♦ 'ard odasi (T) : in Ottoman palace architecture, the audience hall. IX 46b
'ardja (A) : lame; in prosody, ~ is used to designate the unrhymed line inserted between
the third line and the last line of a monorhyme quatrain, ruba'I. The composition is
then called a'radj. VI 868a
ardjawan (< P ?) : a loan-word in Arabic, the colour purple. V 699b
arekkas (Kabyle, < A rakkas) : a simple contrivance of a water-mill made from a pin
fixed on a small stick floating above the moving mill-stone; this pin, fixed to the trough
containing grain, transmits a vibration to it which ensures the regular feeding of the
grain into the mouth of the mill. VIII 415b
argan (B) : in botany, the argan-tree (argania spinosa or argania sideroxylon), growing
on the southern coast of Morocco. I 627b
arghul (A) : a type of double reed-pipe which has only one pipe pierced with finger-
holes, while the other serves as a drone. The drone pipe is normally longer than the
chanter pipe. When the two pipes are of equal length, it is known as the zummara.
The - is played with single beating reeds. The drone pipe is furnished with additional
tubes which are fixed to lower the pitch. In Syria, the smaller type of ~ is called the
mashura. VII 208a
'arid (A, pi. 'urrad) : the official charged with the mustering, passing in review and
inspection of troops. Ill 196a; IV 265a ff.
162 <ARID ARPA
♦ c arid-i mamalik (IndP) : the head of the military administration in Muslim India.
He was also known as sdhib-i diwan-i 'ard. The Mughal name was mlr bakhshl. As a
minister, he was second only to the wazir. He was the principal recruiting officer for
the sultan's standing army; he inspected the armaments and horses of the cavalry at
least once a year, kept their descriptive rolls, and recommended promotions or punish-
ments accordingly. The ~ was also responsible for the internal organisation and the dis-
cipline of the standing army and the commissariat. V 685b
'arid ->• c atOd
♦ 'arida (A) : a subtraction register, for those categories where the difference
between two figures needs to be shown. It is arranged in three columns, with the result
in the third. II 78b
'arif ->■ suf!
'arif (A, pi. 'urafa') : lit. one who knows; a gnostic. IV 326a; as a technical term,
applied to holders of certain military or civil offices in the early and mediaeval peri-
ods, based on competence in customary matters, 'urf. I 629a
In education, a senior pupil, monitor, who aided the teacher in primary schools. V 568a
In the Muslim East, ~ was used for the head of the guild. I 629b
In Oman and trucial Oman, ~ is the official in charge of the water distribution. IV 532a
Among the Ibadiyya, the plural form 'urafa' are experts (inspectors, ushers) appointed
by the assistant of the sjjaykh, khalifa. One of them supervised the collective recita-
tion of the Qur'an, another took charge of the communal meals, and others were
responsible for the students' education, etc. Ill 96a
arika ->• minassa
'arish (A), and 'arsh : in pre-Islamic Arabia, a simple shelter. IV 1147a
'ariyya (A, pi. c araya) : in law, fresh dates on trees intended to be eaten, which it is per-
mitted to exchange in small quantities for dried dates. VIII 492a
'ariyya (A) : in law, the loan of non-fungible objects, distinguished as a separate con-
tract from the loan of money or other fungible objects. ~ is defined as putting some-
one temporarily and gratuitously in possession of the use of a thing, the substance of
which is not consumed by its use. I 633a; VIII 900a
ark (P) : citadel. X 484b
arkan ->• rukn
arkh ->• fazz
arma (Songhay, < A rumdt 'arquebusiers') : a social class made up of the descendants
of the bashas who in the early 19th century maintained a weak state around the Niger
river with their headquarters at Timbuktu. X 508b
armatolik (T) : an autonomous enclave, institutionalised on Greek territories in the
Ottoman empire due to gradually deteriorating conditions of banditry. X 421a
arnab (A, pi. aranib) : in zoology, the hare. XII 85b
In astronomy, ~ is the Hare constellation found beneath the left foot of Orion, the leg-
endary hunter. XII 85b
For in anatomy, ->• arnaba
♦ arnab bahri (A) : in zoology, the term for aplysia depilans, a nudibranch mollusc
of the order of isthobranchia, found widely in the sea. XII 85b
♦ arnaba (A) : in anatomy, the tip (e.g. of the nose, arnabat al-anf). V 769a
In music, ~, or rabab turkl, is a pear-shaped viol with three strings, which in Turkey
appears to have been adopted from the Greeks, possibly in the 17th century, and which
plays a prominent part in concert music today. VIII 348a
arpa (T) : barley. I 658a
♦ arpa tanesi (T) : a barley grain, used under the Ottomans to denote both a weight
(approximately 35.3 milligrams) and a measure (less than a quarter of an inch). I 658a
ARPA C ASA 163
♦ arpalik (T) : barley money, used under the Ottomans up to the beginning of the
19th century to denote an allowance made to the principal civil, military and religious
officers of state, either in addition to their salary when in office, or as a pension on
retirement, or as an indemnity for unemployment. In the beginning it corresponded to
an indemnity for fodder of animals, paid to those who maintained forces of cavalry or
had to look after the horses. I 658a
'arrada (A) : a light mediaeval artillery siege engine, from which the projectile was dis-
charged by the impact of a shaft forcibly impelled by the release of a rope. I 556b; I
658b; III 469b ff.; and --> mandjanik
'arraf (A) : eminent in knowledge, a professional knower; a diviner, generally occupy-
ing a lower rank than the kahin in the hierarchy of seers. I 659b; IV 421b
arrang (A, < Sp arenque), or ranga, ranka : in zoology, the herring. VIII 1021a
arsh (A) : in law, the compensation payable in the case of offences against the body;
compensation in cases of homicide is termed diya. II 340b
'arsh (A) : throne of God. V 509a; in North African dialects, 'tribe', 'agnatic group',
'federation'. I 661a; IV 362a; and -> 'arsh
In Algerian law, the term given, during about the last hundred years, to some of the
lands under collective ownership. I 661a
arshin (P) : roughly 'yards', a unit of measurement. X 487a
'arsi (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a beggar who stops the circulation of blood in an arm or
leg so that people think the limb is gangrenous. VII 494a
arsusa -»■ ursusa
aru (B, pi. irwan) : the Berber equivalent of tdlib, student, from whom the Ibadiyya of
the Mzab recruit their 'azzaba for the religious council. Ill 98b
'arud (A) : in prosody, the last foot of the first hemistich, as opposed to the last foot
of the second hemistich, the darb. I 667b; IV 714b; VIII 747b
♦ 'ilm al-'arud (A) : the science of metrics, said to have been developed by al-
Khalil of Mecca. I 667b; IV 57a; VIII 894a
'arus (A) : the term for both bridegroom and bride, though in modern usage, ~ has been
supplanted by 'aris for bridegroom and 'arusa for bride. X 899b; and -»■ sabi' al-'arus
♦ 'arus resmi (T) : an Ottoman tax on brides. The rate varied depending on
whether the bride was a girl, widow, divorcee, non-Muslim, Muslim, rich or poor. In
some areas, it was assessed in kind. The tax, which seems to be of feudal origin, is
already established in the kanuns of the 15th century in Anatolia and Rumelia, and
was introduced into Egypt, Syria and 'Irak after the Ottoman conquest. It was abol-
ished in the I9th century and replaced by a fee for permission to marry. I 679a
aruzz -> ruzz
♦ aruzz mufalfal (A) : a very popular mediaeval dish which resembled a type of
Turkish pilaw. Made with spiced meat and/or chickpeas or pistachio nuts, the dish may
contain rice coloured with saffron, white rice alone, or a combination of both. A vari-
ation of this dish, made from lentils and plain rice, was called al-muajaddara and is
similar to the modern preparation of the same name. VIII 653a
♦ al-aruzziyya (A) : a mediaeval dish containing meat and seasonings (pepper, dried
coriander and dill), into which a small amount of powdered rice was added during
cooking, and washed (whole) rice towards the end of the preparation. VIII 653a
arwah -> ruh
ary (A) : honey ( > T an 'bee'). VII 906b
arzal -» atraf
as (A, < Akk) : in botany, the myrtle (Myrtus communis). IX 653a; XII 87a
'asa (A) : a rod, stick, staff (syn. kadIb). Among the ancient Arabs, ~ was in common
use for the camel herdsman's staff. In the Qur'an, it is used a number of times, in par-
ticular for Moses' stick. I 680b; and -> shaghaba
'ASA ASFAR
♦ shakk al-'asa (A) : 'splitter of the ranks of the faithful'; under the Umayyads, a
term used to characterise one who deserted the community of the faithful and rebelled
against the legitimate caliphs. VII 546a
'asaba (A) : male relations in the male line, corresponding to the agnates. I 681a; IV
595b; VII 106b
♦ 'asabiyya (A) : spirit of kinship in the family or tribe. Ibn Khaldun used the con-
cept of this term as the basis of his interpretation of history and his doctrine of the
state; for him it is the fundamental bond of human society and the basic motive force
of history. I 681a; II 962b; III 830b; factional strife. IV 668b; affiliation to a tribal fac-
tion (syn. na'ra, $hahwa, nihla). IV 835a
asad (A, pi. usud, usud, usd) : in zoology, the lion; in astronomy, al-~ is the term for
Leo, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations. I 681a; VII 83a
asaf (Ott) : in the Ottoman empire, a synonym for wezir (->• waz!r). XI 194b
'asa'ib (A) : the 'troops', 500 in number, the eighth degree in the sufi hierarchical order
of saints. I 95a; and ->• 'isaba
'asal -»■ 'ikbir
c asal (A) : in botany, the rhododendron. VII 1014b
asala (A) : authenticity. X 365b
asaliyya -> dhawlakiyya
asamm (A) : deaf; in mathematics, the term used for the fractions, such as 1/11 or 1/13,
which cannot be reduced to fractions called by words derived from names of their
denominators, such as 1/12, which is half one sixth, 'sixth' being derived from six. Ill
1140b
asarak (A, < B asarag) : in urban geography, great main squares enclosed in the walls
of the kasaba in the Maghrib, where the people could assemble for the festivals and
the army participate in ceremonies. IV 685a
'asas (A) : the night patrol or watch in Muslim cities. Under the Ottomans, the ~ was
in charge of the public prisons, exercised a kind of supervision over public executions,
and played an important role in public processions. He received one tenth of the fines
imposed for minor crimes committed at night. I 687a; IV 103b
In North Africa, the ~ assured not only public security but also possessed a secret and
almost absolute authority in the important affairs of the community. He kept guard at
night in the central market, at warehouses and on the ramparts till the advent of the
French. I 687b
asatir ->• tjstura
c asb (A) : the semen of a stallion. IV 1146a
c asb (A) : in early Islam, a Yemenite fabric with threads dyed prior to weaving. V 735b
In prosody, a deviation from the proper metre, in particular a missing fatha in the foot
mufd'al[a]tun. I 672a; a case of zihaf where the fifth vowelled letter of the foot is
rendered vowelless. XI 508b
♦ c asba (A) : a folded scarf worn by women in the Arab East. V 740b
asba c -> isba'
asbab ->■ sabab
asefru (B, pi. isefra) : a genre of oral poetry popular in Kabylia, a Berberophone area
of Algeria, consisting of a sonnet of nine verses grouped in three strophes rhyming
according to the scheme a a b. Another poetic genre is the so-called izli, a song of two
or three couplets in rhyme, whose production is anonymous. X 119a
asfal (A) : lower; al-asfal is used as an epithet to differentiate between the patron and
the client, when both are referred to as mawla. I 30b
asfar (A) : yellow; also, in distinction from black, simply light-coloured. I 687b; V 700b
ASFAR — ASHHADA 165
♦ banu '1-asfar (A) : the Greeks; later, applied to Europeans in general, especially
in Spain. I 687b; V 700b
ash -► toy
ashab (A, s. sahib) : followed by the name of a locality in the genitive, ~ serves to refer
to people who are companions in that particular place. Followed by a personal name
in the genitive, ~ is, alongside the nisba formation, the normal way of expressing the
'adherents of so-and-so' or the 'members of his school'. When followed by an abstract
noun in the genitive, ~ denotes adherents of a specific concept. VIII 830b; and ->■
sahaba; sahib
♦ ashab al-arba' (A) : in Mamluk times, night patrols coming under the authority of
the chief of police, wall I 687a
♦ ashab al-asha'ir (A) : the four mystical orders of the Burhamiyy a, Rifa'iyy a, Kadiriyy a
and Ahmadiyya, according to Djabarti. II 167a
♦ ashab al-hadith -> ahl al-hadIth
♦ ashab al-ithnayn ~> thanawiyya
♦ ashab al-kahf (A) : 'those of the cave', the name given in the Qur'an for the
youths who in the Christian West are usually called the 'Seven Sleepers of Ephesus'.
I 691a; IV 724a
♦ ashab al-nakb -> nakb
♦ ashab al-rass (A) : 'the people of the ditch' or 'of the well'; a Qur'anic term,
possibly alluding to unbelievers. I 692a; III 169a
♦ ashab al-ra'y -► ahl al-ra'y
♦ ashab al-sath (A), or sutuhiyya : 'the roof men', designation for the followers and
disciples of the 7th/13th-century Egyptian saint Ahmad al-Badawi. I 280b
♦ ashab al-shadjara (A) : 'the men of the tree'; those who took the oath of alle-
giance to the Prophet under the tree in the oasis of al-Hudaybiya, as mentioned in Q
48:18. VIII 828a; XII 131a
♦ ashab al-ukhdud (A) : 'those of the trench'; a Qur'anic term, possibly alluding
to unbelievers. I 692b
♦ ashab-tark -► akhi
asham -► salka c
asham ->■ esham
ashar -> sahra'
ashara -> awma'a
c ashara (A, pi. 'ashr) : ten.
♦ al-ashara al-mubashshara (A) : the ten to whom Paradise is promised. The term
does not occur in canonical Traditions and the list of names differs, Muhammad
appearing in only some. I 693a
♦ al-'ashr al-uwal (A) : the first ten nights of a month, each month being divided
into three segments of ten. The other segments are respectively al-'ashr al-wusat and
al-'ashr al-ukhar, with the latter sometimes only nine nights in 'defective' months. X
259b
ashbah (A, s. shibh) : component of a book title, al-Ashbah wa'l-nazd'ir, of some of the
most influential kawa'id works of the later period, ~ referring to cases that are alike
in appearance and legal status, with naia'ir (s. nazlr) denoting cases that are alike in
appearance but not in legal status. XII 517a
ashdji (T) : lit. cook; an officer's rank in an orta, subordinate to that of the Corbadji,
or 'soup purveyor'. VIII 178b
ashhada (A) : a technical term of childhood, said of a boy (or girl: ashhadat) who has
attained to puberty. VIII 822a
166 'ASHIK — 'ASIR
ashik (A) : lover; a term originally applied to popular mystic poets of dervish orders.
It was later taken over by wandering poet-minstrels. Their presence at public gather-
ings, where they entertained the audience with their religious and erotic songs, elegies
and heroic narratives, can be traced back to the late 9th/15th century. I 697b; III 374a;
IV 599a; V 275a ff.
'ashikh (Azeri Turkish, < 'ashik) : in Azeri literature, a genre of folk-literature compris-
ing romantic poems, which made great advances in Adharbaydjan in the 17th and 18th
centuries and formed a bridge between the classical literary language and the local
dialects. I 193b
c ashir (A, pi. 'ushshdr) : in early Islam, a collector of zakat from Muslim merchants as
well as imposts on the merchandise of non-Muslim traders. The institution is attributed
to c Umar, but in the course of time, the ~ acquired an exceedingly unavory reputation
for venality. XI 409a
'ashira (A) : usually a synonym of kabIla 'tribe', ~ can also denote a subdivision of
the latter. I 700a; IV 334a
'ashiyya (A), and variants : a word loosely taken in the sense of evening, although it
used to designate more precisely the end of the day, nahar. In this sense it was the
opposite of duha. V 709b
ashl (A, P tanab) : rope; a unit of measurement equalling 39.9 metres. II 232b
ashlhi (B, pi. ishlhiyen), or ashlhiy : a native speaker of Tashelhit. X 344b
ashpazkhana (P, A matbakh) : kitchen (P ash 'soup', ashpaz 'cook'), which term was
not in general used before the 19th century, matbakh being the common term. XII 608b
c ashr ->■ 'ashara
'ashraf ->■ watwat
ashraf (A, s. sharIf) : in India, ~ denoted Muslims of foreign ancestry. They were fur-
ther divided into sayyid (those reckoning descent from the Prophet through his daugh-
ter Fatima), shaykh (descendants of the early Muslims of Mecca and Medina), mughal
(those who entered the subcontinent in the armies of the Mughal dynasty), and paihdn
(members of Pashto-speaking tribes in north-west Pakistan and Afghanistan). Ill 411a;
IX 330b; and -»■ sharIf
ashrafi (A) : in numismatics, a Burdji Mamluk gold coin, the coinage of which was con-
tinued by the Ottomans after their conquest of Egypt and Syria. VIII 228b; an Ottoman
gold coinage, introduced under Mustafa II to replace the discredited sultanI. VIII
229b; an Ak Koyunlu gold coin, copied exactly on the Burdji Mamluk ~. Its weight
was ca. 3.45 g. VIII 790a; in Safawid Persia, all the gold coins were popularly called
~ , but there were actually several different varieties to which the name was given,
which were distinguished from one another by their weights rather than by their
designs or legends. The true ~, used by Isma'il as a standard for his gold coinage,
weighed 18 nukhuds (approximately 3.45 g), and had its origin in the weight of the
Venetian gold ducat. VIII 790b
'ashshab (A) : from c ushb, a fresh annual herb which is afterwards dried and, in med-
ical literature, denotes simples, ~ means a gatherer or vendor of herbs; a vendor or
authority on medicinal herbs. I 704a
c ashura' (A, < Heb) : the name of a voluntary fast-day, observed on the 10th of
Muharram. I 265a; I 705a; XII 190a; in South Africa, a festival commemorating the
martyrdom of al-Husayn, the grandson of the Prophet. IX 731a
'asida (A) : a meal of barley and fat. X 901b
asil (A) : a term used in reference to the time which elapses between the afternoon, c asr,
and sunset; in the contemporary language this word tends to be employed for the
evening twilight. V 709b; and -»■ kafala
c asir (A) : lit. captive, term also sometimes used for slave. I 24b
ASITANE — ASLAMI 167
asitane -* tekke
'askar (A) : army, in particular one possessing siege artillery. II 507a; 'garrison settle-
ments' (syn. mu'askar, ma'askar) founded in the Arab East during the caliphate period.
IV 1144a
♦ askari (A, < 'askar; T 'askerl) : in Ottoman technical usage a member of the
ruling military caste, as distinct from the peasants and townspeople; ~ denoted caste
rather than function, and included the retired or unemployed ~, his wives and children,
manumitted slaves of the sultan and of the ~, and also the families of the holders of
religious public offices in attendance on the sultan. I 712a; IV 242a; IV 563a; IX 540a
'askeri -* 'askarI
askiya (Songhay) : a dynastic title of the Songhay empire of West Africa, first adopted
in 898/1493 by Muhammad b. Abi Bakr. IX 729b
asl (A, pi. usul) : root, base. Ill 550a; ancestry. XI 276b
In grammar, a basic form, concept or structure, with a wide range of meanings extend-
ing over phonology, morphology and syntax, e.g. a standard phoneme in contrast with
an allophone; a root-letter in the derivational system; a radical consonant opposed to
an augment; etc. When used in the plural, the fundamental principles of grammar as a
science. X 928b, where more definitions of ~ are found
In classical Muslim administration, ~ is the estimated figure, as opposed to the amount
actually received, istikhradj. II 78b
In dating, ~ is the number of days in a given number of completed years. X 268b
In military science, usul were the theoretical divisions of the army into five elements:
the centre (kalb), the right wing (maymana), the left wing (maysara), the vanguard
(mukaddama), and the rear guard (sdka). Ill 182a
In music, the usul are the basic notes which, with the pause, make up the cycles of an
Ika'. XII 408b; metres. IX 418a
In astronomy, the epoch position (L radix). XI 503b
In law, because early kawa'id were collected under the title of usul, ~ acquires, min-
imally, a fourfold meaning: an act that has already been legally determined and now
serves as a 'model' for similar cases; a scriptural pronouncement considered decisive
for the legal determination of a given act; a legal principle; and a source of the law.
XII 517a; and ->■ wasf
For usul in prosody, ->■ far'
♦ usul al-din (A) : the bases (or principles) of the religion. If usul meant the same
here as in usul al-fikh, the two expressions would be synonymous, for the theologian
goes back to the same authorities as the jurist to justify his interpretation of dogma;
instead in ordinary usage ~ represent not the sources of theological judgement but, in
some way, the judgement itself, thus the science of ~ is another way of designating
'Urn a/-KALAM. X 930b
♦ usul al-fikh (A) : the 'roots' or sources of legal knowledge, viz. the Qur'an,
sunna, consensus and analogy. II 887b; X 323b; X 931b; legal theory. II 182b
♦ usul al-hadith (A) : the principles of hadIth; the disparate disciplines the mas-
tery of which distinguished a true scholar of hadith from a mere transmitter. The term
-was never satisfactorily defined nor differentiated from similar ones like 'ulum (or
'Urn) al-hadith, istildh al-hadith, etc. There are instances of 'Urn al-riwaya being used
as a synonym. X 934a
♦ usuliyya ->• akhbariyya
aslah (A) : most suitable or fitting; in theology, the 'upholders of the aslah' were a
group of the Mu'tazila who held that God did what was best for mankind. I 713b
aslami (A) : a term used to designate first-generation Spanish converts, who were for-
merly Christians, whereas the term isldmi was reserved for the former Jews. VII 807b
asma ->■ ism
asmandjuni -> yakut akhab
asmar (A) : in physiognomy, a dark brown, or black, complexion. XI 356a
asmar ->■ khurafa 3
asp-i daghi (IndP) : under the Mughals, a payment in accordance with the actual num-
ber of horsemen and horses presented at muster, unlike the bar-awardi, a payment
based on an estimate. IX 909a
asparez : a race-course. X 479a
'asr (A) : time, age; the (early part of the) afternoon. This period of day follows that of
the midday prayer, zuhr, and extends between limits determined by the length of the
shadow, but is variable, according to the jurists. I 719a; V 709b
♦ salat al-'asr (A) : the afternoon prayer which is to be performed, according to the
books of religious law, in between the last time allowed for the midday prayer, zuhr,
and before sunset, or the time when the light of the sun turns yellow. According to
Malik, the first term begins somewhat later. I 719a; VII 27b; VIII 928b
'assalat -> 'ikbir
'assas (A) : night-watchman. This term is used particularly in North Africa; at Fez at
the beginning of the 20th century, ~ also was used for policemen in general. I 687b
In the Mzab, ~ is used for the minaret of the Abadi mosques. I 687a
astan (P) : in mediaeval administration, a province. I 2b; a district. I 3a
asturlab (A, < Gk), or asturlab : astrolabe. The name of several astronomical instru-
ments serving various theoretical and practical purposes, such as demonstration and
graphical solution of many problems of spherical astronomy, the measuring of altitudes,
the determination of the hour of the day and the night, and the casting of horoscopes.
When used alone ~ always means the flat or planispheric astrolabe based on the prin-
ciple of stereographic projection; it is the most important instrument of mediaeval,
Islamic and Western, astronomy. I 722b
asturu (A, < Gr) : in zoology, the oyster. VIII 707a
aswad (A) : the colour black. V 705b; and -> abyad
ata (T) : father, ancestor; among the Oghuz, -was appended to the names of people
who had acquired great prestige. ~ can also mean 'wise', or even 'holy', 'venerated'.
I 729a; XI 114a
'ata' (A) : lit. gift; the term most commonly employed to denote, in the early days of
Islam, the pension of Muslims, and, later, the pay of the troops. I 729a
'ataba (A, pi. 'atabat) : doorstep.
In (folk) poetry, ~ (or farsfja 'spread, mat') is used to designate the first three lines of
a monorhyme quatrain (a a a a), or each of the three lines, when insertions have been
made between the third line and the last, e.g. as in a a a x a. The last line is then
called the ghatd 'cover' or, in longer compositions, the tdkiyya 'skull-cap'. VI 868a
In its plural form, more fully 'atabdt-i 'dliya or 'atabdt-i mukaddasa, 'atabdt designates
the shi'i shrine cities of 'Irak (Nadjaf, Karbala 1 , Kazimayn and Samarra) comprising
the tombs of six of the imams as well as a number of secondary shrines and places of
visitation. XII 94a
'ataba (A) : a modern Arabic four line verse, common in Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia
and 'Irak, in a sort of wafir metre. The first three lines not only rhyme, but generally
repeat the same rhyming word with a different meaning. The last line rhymes with the
paradigm ~ 'lovers' reproach', the last syllable of which is often supplied without mak-
ing sense. I 730b
atabak (T atabeg) : the title of a high dignitary under the Saldjuks and their successors;
under the Turks, a military chief. I 731a; commander-in-chief of an army (syn. amir
kabir). I 138a; I 444a
ATABAK — 'ATlRA 169
♦ atabak al-'asakir (T, A) : commander-in-chief of the Mamluk army, who after
the decline of the office of the viceroy, nd'ib al-saltana, became the most important
amIr in the Sultanate. I 732b
'atala (A) : in archery, a powerful Persian bow which is very curved. IV 798a
atalik (T) : a title which existed in Central Asia in the post-Mongol period meaning in
the first place a guardian and tutor of a young prince, then a close counsellor and
confidant of the sovereign. It was synonymous with atabeg (-»■ atabak). I 733b; XII
96b
atalikat (Cau) : a custom among the Cerkes tribes of the Caucasus, which consisted of
having children raised from birth (boys until 17-18 years) in the families of strangers,
often vassals. This created a sort of foster brotherhood which served to tighten the feu-
dal bonds and unite the various tribes. II 23a
atam (A) : a fabulous marine creature mentioned by mediaeval Arab authors. It lurks in
the Sea of China, has the head of a pig, is covered with a hairy fleece instead of scales,
and shows female sexual organs. VIII 1023a
atama (A) : the first third of the night from the time of waning of the red colour
of the sky after sunset, shafak. I 733b; a variant name given to the salat al-'isha'
(-»• 'isha'). VII 27a
atan -»■ himar
atay -»■ Cay
atbegi -»■ akhurbeg
c atf (A) : connection; in grammar, ~ denotes a connection with the preceding word.
There are two kinds of ~ : the simple co-ordinative connection, 'atf al-nasak, and the
explicative connection, 'atf al-baydn. In both kinds, the second word is called al-ma'tuf
and the preceding al-ma'tuf 'alayhi. I 735b
In rhetoric, ~ as used by al-'Adjdjadj, in the sense of 'folding back' or 'adding on',
may have meant paronomasia. ~ seems to be take up again in the term ta'attuf of Abu
Hilal al-'Askari. X 68b
♦ 'atfa -»■ shari'
athar (A) : trace; as a technical term, it denotes a relic of the Prophet, e.g. his hair,
teeth, autograph, utensils alleged to have belonged to him, and especially impressions
of his footprints, kadam. I 736a
In the science of Tradition, ~ usually refers to a Tradition from Companions or
Successors, but is sometimes used of Traditions from the Prophet. I 1199a; III 23a
In astrology, ~ is also used as a technical term in the theory of causality, with refer-
ence to the influence of the stars (considered as higher beings possessing a soul) on the
terrestrial world and on men. I 736b
athath (A) : lit. belongings, ~ means various household objects and, especially in mod-
ern Arabic, furniture. XII 99a
athman (A) : gold and silver (on which zakat is due), also 'ayn, nakd, nddd. XI 413a
'aththari (A, < the name of the deity 'Athtar) : a term equivalent to ba'l 'unwatered cul-
tivated land'. I 969a
'atif -»■ MUSALLl
'atik (A) : a pure-bred horse, as opposed to a work horse, birdhawn. XI 412b; and
-»■ 'ITK
'atika (A) : in archery, an old bow whose wood has become red. IV 798a
'atiki (A, < Kabr 'Atika, a concentration of textile workshops in Damascus) : in the
llth/17th century, a Syrian fabric, sufficiently renowned to be exhibited in the markets
of Cairo. IX 793b
'atira (A) : among the Arabs of the djahiliyya, a ewe offered as a sacrifice to a
pagan divinity, as a thanksgiving following the fulfillment of a prayer concerning in
particular the increase of flocks. Also called radjabiyya, since these sacrifices took
place in the month of Radjab. I 739b; XII 317a
atishak : in medicine, syphilis. VIII 783a; X 457b
atlal (A) : the remains or traces of former encampments; in literature, a trope in the
nasIb section of the kasIda. XII
atmadja -> CakSr
atraf (IndP, < A) : a term used to designate the higher stratum of the non-ASHRAF pop-
ulation of India, which consists for the most part of converts from Hinduism, embrac-
ing people of many statuses and occupations. The terms adjldf and arzal (or ardhdl)
are used to designate the lower stratum. Ill 411a; IX 330b
In the science of Tradition, a so-called ~ compilation is an alphabetically-arranged col-
lection of the Companions' musnads, with every Tradition ascribed to each of them
shortened to its salient feature (-»• taraf), accompanied by all the isnad strands sup-
porting it which occur in the Six Books and a few other revered collections. VIII 518b
'attabi (A) : a kind of silk-cotton cloth, woven around 580/1184 in 'Attabiyya, one of
the quarters of Baghdad. I 901b
'attar (A) : a perfume merchant or druggist; later, as most scents and drugs were cred-
ited with some healing properties, ~ came to mean chemist and homeopath; sometimes
dyers and dye merchants are also known by this term. I 751b
In India, ~ denotes an alcohol-free perfume-oil produced by the distillation of sandal-
wood-oil through flowers. I 752b
attun (A) : a kiln used for firing bricks, similar to that of the potters, consisting of a fur-
nace with a firing-room on top. V 585b
c atud (A), or 'arid : a one-year old male goat, called, progressively, djadha' or tays when
two years old, then thanl, rabd'i, sadls and, after seven years, saligh. XII 319a
atum (A) : in zoology, the dugong, one of the sirenian mammals or 'sea cows'. Other
designations are malisa, ndka al-bahr, zdlikha, and hanfd'. VIII 1022b; the caret or
caouane turtle (Caretta caretta) (syn. hanfd'). IX 811a
awa'il (A, s. awwal 'first') : a term used to denote e.g. the 'primary data' of philo-
sophical or physical phenomena; the 'ancients' of either pre-Islamic or early Islamic
times; and the 'first inventors' of things (or the things invented or done first), thus giv-
ing its name to a minor branch of Muslim literature with affinities to adab, historical,
and theological literature. I 758a
♦ awa'il al-suwar -»■ fawatih al-suwar
awaradj (A) : in classical Muslim administration, a register showing the debts owed by
individual pattire in mediaeval Egypt. V 739a; as badana, a
seamless robe made from linen and gold thread, recorded as having been made for the
Fatimid caliphs. X 532a
In seafaring, ~ is used to designate a kind of boat typical of Northern Oman which is
constructed according to two models: one for fishing, the other for the transportation
of goods and for cabotage. This is the typical boat with an entirely sewn hull in order
to avoid damage in case of a collision with reefs at water level. VII 53b
As zoological term, -> wa'l
♦ badana -»■ badan
badandj -»■ badgir
badda' (Bed) : among the Sinai Bedouin, a composer adept at spontaneous improvisa-
tion. IX 234b
badgir (P), or bdd-gir : lit. wind-catcher; an architectural term used in Persia for the
towers containing ventilation shafts and projecting high above the roofs of domestic
houses. In mediaeval Arabic, the device was known as badahandj or badandj. V 665b;
IX 49b; XII 115a
badhadj -> sakhla
badhaward -> shawka
badhik (A) : in early Islam, a prohibited product prepared by means of grapes. IV 996b
badhindjan (A) : in botany, the aubergine, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt.
V 863a
badhr al-kattan (A) : in botany, linseed. IX 615a
badhrundjubuya ->■ turundjan
badi' (A) : innovator, creator, thus, one of the attributes of God. I 857b; III 663b
In literature, ~ is the name for the innovations of the 'Abbasid poets in literary figures,
and later for trope in general. I 857b; IV 248b; V 900a; XII 650a
♦ badi'iyya (A) : in literature, a poem in which the poet uses all kinds of figures of
speech. I 858a; I 982b
176 BADr BAGTAL
♦ c ilm al-badi' (A) : the branch of rhetorical science which deals with the beau-
tification of literary style, the artifices of the ornamentation and embellishment of
speech. I 857b; I 982b
badiha -> irtidjal
badiya (A) : in the Umayyad period, a residence in the countryside, an estate in the
environs of a settlement or a rural landed property in the Syro-Jordanian steppeland.
XII 116b
ba'diyya -> iftitah
badj (A, < P bdzh) : a fiscal technical term among the Turks, ~ was applied to various
forms of tax as well as being used for 'tax' in general. I 860b; II 147a
♦ badj-i buzurg (T, < P) : in the Ilkhanid and Djala'irid periods, the customs-duty
levied on goods in transit through or imported into the country. I 861b
♦ badj-i tamgha (T, < P) : in the Ilkhanid and Djala'irid periods, the tax levied on
all kinds of goods bought and sold in cities, on woven stuffs and slaughtered animals;
it is normally referred to as tamgha-i siydh 'black tamgha'. I 861b
♦ badjdar (T, < P) : in the Ilkhanid and DjalaMrid periods, a tax collector, who
collected tolls at certain places according to a tariff fixed by the central government.
I 861a
badjdja -»■ sudjdja
badjra : the common Indian river-boat, a sort of barge without a keel, propelled by poles
or by oars, on the deck of which cabins might be mounted. VII 933a
badr -> kamar
♦ badra (A) : the skin of a lamb or goat capacious enough to contain a large sum
of money. In numismatics, the usual amount reckoned as a ~ was 10,000 dirhams (this
figure was considered by the Arabs to represent both the perfection and the ultimate
limit of numeration). It was thus analogous to the tuman. X 620a
badrundjubuya -► turundjan
badw (A) : pastoral nomads of Arabian blood, speech and culture, the Bedouin. I 872a
bagh (P) : term for a suburban palace in Timurid times, meaning a park or estate with
building and gardens. IX 46a
bagbbur -> faghfur
baghdadi -> sab'anI
baghghal (A) : a muleteer, also known as mukari or hammdra, who emerged as a dis-
tinct group of transport workers during the 'Abbasid period. XII 659a
baghi -> bughat; mulhid
baghiyy (A, pi. baghdyd), and mumis, 'dhira, zdniya : prostitute. A more vulgar word
was kahba, from the verb 'to cough', because professional prostitutes used to cough to
attract clients. XII 133a
baghl (A, fern, baghla, pi. bighdl) : mule; hinny (offspring of a stallion and she-ass).
I 909a
In Egypt, the feminine form baghla (pi. baghaldt) also denoted a female slave born of
unions between sakaliba and another race. I 909a
♦ baghl al-samman -> salwa
♦ baghla (< Sp/Por bajel/baxel) : in the Gulf area, a large sailing ship used in the
Gulf of Oman and the Indian waters. VIII 811b; and -> baqhl
♦ baghli (A) : the earliest Arab dirhams which were imitations of the late Sasanian
drahms of Yezdigird III, Hormuzd IV and (chiefly) Khusraw II; c Abd al-Malik's mon-
etary reforms in 79/698-9 drastically altered the style. II 319a
baglama -> saz
bagsi -> ozan
bagtal : a word used in Lak society to designate the khan's family and the nobility.
V 618a
baghy (A) : encroachment, abuse. XI 567b
bah (A), and wat' : coitus. I 910b; and -> djima'
bahadur (Alt) : courageous, brave; hero. Borrowed into many languages, ~ also fre-
quently appears as a surname and an honorific title. I 913a; and -»■ sardar
bahak (A) : in medicine, vitiligo. V 107a; and -> djudham
bahar -► nardjis
bahira (A) : the name in the pre-Islamic period for a she-camel or ewe with slit ears.
I 922a
bahit -> shadhana
bahlawan ->■ pahlawan
bahluli ->• tanka
bahma ->■ sakhla
bahr (A, pi. buhur) : a place where a great amount of water is found. Accordingly, ~
is not only applied to the seas and oceans but also, uniquely, because of its outstand-
ing size, to the Nile. I 926b; VII 909b; VIII 38a
The plural buhur means, in prosody, the ideal metric forms as given in the circles
devised by al-Khalil. I 671a; VIII 667b; XI 200b; in music, secondary modes, along-
side main modes (anghdtn) and dwdz modes. IX 101a
♦ 'ilm al-bahr (A) : the art of navigation, also known as c ulum al-bahriyya. VII 51a
♦ al-bahrayn (A) : lit. the two seas; a cosmographical and cosmological concept
appearing five times in the Qur'an. I 940b
♦ bahriyya (A) : the navy. I 945b; XII 119b
bahradj (A) : in numismatics, counterfeit money. X 409b
bahramani (A) : the deep red colour (Rubicelle, Escarboucle) of the ruby, also called
rummdni (defined at the present time as 'carmine' or 'pigeon's blood'). XI 262b
baht (A) : in the Arabian Nights, the name of a city, made up of ~ stone, whose effect
is mad laughter leading to death. XII 552b
bahth (A) : study, examination, inquiry. I 949a; and -> ahl al-(bahto wa 'l-) nazar
bahw (A) : an empty and spacious place extending between two objects which confine
it; the axial nave in a mosque, ~ is a term primarily belonging to the vocabulary of
Western Muslim architecture. It also is defined as a tent or pavilion chamber situated
beyond the rest. I 949b
bahzadj (A), or barghaz : in zoology, the calf of the oryx or addax antelope at birth. If
it is completely white, it is called marl. V 1227b
ba'idj ->■ KHANNAK
ba'ika -> hasil
ba'in (A) : in law, an irrevocably divorced woman. Ill 1011b
ba'in ->■ ba'oli
ba'ir (A) : the individual camel, regardless of sex, as opposed to ibil, the species and
the group. Ill 666a
bak'a (A) : a term applied especially to a place where water remains stagnant. I 1292b;
and ->■ buk'a
baka' wa-fana' (A) : 'subsistence' and 'effacement', sufi terms referring to the stages of
the development of the mystic in the path of gnosis. I 951a; IV 1083b; VIII 306b; VIII
416a
bakalaw (A, < Sp bacallao), with var. bakalyu, bakala, bakldwa : the stockfish. VIII
1022b
bakar (A) : cattle; mediaeval Arab authors distinguished between the domestic ~ ahll
and the wild ~ wahshi, meaning either the mahd (Oryx beatrix) or the ayyil, or even
the yahmur 'roedeer' and the thaytal 'bubale antelope'. I 951b
bakhil ->• bukhl
178 BAKHNUK — BALAGHA
bakhnuk (Tun) : an embroidered head shawl for women, worn in Tunisia. V 745b
bakhshi (< Ch po-che ?) : a Buddhist priest, monk; later 'writer, secretary', a term stem-
ming from Mongol administrative usage. In the 15th and 16th centuries, it came to
mean a wandering minstrel among the Turkomans and the Anatolian Turks. I 953a;
bard. I 422a; X 733a f.; and -> bakhshi
In Persia, a subdistrict or county. VIII 154a; VIII 586a
♦ bakhshi al-mamalik (IndP), or mir-bakhshi : in Mughal India, more or less the
equivalent of the classical 'arid, the official charged with the mustering, passing in
review and inspection of troops. IV 268b; V 686a; IX 738b
bakhshi : in traditional Ozbeg society, a practitioner of shamanistic healing, especially
the removal of spirits. He often was a molla learned in the Qur'an. Synonyms are
parikjfan or du'akjpan. VIII 234b; as bakhshi, a shaman in Kazakh, Kirghiz, Ozbeg
and Tadjik society. X 733b
bakhshish (P) : a gratuity bestowed by a superior on an inferior, a tip or 'consideration'
thrown into a bargain, and a bribe, particularly one offered to judges or officials. Under
the Ottomans, ~ came to mean the gratuity bestowed by a sultan upon his accession
on the chief personages of state, the Janissaries and other troops of the standing army.
I 953a
bakk (A) : in zoology, a bug. II 248a; IV 522a
bakka' (A) : lit. weepers; in early Islam, ascetics who during their devotional exercises
shed many tears. I 959a
bakkal (A) : retailer of vegetables; grocer (syn. khaddar). I 961a, where many syn-
onyms used regionally are listed
bakkam (A, < San) : sappan wood, an Indian dye wood obtained from the Caesalpinia
Sappan L. The Arabic equivalent frequently given by Arab philologists is 'andam,
which, however, denotes the dragon's blood, a red gum exuding from certain trees. I
961b
bakkara : cattle nomads in the central Sudan belt of Africa. IX 516a
bakla ->■ 'alath
bakradj (A) : the traditional coffee pot (syn. dalla), one of a number of traditional
kitchen utensils used still in rural regions, along with the coffee cup, findjan, and many
more articles. Terms for these items vary from one area to another. XII 776b
bakt (A, < Lat pactum, Gk) ; an annual tribute yielded by Christian Nubia to the
Muslims. I 32a; I 966a
bal -> 'anbar
ba'l (A) ; master, owner, husband; in law, ~ denotes unwatered tillage and unwatered
cultivated land. I 968a
♦ ba'Ii (A) : as an adjective, frequently attached to the name of a vegetable or fruit;
in such cases, it stresses the good quality. At Fez, ~ describes a man, avaricious, dry
and hard, while the feminine ba'liyya is applied to a succulent fig. I 969b
bala (Yem) : a folk poetry genre for men in northern Yemen tribal areas, usually impro-
vised and sung at weddings and other celebrations. IX 234a f.
bala (P) : height, high; since 1262/1846 the term for a grade in the former Ottoman
Civil Service, to which the Secretary of State and other senior officials belonged. I
969b
balad -> shaykh
♦ baladiyya (A) : municipality; the term used to denote modern municipal institu-
tions of European type, as against earlier Islamic forms of urban organisation. I 972b
♦ baladiyyun -> shamiyyun
balagha (A) : eloquence. I 858a; I 981b; I 1114a; II 824a; to Kazwini (d. 1338), ~ was
the term for the science of rhetoric as a whole. I 1116a
BALAM — BAND 179
balam (A) : a typically 'Iraki term for a barque which has both bows and stern pointed
in shape, with a flat deck and a capacity of transporting from 5 to 10 tons, and is used
on the Euphrates river. VII 53b
In zoology, a term for anchovy, found again in the Latinised term to specify a sub-
species limited to a particular region (Engraulis boelema), and for the sand-smelt, both
small fish. VIII 1021b; VIII 1023a
balamida (A, < Pelamys) : in zoology, the pelamid, also called bunit, the bonito. VIII
1021a
balat (A, < L or Gk palatium) : a paved way; flagging; the term most usually applied
to the naves of a mosque. I 950a; I 987b; I 988a; palace. IX 44a
♦ balata (A) : a 'flag-stone' of any kind of material serving to pave the ground or
to bear a monumental or memorial inscription. I 987b
balgham (A, < Gk) : phlegm, one of the four cardinal humours. XII 188b
baligh (A) : in law, major, of full age. I 993a
baliladj (P) : in botany, a variety of myrobalanus (Terminalia bellerica). XII 349b
balish (P 'cushion') : a 13th-century Mongolian monetary unit, coined both in gold and
silver. It was in use particularly in the eastern part of the empire. Its value was
assessed at 6,192 gold marks. I 996b
baliyya (A, pi. balaya) : a name given, in pre-Islamic times, to a camel (more rarely a
mare) tethered at the grave of his master and allowed to die of starvation, or some-
times burnt alive. Muslim tradition sees in this practice proof of the pre-Islamic Arabs'
belief in resurrection, because the animal thus sacrificed was thought to serve as a
mount for its master at the resurrection. I 997 a
ba'liyya -*■ ba'l
ballut (A, pi. baldlita) : in botany, acorn, fruit of the oaktree. II 744a
balshun (A) : in zoology, the heron. I 1152b
baltadji (T) : a name given to men composing various companies of palace guards
under the Ottomans down to the beginning of the nineteenth century. The ~ was orig-
inally employed in connection with the army in the felling of trees, the levelling of
roads and the filling of swamps. The term was used alternatively with the Persian
equivalent, tabardar, both meaning 'axe-man', and hence 'woodcutter', 'pioneer', 'hal-
berdier'. I 1003b
balyemez (T, < Ger Faule Metze) : lit. that eats no honey; a large caliber gun, which
name (probably a jesting and popular transformation of the famous German cannon
'Faule Metze' of the year 1411) came to the Ottomans through the numerous German
gun-founders in the Turkish services; the ~ was first introduced into the Ottoman army
in the time of sultan Murad II. I 1007b; I 1062b
balyos (T, < It bailo) : the Turkish name for the Venetian ambassador to the Sublime
Porte. With the generalised meaning of European diplomatic or consular agent, the
word is also encountered in some Arabic dialects and Swahili. I 1008a; II 60b
bamm -> zir
ban (A, P) : the ben-nut tree (Moringa aptera Gaertn.), the wood of which was used
for tent-poles. Its fruit, called shu', was a commodity and greatly in demand. The ~
was used as a simile by poets for a tender woman of tall stature. I 1010b
bana -> Ilidja
banafsadj (A) : in botany, the violet ( > banafsacjji 'violet-coloured'). V 699a
banat na'sh -> bint
band (P) : anything which is used to bind, attach, close or limit; a dam built for irriga-
tion purposes. I 1012a; in Persian literature, each of the single separating verses of a
tardjI'-band; also loosely used to designate each complete stanza, which usage is
more common. X 235b
180 BANDAR BARA'A
bandar (P) : a seaport or port on a large river. The word ~ passed into the Arabic of
Syria and Egypt where it is used in the sense of market-place, place of commerce,
banking exchange and even workshop. I 1013a
bandayr (Alg, < Goth pandero), or bandlr : in Algeria, a round tambourine with snares
stretched across the inside of the head, probably called ghirbal in the early days of
Islam. II 620b
bandish : the composition, the second part in a performance of classical or art music of
India, which in vocal music may be khayal, dhrupad, tarana or one of several more
modern forms; in instrumental music, as played on the stringed instruments, sitdr and
sarod, it is generally called gat. Ill 454a
bandj (A, P bang, < San) : henbane, a narcotic drug. In the popular dialect of Egypt,
~ is used for every kind of narcotic. I 1014b; III 266b
bandjara : a term used in India to designate dealers rather than mere commissariat car-
riers, who travelled all over the country with large droves of laden cattle and regularly
supplied the Indian armies and hunting camps. VII 932b
bang -> bandj
banika (A, pi. bana'ik) : originally, in early Arabic, any piece inserted to widen a tunic
or a leather bucket; in the Arab West, -was used for a kind of man's tunic and, more
frequently, for an element of women's hair-covering. In Algiers, ~ is still used for a
kind of square headdress, provided with a back flap, which women use to cover their
heads to protect themselves against the cold when leaving the baths. I 1016a
In Morocco, ~ means a dark padded cell; a closet serving as an office for a 'minister'.
I 1016b
banish (A), or banish : a wide-sleeved man's coat, worn in the Arab East. V 740b
banna'I -> hazar-baf
banoyta -> dardar
banuwani : in mediaeval 'Irak, a vagrant who stands before a door, rattles the bolt and
cries 'O Master', in order to get alms. VII 494a
ba'oli (U, H), and ba'ln : a step-well in Muslim India, usually found at the principal
shrines associated with Cishti pirs (~* murshid). They are meant for the use of men
and animals. I 1024a; V 884b; V 888b
bar-awardi (IndP) : lit. by estimate; under the Mughal emperor Akbar, the payment at a
rather low rate made in advance for a contingent of a size less than the titular rank,
ultimately coming to define the number of the second or sawar (-> suwar) rank. IX
909a
bara wafat (U) : a term used in the subcontinent of India for the twelfth day of Rabi'
I, observed as a holy day to commemorate the death of the Prophet Muhammad. I
1026a
bara'a (A) : release, exemption; freedom from disease, cure; in law, ~ is the absence of
obligation; bard'at (al-dhimma) means freedom from obligation. I 1026b
As a Qur'anic term, ~ also means the breaking of ties, a kind of dissociation or excom-
munication, which theme was developed by the Kharidjites as being the duty to repu-
diate all those who did not deserve the title of Muslim. I 207a; I 811a; I 1027b
In classical Muslim administration, a receipt given by the djahbadh or khazin to tax-
payers. II 78b; XI 409b; ~ has been increasingly employed in a concrete sense to
denote written documents of various kinds: licence, certificate, diploma, demand for
payment, passport, a label to be attached to a piece of merchandise, a request or peti-
tion to the sovereign. I 1027a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ (syn. risala) in Morocco was a letter addressed to a
community, in order to announce an important event, or in order to exhort or to
admonish. It was generally read from the minbar in the mosque on Friday. II 308a
♦ bara'at al-dhimma -»■ bara'a
♦ bara'at al-tanfldh (A) : the consular exequatur. I 1027b
♦ bara'at al-thika (A) : diplomatic 'credentials'. I 1027b
bara'a (A) : in prosody, 'virtuosity', the ability to make intricate conceits appear natural,
one of a tripartite typology of poets, the other two being tab' 'natural talent' and sind'a
'artfulness'. XII 654a
♦ bara'at al-istihlal (A) : in rhetoric, the 'skilful opening', an introduction that con-
tains an allusion to the main theme of the work. Ill 1006a
baradari (H) : a term, also applied to Muslim buildings in India, for a hall with twelve
adjacent bays or doors, three on each side; ~ was figuratively used to designate 'sum-
mer house' as well. V 1214b
baraka (A) : (divine) blessing; in practice, ~ has the meaning of 'very adequate quan-
tity'. I 1032a
In the vocabulary of the Almohads, ~ was used in the sense of 'gratuity which is added
to a soldier's pay'. I 1032a
baramis (A, < L Abramis brama) : in zoology, the bream. VIII 1021a
barandj : 'coloured', melons from Kh w arazm. X 435b
baranta (T) : an Eastern Turkish term, though now regarded as old-fashioned, for
'foray, robbery, plunder', 'cattle-lifting'. I 1037b
Among the nomad Turkish peoples, ~ once represented a specific legal concept involv-
ing a notion of 'pledge, surety', e.g. the appropriation of a quantity of his adversary's
property by a man who has been wronged, in order to recover his due. I 1037b
baras (A, pi. abras) : in medicine, a term used for leprosy, but could be applied to other
skin diseases as well. V 107a; XII 271a; and -> djudham
barastuk -> barasudj
barasudj (A, < P parastug) : in zoology, the mullet. Variants are barastuk and tarastudj.
VIII 1021a
barat (K) : in the yazidI tradition, little balls of dust from the Lalish area made with
water from the Zamzam spring, which have great religious significance. XI 315a
barata (T) : a special type of headdress, kulah, of woollen cloth in the shape of a
sleeve whose rear part fell on the back, worn by palace domestics in Ottoman Turkey.
V 751b
barba (A, < C p'erpe 'temple') : name given by the Egyptians to solidly constructed
ancient buildings of pagan times. I 1038b
barbat (P, < bar 'breast' and bat 'duck') : in music, a lute whose sound-chest and neck
were constructed in one graduated piece, unlike the c ud, whose sound-chest and neck
were separate. Arabic authors generally do not discriminate between the two instru-
ments. X 768b
barbusha (B) : a variety of couscous, made with barley semolina. This is called sikuk in
Morocco. V 528a
barda (A) : in zoology, the pink sea-bream, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Chryso-
phrys berda). VIII 1021a
bardi (A), warak al-~ and abardl : the term for papyrus. VIII 261b; VIII 407b
bardjis -> mushtarI
bargah : guy ropes, used to support the Mongol ruler's large tent. IX 45b
bargir-suwar -> suwar
bari' (A) : creator; one of the names of God (syn. khalik). According to the Lisdn al-
'Arab, ~ is he who creates without imitating a model, and is nearly always used for
the creation of living beings in particular. IV 980b
182 BARlD — BASHA
barid (Ass, < L veredus I Gk beredos) : postal service; post horse, courier, and post
'stage'. I 1045a; II 487a; III 109b
barih (A) : a term applied to a wild animal or bird which passes from right to left
before a traveller or hunter; it is generally interpreted as a bad omen. I 1048a; 'that
which travels from right to left', one of the technical terms designating the directions
of a bird's flight, or an animal's steps, which play an important part in the application
of divination known as fa'l, tira and zadjr. II 760a
bariyya ->• khalk
bariz (A) : visible; in grammar, often contrasted at a syntactical level with mustatir 'the
concealed', for the pronouns in particular. XII 546a
bark (A) : lightning; telegraph. I 573a
barka" (A), and abrak : a Bedouin term from the Arabian peninsula denoting a hill
whose sides are mottled with patches of sand. I 536b
barma'iyyun (A), or kawdzib : the amphibian mammals, such as the seal, the walrus, the
sea lion etc. VIII 1022b
barnamadj -> fahrasa
barni (A) : a variety of dates. XII 366b
baro (Oromo) : a hymn with alternate verses. IX 399a
barrakan (N.Afr) : a heavy wrap worn by men in Tunisia in mediaeval times. V 745a;
a large enveloping outer wrap for both sexes in present-day Libya. V 745b
barrani (A), or muddf : one of the three main sources of revenue for the Egyptian
government in the years immediately preceding the Napoleonic invasion of 1798, ~
were extraordinary taxes, the payment of which was demanded by the multazims (->
multezim) to increase their profits; they were collected regularly despite their illegal-
ity. II 148a; newly-arrived rural immigrant, in Oran contrasted with the oldest immi-
grants, the Oulad el-bled. XI 51a
barraz ->• mubariz
barsha (A) : a term, used round the South Arabian coasts, for a long, covered boat; also
applied to large warships (cf. Ott barca, < It bargia, barza). VIII 811b
barsim ->• katt
barud (A, < Ar ?) : saltpetre; gunpowder. I 1055b
barzakh (A, P) : obstacle, hindrance, separation.
In eschatology, the boundary of the world of human beings, which consists of the heav-
ens, the earth and the nether regions, and its separation from the world of pure spirits
and God; Limbo. I 1072a
basal (A) : in botany, onions, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
basbas (A), or rdziydnadj : in botany, the fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), in North Africa
termed bisbds, which in the Eastern countries means the red seed-shell of the nutmeg
{Myristica frangrans). I 214b; XII 128b
♦ basbasa (A) : in botany, nutmeg. XII 128b
basli (T) : head, chief.
♦ bash kara kullukdju (T) : lit. head scullion; in Ottoman times, an officer's rank in
an orta, subordinate to that of the Corbadjj, or 'soup purveyor'. VIII 178b
♦ bashi-bozuk (T) : lit. leaderless, unattached; in the Ottoman period, ~ was
applied to both homeless vagabonds from the province seeking a livelihood in Istanbul
and male Muslim subjects of the sultan not affiliated to any military corps; from this
last usage, ~ came to signify 'civilian'. I 1077b; IX 406b
basha (T) : a Turkish title, not to be confused with pasha, nor with the Arabic or old
eastern pronunciation of it. Put after the proper name, it was applied to soldiers and
the lower grades of officers (especially Janissaries), and, it seems, also to notables in
the provinces. VIII 281b
BASHARUSH — BATIL 183
basharush ->■ nuham
bashi-bozuk -> bash
bashir (A) : in zoology, the polypterus Bichir. VIII 1021a; and ->■ nadhIr
bashmaklik (T) : a term applied in 16th and 17th-century Ottoman Turkey to fief rev-
enues assigned to certain ranks of ladies of the sultan's harem for the purchase of their
personal requirements, particularly clothes and slippers. I 1079b
bashtarda (T, < It bastarda) : the term for the great galley of the commander-in-chief of
the Ottoman navy. The principal types of Ottoman ships in the period of the oared ves-
sels were the kadirgha (< Gk katergon) 'galley', the kallte 'galliot', and the firkate
'frigate'. Although the ~ was not the largest unit of the fleet, it was a galley larger
than the galea sensile (T kadirgha or cektiri), but smaller than the galeazza or galiass
(T mawna). I 948a ff.; VIII 565a; VIII 810b
bashtina ->■ Ciftlik
bashwekil ->■ sadr-i a'zam
basit (wa murakkab) (A) : simple (and composite), the translation of Gk ankovq and
ODvGexoi;. Used as such in pharmacology, in grammar, philosophy and medicine,
mufrad is found for basit, and in logic, mathematics and music, mu'allaf is more com-
monly used for murakkab. I 1083b; and -» murakkab
In prosody, the name of the second Arabic metre, formed by the two feet mustaf'ilun
fa'ilun. I 670a; I 675a
♦ basita ->■ mizwala
baskak (T) : governor, chief of police. VIII 281a
Among the Mongols, an official whose main duty was to collect taxes and tribute; the
commissioners and high commissioners sent to the conquered provinces (or the West
only?), notably in Russia. Its Mongol equivalent was darugha or darogha. VIII 281a;
IX 438a
basmala (A) : the formula bi'srri llah! l-rahmart l-rahim\ also called tasmiya. I 1084a;
III 122b; V411b
bast (P) : sanctuary, asylum; a term applied to certain places (mosques and other sacred
buildings, especially the tombs of saints; the royal stables and horses; the neighborhood
of artillery) which were regarded as affording inviolable sanctuary to any malefactor,
however grave his crime; once within the protection of the ~, the malefactor could
negotiate with his pursuers, and settle the ransom which would purchase his immunity
when he left it. I 1088a
bast (A) : in mysticism, a term explained as applying to a spiritual state corresponding
with the station of hope, 'expansion'. I 1088b; III 361a; IV 326a
In mathematics, the part or the numerator of a fraction (syn. sura, makhraaj). IV 725b
basur (A, pi. bawaslr) : in medicine, haemorrhoids. X 784a
bata'in (P) : a cotton cloth, produced in Zarand in Iran, which appears to have been used
as lining for clothes. Called al-Zarandiyya it was taken to Egypt and the most distant
parts of the Maghrib. V 151a
batana ->■ dJarf
ba'th (A) : lit. to send, set in motion; in theology, ~ denotes either the sending of
prophets or the resurrection. I 1092b
bathn (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, a small, deadly but innocent-appearing snake liv-
ing in the sands. I 541b
batiha (A, pi. bata'ih) : marshland, the name applied to a meadowlike depression which
is exposed to more or less regular inundation and is therefore swampy. In particular, it
was applied in the 'Abbasid period to the very extensive swampy area on the lower
course of the Euphrates and Tigris, also called al-bata'ih. I 1093b
batil -» fasid; radhI
184 BATIN — BAY'
batin (A) : in Isma'ili theology, the inner meaning of sacred texts, as contrasted with the
literal meaning, zahir. I 1099a
♦ batiniyya (A) : the name given to the Isma'ilis in mediaeval times, referring to
their stress on the batin, and to anyone accused of rejecting the literal meaning of such
texts in favour of the batin. I 1098b; XI 389b
batman (P) : a measure of capacity introduced in Persia in the 15th century, equal to
5.76 kg. This was apparently the standard weight in most Persian provinces under the
rule of the Safawids. VI 120a
batn (A, < Sem 'stomach', cf. Heb 'uterus'; pi. butun) : in Arabic 'a fraction of a tribe',
designating a uterine relationship; in geography, ~ is used in geographical names with
the meaning of 'depression, basin'. I 1 102a; the plural form al-butun was used to refer
to the two sons of Sa'd b. Zayd Manat, Ka'b and c Amr, who were not among the group
called a/-ABNA>. X 173a; sub-tribe. XI 101b
batr ->■ batt
batra' (A) : in early Islam, a term for a Friday sermon, khutba, lacking the hamdala.
Ill 123a; as al-batra', or al-butayra', 'the truncated speech', the name for Ziyad b.
Abihi's inaugural speech as governor, which though considered a masterpiece of elo-
quence, did not praise God and did not bless the Prophet. XI 520b
batrakh : botargo, a fish delicacy like caviar, khibydra, not widely consumed in Arab
countries. VIII 1023a
batt (A), or batr : in medicine, an incision (for the removal of morbid matter). II 481b
In zoology, a duck. IX 98b
battal (A) : idle, inactive, in particular, a discharged, dismissed or exiled member of the
Mamluk military nobility. V 332b
batur ->■ alp
ba'ud (A) : in zoology, the gnat. II 248a; mosquitos. IV 522a
bavik (K), or mal : a Kurdish extended family, consisting of a group of houses or house-
hold or family in the strict sense of father, mother and children. The union of many
baviks constitutes the clan, or ber. V 472a
bawarid (A) : cooked green vegetables preserved in vinegar or other acid liquids. II
1064a; cold vegetable dishes, prepared also from meat, fowl and fish; frequent ingre-
dients were vinegar and a sweetening agent, sugar or honey. X 31b
♦ bawaridiyyun : makers and sellers of bawarid. II 1064a
bawrak (A, < P bura), and burak : natron, sesqui-carbonate of soda. It was found either
as a liquid in water or as a solid on the surface of the soil. XII 130b; borax. VIII 111b
bay (A, T beg) : name applied to the ruler of Tunisia until 26 July 1957, when a
Republic was proclaimed in Tunisia. I 1110b; and -+ bey
♦ bay al-amhal : in Tunisia, the heir apparent to the Bey and head of the army until
the advent of the Protectorate. I 1111a
bay' (A) : in law, a contract of sale, which is concluded by an offer, idjab, and accep-
tance, kabul, which must correspond to each other exactly and must take place in the
same meeting. I 1111a
♦ bay 1 al-'araya ->■ bay 1 al-muzabana
♦ bay 1 al-bara'a (A) : in law, a sale without guarantee wherein the seller is freed
from any obligation in the event of the existence, in the sale-object, of such a defect
as would normally allow the sale to be rescinded. I 1026b
♦ bay' al-gharar (A) : 'dangerous or hazardous trading', in law, a prohibited trans-
action, an example of which is bay' habal al-habala, namely, the sale of a pregnant
she-camel for slaughter with the prospect that it may produce a female young one,
which will again bear young. X 468a
♦ bay' habal al-habala ->■ bay' al-gharar
♦ bay' al-hasat -»■ bay' al-munabadha
♦ bay' ilka' al-hadjar ->■ bay' al-munabadha
♦ bay' al-'ina (A), or 'Ina : in law, a 'sale on credit', also known as mukhatara.
VII 518b; VIII 493a
♦ bay' al-mu'awama (A) : in law, the purchase of the yield of palm-trees for two
or three years in advance, an example of the sale of things which are not yet in exis-
tence at the time of the contract and thus prohibited. X 467b
♦ bay' al-mulamasa (A) : in law, a prohibited transaction concluded without the
goods being seen or examined beforehand, the covered goods being simply touched
with the hand. X 468a
♦ bay' al-munabadha (A) : in law, a prohibited sale in which the exchange is irrev-
ocably concluded by the two parties handing over the goods without seeing or testing
them beforehand. Another form of this transaction is bay' al-hasat or bay' ilka 5 al-
hadjar, when as a sign of the conclusion of the agreement, a small stone is handed over
in place of the goods. X 468a
♦ bay' al-muzabana (A) : in law, a transaction during which any goods the weight,
size or number of which is not known is sold in bulk for a definite measure, weight
or number of another commodity. It is a prohibited sale but according to Tradition, one
exception was allowed, when a poor man who does not possess a palm-tree of his own,
in order to procure for his family fresh dates, purchases for dried dates the fruit of a
palm on the tree, but it has to be valued. Such a sale is termed bay' al-'araya. X 467b
♦ bay' al-muzayada (A) : in law, an auction, which is only permitted in three cases:
in direst poverty, in sickness or when deeply in debt. X 467b
♦ bay' al-'urban (A), or bay' al-'urbun : in law, a form of prohibited sale in which
an earnest-money is given which belongs to the vendor if the transaction is not carried
through. X 467b
♦ bay' bi'1-istighlal -»■ gharuka
♦ al-bay' bi'1-wafa' (A) : in law, a 'conditional sale' of part of the plot of a debtor
to the lender, to be nullified as soon as the debt is redeemed. XII 322b
♦ bay'atan fi bay'a (A) : in law, a double sale, which is a legal device to get around
the prohibition of interest. An example is the transaction called mukhatara, where e.g.
the (prospective) debtor sells to the (prospective) creditor a slave for cash, and imme-
diately buys the slave back from him for a greater amount payable at a future date;
this amounts to a loan with the slave as security, and the difference between the two
prices represents the interest. Ill 511b; VII 518b
bay'a (A) : a term denoting, in a very broad sense, the act by which a certain number
of persons, acting individually or collectively, recognise the authority of another per-
son. I 1113a; II 302b; VI 205b
♦ bay'at al-harb (A) : 'the pledge of war', the name of a promise given to the
Prophet at 'the second 'Akaba' in 622 by seventy-three men and two women who
promised to defend Muhammad, if necessary, by arms. I 314b; V 995b
♦ bay'at al-nisa' (A) : 'the pledge of the women', the name of a meeting between
the Prophet and twelve men from Medina at 'the first 'Akaba' in 621 where the latter
formally accepted Islam and made certain promises. I 314b; V 995b
♦ bay'at al-ridwan (A) : the name given to an oath of allegiance exacted by the
Prophet from some of his followers during the Medinan period. XII 131a
bayad (A) : 'blank book', a technical term in literature referring to a sort of anthology
in the form of an informal notebook with poetical fragments. VII 529a
In medicine, the affected skin of the leper. X 510a
bayad (A), or bayyad : a silurus of the Nile, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Bagrus
bajad). VIII 1021a
186 BAYAN — BAYT
bayan (A) : lucidity, distinctness, clarity.
In rhetoric, a near syn. of balagha 'eloquence'; husn al-baydn means distinctiveness
(of expression). I 1114a; VIII 614b; and -> al-ma c anI wa 'l-bayan
bayat (A) : a night-attack (of a raiding group of Bedouin). II 1055b
bayd al-kitt (A) : 'cat's testicles', in botany, the variety Astragalus sieberi of the genus
Milk vetch. IX 653b
bayda (A) : in clothing, properly an iron helmet (also khudha, < P /child) from their
resemblance in shape to an ostrich egg, but, according to al-Kattani, also a turban. X
611b; XII 735b; and -> mighfar
baydak ->■ shatrandj
bayina (A) : a bow which uses too long an arrow, this being considered a fault because
it reduces the draw and consequently makes the shot less powerful. IV 798a
bayirat (A) : in law, lands that have been abandoned, which raised the question whether
such lands should pay land tax. IV 1036a
bayn (U) : in Urdu poetry, the part of the elegy, marthiya, where the martyr's family,
the poet himself and all believers are lamented. VI 611b
♦ bayniyya (A) : 'intermediary'; in grammar, a division of consonants in between
the occlusive and the constrictive, designating the letters ', I, m, n, r, w, y, alif. The
term ~ is recent, from 1305/1887; the ancient practice was to say e.g. 'those which are
between the shadIda 'occlusive' and the rikhwa 'constrictive". Ill 599a
bayrakdar (T bayrak, P ddr) : 'standard-bearer', under the Ottomans, applied to vari-
ous officers of both the 'feudal' and the 'standing' army and to certain hereditary chief-
tains of Albania. I 1134b
bayt (A, pi. buyut) : dwelling; covered shelter where one may spend the night. In pre-
Islamic Arabia, the ~, or bayt sha'ar, was a tent of goat's hair and of average size. It
served as a dwelling for breeders of small livestock (that is to say, of numerous
Bedouin). I 1139b; II 113b; IV 1147a; and -> dar; ~ may sometimes designate a
'sanctuary'; thus, when used with the definite article, al-bayt, or al-bayt al-hardm, al-
bayt al-'atlk, it signifies the holy place at Mecca. I 1139b
In prosody, ~ (pi. abydt) is a line of poetry consisting of two clearly distinct halves
called misra'. I 668a; two hemistichs with between 16 and 30 syllables and a caesura.
VIII 583a
In the game of chess or backgammon, the term for a field on which a piece stands.
VII 963a; IX 366b
In archery, a sector or 'house' of the bow, thus the upper limb is called bayt a c ld, also
called bayt al-ramy 'house of shooting' because the shot is made according to this
plan. The lower limb is the 'lower house' {bayt asfal) or 'house of perpendicularity'
{bayt al-iskdt), i.e. that which falls away towards the ground. IV 799a
♦ bayt al-ibra -> ibra
♦ bayt maftuh (A) : in architecture, a multi-courtyard house. VI 809a
♦ bayt al-mal (A) : the 'fiscus' or treasury of the Muslim state. The notion of pub-
lic as distinct from private ownership and the idea of properties and monies designed
to serve the interests of the communities is said to have been introduced first by 'Urnar
b. al-Khattab; coupled with the institution of the dIwan, it marks the starting point of
the ~ as the state treasury. Previously the term designated the depository where money
and goods were temporarily lodged pending distribution to their individual owners. In
the administration of the later caliphate, the term makhzan seems to have almost
replaced the ~, which reflects the proportionate increase of presentations in kind and
the diminution of fiscal receipts in hard cash. I 1141b
♦ bayt al-maldji (Alg) : the trustee of vacant estates, a member of the council gov-
erned by the dey. I 368a
BAYT — BEG 187
♦ bayt al-sadjdjada (A) : in modern Egyptian usage, the central office of a sufi
order, serving as the residence and the office of the order's shaykh or his senior aide,
wakil. VIII 744a
♦ bayt al-ta c a (A) : in Egypt and Sudan, the institution of police-executed enforced
obedience of rebellious wives, abolished since the late 1960s. VIII 32a
♦ al-abyat al-mushadjdjara (A) : in prosody, verses which can be read from begin-
ning to end and from end to beginning. IX 461a
baytar (A, < Gk) : veterinary surgeon. I 1149b
bayyara (A) : a cesspool. V 1007a
bayyaz (A), and bayydzl, biydz, bdziyy, bayzarl : Spanish-Maghribi terms for hawker,
which frequently gave way to tayyar, or sakkar 'falconer'. I 1152b
bayyina (A, pi. bayyindt) : clear, evident.
In the Qur'an, ~ appears as a substantive, meaning 'manifest proof. I 1150b
In law, ~ denotes the proof per excellentiam — that established by oral testimony — ,
although from the classical era the term came to be applied not only to the fact of giv-
ing testimony at law but also to the witnesses themselves. I 1150b
bayzara (A, < P bdzydr 'ostringer') : the art of the flying-hunt; falconry. I 1152a
baz (T) : a common word for coarse cotton cloth in various Turkish dialects. V 557a
baz (P) : in zoology, goshawk. I 1152a
bazahr (A, < P pd(d)-zahr 'against poison') : bezoar, a remedy against all kinds of poi-
sons, highly esteemed and paid for up to the 18th century. The bezoar-stone, a gall
stone, is obtained from the bezoar-goat (Capra aegagrus Gin.). I 1155b
bazand (A) : a pre-Islamic word for raised canal banks in mediaeval 'Irak. V 865a
bazar (P, T pdzdr) : syn. of suk, in some villages in Afghanistan, ~ is used for the town
itself, in its entirety. IX 789a
♦ bazar-i khass (IndP) : in Muslim India, the market on the principal streets of the
city. IX 800b
♦ mina bazar (IndP) : in Muslim India during the Mughal period, a market in the
nature of a fete, arranged in the palace, in which the ladies of the nobles set up shops
and the Emperor, along with his queens, made purchases. IX 801a
bazinkir (T or P) : slave-troops equipped with fire-arms; a term current during the late
Khedivial and Mahdist periods in the Sudan. I 1156b
bazirgan (T, < P 'merchant') : under the Ottomans, ~ was applied to Christian and
especially Jewish merchants, some of whom held official appointments in the Ottoman
palace or armed forces. I 1157a
♦ bazirgan-bashi (T) : under the Ottomans, the chief purveyor of textiles to the
Imperial household. I 1155b
bazr (A, pi. buzur) : in anatomy, the clitoris. IV 913a
♦ bazra' (A) : a woman who is affected by clitorism, or is believed to be so. An
uncircumcised woman is called lakhnd'. Expressions such as ibn at— or ibn al-lakhnd'
meaning in effect 'son of the uncumcised woman' are considered injurious. IV 913a
bazuband -> sa'id
bazz -> KUMASH
bazzaz (A, T bezzdz) : a textile dealer, cloth merchant. V 559b; XII 756b
bedestan (T), or bedesten, bezzdzistdn : the centre of a city's economic life as the place
of business of the leading merchants, and the centre for financial transactions, where
valuable imported wares were sold. IV 227a; X 414a
bad'iyya (B) : in North Africa, a sleeveless vest for men; in Morocco, a sleeveless
khaftan for women. V 745b
beg (T) : a title, 'lord', used in a number of different ways. Under the Ilkhans, ~ was
sometimes used for women, and under the Mughals the feminine form, begam(->
188 BEG — BESHLIK
begum), was common. Under the Ottomans, ~ was in wide use for tribal leaders, high
civil and military functionaries, and the sons of the great, particularly pashas. I 1159a;
and -> bey; ulu beg
♦ begum (IndP), and begam : feminine of beg, and an honorific title of the royal
princesses under the Mughals. I 1161a
♦ beglerbegi (T), or beylerbeyi : a title, 'beg of the begs', 'commander of the com-
manders'. Originally designating 'commander-in-chief of the army', ~ came to mean
provincial governor and finally was no more than an honorary rank. I 1159b; II 722a ff.
♦ beglerbegilik (T) : a term used for an administrative division in the Ottoman
empire until it was replaced by eyalet. Thereafter, - continued to be used for the
office of a beglerbegi. II 722a
bekci (T) : a watchman who, by a decree of 1107/1695, patrolled the quarters, mahalle
(-> mahalla), in Ottoman Istanbul with a lantern in his hands and arrested any
strangers found there after the bed-time prayer. The ~ became a characteristic figure in
the folklore of Istanbul. IV 234b
beledi -> kassam
balgha (B) : flat slippers, usually pointed at the toe, but sometimes rounded, worn by
both sexes in North Africa. V 745b
beluk : a vocal art in West Java which marks religious, family and agrarian rites, and
which is in the course of disappearing. VIII 153b
belwo (Somali) : in Somali literature, a genre of poetry dealing specifically with the
theme of love, developed during the late 1940s and 1950s, which grew into an impor-
tant vehicle for the expression of nationalist, anti-colonial feeling. A similar genre is
heello. IX 726a
ben-'amma (A) : among the Arabs of Transjordania, a form of agreement, the object of
which is to establish a state of peace between tribes. Ill 389a
bendahara (Mai) : the Chief Minister in Malay sultanates, the highest dignitary after the
sultan. He is followed by the penghulu bendahari, who is responsible for maintain-
ing the sacred traditions, the temenggung, responsible for security, and the laksamana,
the supervisor of the fleet. IX 852a
bender (A) : in music, a sort of big tambourine without bells. IV 382b
benlak -> bennak
bennak (T, < A banaka ?), or benlak : an Ottoman poll tax paid by married peasants
possessing a piece of land less than half a cift (-> ciftlik) or no land. The former were
also called simply ~, or in full ekinlii bennak. I 1169b; II 32b; and -* djaba
ber (K) : the Kurdish clan, formed by the union of many extended families, bavik. A
collection of ~ constitutes the tribe. V 472a
berat (T, < A bara'a) : a term in Ottoman Turkish denoting a type of order issued by
the sultan. In its more limited sense, ~ meant also 'a deed of grant', 'a writ for the
appointment to hold an office'. All appointments throughout the empire whether that of
a high-ranking pasha, even that of the Syrian Church bishops, or that of a low -rank-
ing employee of a mosque, were effected by a ~. Its constant attribute was sherif or
humdyun 'imperial'. I 1170a
♦ beratli (T) : holder of a berat; a term applied in the late 18th and early 19th
centuries to certain non-Muslim subjects of the Ottoman empire, who held berdts, con-
ferring upon them important commercial and fiscal privileges. These berdts were dis-
tributed by the European diplomatic missions in abusive extension of their rights under
capitulation. I 1171b
barbukji (Alg) : a variety of couscous, with fine grain, eaten cold, without butter, and
moistened with a little milk. V 528a
beshlik -> ceyrek
BESTE — BlGAR 189
beste (T) : a vocal composition in four verses each followed by the same melodic pas-
sage. IX 876a
bey (T) : var. of beg, title given to the sons of pashas, and of a few of the highest civil
functionaries, to military and naval officers of the rank of colonel or lieutenant colonel,
and popularly, to any persons of wealth, or supposed distinction. I 1159a; II 507b; V
631a; the name applied to the ruler of Tunisia until 26 July 1957 when Bey Lamine
was deposed and the Republic was proclaimed. I 1 1 10b
♦ beylerbeyi -»■ beglerbegi
♦ beylik (T) : a term denoting both the title and post (or function) of a bey, and
the territory (or domain) under his rule. Later, by extension, it came to mean also
'state, government', and, at the same time, a political and administrative entity some-
times enjoying a certain autonomy. In North Africa, the term is used in the former
Ottoman possessions, but not in Morocco or in the Sahara, and refers to government
and administrative authority at every stage. I 1191a; II 338b
In Ottoman administration, the most important of three offices into which the Ottoman
chancellery was divided, the ~ saw to the despatch of imperial rescripts, orders of the
viziers, and in general all ordinances other than those of the department of finance.
VIII 482a
beza : a type of salt in the salt works near Bilma, in Niger, ~ is in the form of crystals
and, not treated in any way, is used for human consumption. I 1221b
bezzazistan -> bedestan
bhakti (H) : a north Indian movement, sometimes seen incorrectly as a Hindu reaction
seeking to strengthen Hinduism against the advancing pressure of conversions to Islam.
Ill 456b
bhang (< San bhahga, A bandj, P bang) : in India, a product of the dried leaves of
hemp reduced to powder and mixed with flour and spices, originally eaten but later
more commonly smoked. Ill 266b; VI 814b
bi-la kayf (A) : lit. without how, i.e. without specifying manner or modality; in theology,
a doctrine taking a central position between those who interpreted the anthropomorphic
expressions in the Qur'an literally and those who interpreted them metaphorically. I 333b
bi-shar' (bishar') (P) : lit. without law, i.e. rejecting not only the ritual but also the
moral law of Islam; one of the two categories into which dervishes in Persia are
divided. The other is ba-shar'. The term seems primarily to denote the adepts of the
Malamatiyya sufi sect. I 1239b; II 164b
bi c a -> kanIsa
bibi (T) : originally, 'little old mother', 'grandmother', 'woman of high rank', ~ was
used in Ottoman Turkish in the sense of 'woman of consequence', 'lady', and in 13th-
century Khurasan as a title for women of distinction. I 1197b
bid c a (A) : innovation, a belief or practice for which there is no precedent in the time
of the Prophet. I 1199a; IV 141b
♦ bid'at (T) : dues in contradiction to the shari'a or to Ottoman administrative prin-
ciples, which nevertheless continued to be levied either by the State or TlMAR-holders,
e.g. the bid'at-i khinzir 'pig-tax' which provided the treasury with a large revenue. II
147a; VIII 486b
♦ bid'at marfu'e (T) : in Ottoman administration, pre-conquest taxes and dues that
were abolished by the sultan's specific order. VIII 486b
♦ bid'at ma'rufe (T) : in Ottoman administration, pre-conquest taxes and dues that
were customarily recognized. VIII 486b
bidar (A) : in Oman and Trucial Oman the official subordinate to the 'arif, the latter
being in charge of the water distribution. IV 532a
bigar -> hashar
190 BIGHA — BlRUN
bigha : a standard measure of area in Muslim India, divided into twenty bIswa. The ~
varied considerably by region, with a distinction between a larger (pakka) and a
smaller (kacca) measure. VII 140a
bigha' (A) : the Qur'anic term for prostitution. XII 133a
bikasin ->■ shunkub
bikr (A) : a virgin girl. Ill 17a; X 901b
billawr (A, < Gk ?) : in mineralogy, rock-crystal. I 1220b
bilmedje (T) : the name given to popular riddles among the Ottoman Turks. I 1222a
bilyun (Mor), or gersh : a coin with the value of a twentieth of a douro or riyal. Ill
256a
bimaristan (P) : a hospital; in modern usage, a lunatic asylum. I 1222b
bina' (A) : building, the art of the builder or mason. I 1226a
In grammar, the state of a word that is fixed to one final short vowel or to none at all,
and thus the opposite of i'rab. Ill 1249b; and ->■ wazn
binbashi (T) : 'head of a thousand'; a Turkish military rank. It appears as early as
729/1328-29 among the Western Turks. Although it was not much used in the regular
Ottoman forces of the classical period, it reappeared in the 18th century when it des-
ignated the officers of the newly raised treasury-paid force of infantry and cavalry.
From the end of the 18th century, it became a regular rank in the new European-style
armies. I 1229a; VIII 370b
binish (T) : a kind of very full caftan with wide sleeves, worn most frequently as a trav-
elling or riding garment in the Ottoman period. V 752a; all public appearances of the
sultan, whether on horseback or in a boat. VIII 529a
binn : a Druze term denoting one of a number of earlier races or sects, said to have
been a group of inhabitants of Hadjar in the Yemen who believed in the message of
Shatnil, the incarnation of Hamza in the Age of Adam. XII 135b
bint (A, pi. banat) : daughter.
♦ bint labun (A) : a female camel in its third year. XI 412a
♦ bint makhad (A) : a female camel in its second year. XI 412a
♦ banat na'sh (A) : in astronomy, the Plough (8e£t| Ursae Majoris). VII 51a
bi'r (A, pi. abyar) : well; cistern, reservoir; even any hole or cavity dug in the ground,
whether containing water or not. I 538b; I 1230a
birdhawn (A, pi. barddhin) : in zoology, 'of common parentage', one of four classi-
fications of a horse, usually used for the draught-horse or pack-horse. II 785b; nag of
non-Arab stock. IV 1 143b; IV 1 146a
birdjas (A) : during the early 'Abbasid period, a kind of equestrian game, in which the
contestant had to get his lance-point through a metal ring fixed to the top of a wooden
column, thus revealing his skill or otherwise in controlling his horse and aiming his
weapon. IV 265b
birindj ->• shabah
birindjasaf ->■ shIh
birka (A) : an external cistern; fish pond. VIII 816a; VIII 1022a
At Fez and Rabat and in Tunisia, a special (slave) market, existing until well into the
20th century. I 35a
birkish ->■ abu barakish
birr (A) : a Qur'anic term meaning 'pious goodness'. I 1235b; charitable gift. VIII 712a
birsam : in medicine, pleurisy. IX 9b
birsim (A) : in botany, Egyptian clover. VI 163a
birun (P) : outside; in Ottoman Turkish, the name given to the outer departments and
services of the Ottoman imperial household, in contrast to the inner departments,
known as enderun. The ~ was thus the meeting-point of the court and the state and,
BIRUN — BOSTANDJI 191
besides palace functionaries, included a number of high officers and dignitaries con-
cerned with the administrative, military, and religious affairs of the empire. I 1236a; II
1089a
bisat (A, pi. bust, busut, absita) : a generic term for carpet. XII 136a
bisbas -> basbas
bish -> AKUNlTUN
bishar' -> bI-shar c
bishara (A) : equivalent used for Greek evangelium 'announcement of good news', found
for the first time in Freytag's Arabic-Latin dictionary. XII 772a
bisht (A) : a mantle, jacket, worn by both sexes in Syria and Palestine. V 740b
bissasfaltus -» mumiya'
biswa : a standard measure of area used in Muslim India, divided into twenty blswdnsd.
In turn, twenty -was one bigha. The ~ varied considerably by region. VII 140a
bit' (A) : mead, an alcoholic drink consisting of a mixture of honey and wine. The
Egyptians used to be very fond of it in mediaeval times. VI 720a; VII 907b; hydromel.
IV 998a
biti (T) : an Ottoman sultan's order, more or less obsolete after 1500. I 1170a
bitikci (T) : secretaries in Mongolian Persia, especially in the military administration,
who were especially knowledgeable in Turkish or Mongolian. It was their task to trans-
late into these two languages original documents probably written in Persian, and in
'Irak also in Arabic. I 1248b; IV 757a
bitrik (A, < L Patricius) : patriciate; an honorary dignity, not connected with any office,
and conferred for exceptional services to the state. In the history of the Arabs before
Islam, only two Ghassanid dynasts, viz. al-Harith b. Djabala and his son al-Mundhir,
are known to have received this much coveted Roman honour. The term found its
way into Muslim literature, and in the military annals of Arab-Byzantine relations, it
became the regular term for a Byzantine commander. I 1249b; V 620a
bittikh ('ayn) al-nims -> nims
biwe resmi (T) : under the Ottomans, the ispendje tax paid by widows at the rate of 6
akCes per person. II 146b
bocca : a mini-community, specific to the Wansharis massif in central Algeria, whose
administrative coverage often corresponds to a cleared area. XI 139a
boliik (T) : in Eastern Turkish and in Persian, ~ designated a province or region. I
1256a
In Ottoman Turkey, from the time of the reforms on, ~ designated units of infantry or
cavalry of the standing army. I 102a; I 1256a; II 1097b; II 1121a; and -> dort boluk
♦ boluk-bashi (T) : the title given to the commanders of the boluks of the agha.
The ~ was mounted and had an iron mace and a shield tied to his saddle; when the
sultan left the Palace for the mosque, the ~ was present wearing ornate clothes and
holding in his hand a reed instead of a spear. I 1256b
bork (T) : the most widespread Turkish head-gear in Ottoman Turkey, the ~ was in a
cone or helmet shape, raised in front and decorated at the base with gold braid; officers
wore it decorated in addition with a plume. V 751b
boru (T), and nefir : a trumpet without holes which could produce five notes within an
ambitus of one and a half octaves. Older borus were apparently made of bronze, but
by the 10th/ 16th century brass was in use. VI 1007b
bostandji (T, < P bustan 'garden') : a term applied in the old Ottoman state organisa-
tion to people employed in the flower and vegetable gardens, as well as in the
boathouses and rowing-boats of the sultan's palaces. The ~s formed two odjaks 'army
units'. I 1277b; IV 1100b; soldier-gardener. X 568b
♦ bostandji-bashi (T) : the senior officer of the odjak of the bostandjis. As the
BOSTANDJi — BUKHT
person responsible for the maintenance of law and order on the shores of the Golden
Horn, the Sea of Marmora and the Bosphorus, he used to patrol the shores in a boat
with a retinue of 30 men, as well as inspect the countryside and forests around
Istanbul. He was very close to the sultan. I 1278b
brim -> 'akal; hakw
budala' -»■ abdal
budd (A, P but; pi. bidada) : a temple, pagoda; Buddha; an idol. I 1283b
budjadi (A, < abdjdd) : in North Africa, used for 'beginner', literally, 'one still at the
abecedarian stage'. I 98a
budna -> sinam
buduh (A) : an artificial talismanic word formed from the elements of the simple three-
fold magic square. The uses of the word are most various, to invoke both good and
bad fortune, but by far the most common use is to ensure the arrival of letters and
packages. II 370a; XII 153a
bughat (A, s. bdghl) : 'rebels'; in law, sectarian-minded Muslims who reject the author-
ity of the ruler, considered by the Zaydis and Imamis as unbelievers, but by the Sunnis
as erring Muslims. IV 772a; IX 205a
bughtak : a bonnet worn by Ilkhanid princesses. It consisted of a light wood frame cov-
ered with silk, from the top of which protruded a long feather. The ~ could be orna-
mented with gold and precious stones and sometimes had a long train which hung
down behind. V 748b; X 611b
buhar (A) : in zoology, the diacope, whose Arabic term is found again in the Latinised
nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Diacope bohar).
VIII 1021a
buhayra (A, dim. of bahrd) : lake. In North Africa, ~ (bherd) denotes a low-lying plain;
its most common meaning, however, is 'vegetable garden, field for market gardening'.
I 1288a
In Almohad times, ~ meant an irrigated garden. I 1288a
buhur ->■ BAHR
buk (A) : in music, the generic name for any instrument of the horn or trumpet family.
I 1290b; a kind of reed-pipe that became quite famous in Western Europe. The origi-
nal ~ was a horn or clarion, and was made of horn or metal. Pierced with holes for
fingering, and played with a reed, the ~ evolved into a new type of instrument, some-
what similar to the modern saxophone. VII 207b
buk'a (A), or bak'a : a region which is distinguishable from its surroundings, more par-
ticularly a depression between mountains. I 1292b; a patch of ground marked out from
adjoining land by a difference in colour, etc. or a low-lying region with stagnant water.
XII 154a
In the central and eastern parts of the Islamic world, ~ acquired the sense of 'dervish
convent', 'mausoleum' or in general 'a building for pious, educational or charitable
purposes'. IX 474b; XII 154a
bukala (Alg) : a two-handled pottery vase used by women in the course of the divina-
tory practices to which it gave its name. I 1292b; HI 290a
bukalamun (A) : a coloured (violet, red and green) cloth, with a moire, watered-silk
effect, produced in the Tinnis workshops and especially prized by the Fatimid court in
Cairo. X 532a
bukhl (A) : avarice, the person who practices it being called bakhll or, less often, bdkhil.
I 1297b
bukht (A, s. bukhti, pi. bakhdti) : in zoology, the species produced as a result of the
crossing of two-humped stallions with Arab female camels; it did not breed and was
mainly used as a beast of burden. Ill 665 b
BUKIR — BURHAN 193
bukir (A) : in zoology, a kind of bird. I 168b
bukra -> ghudwa
buku (Sw?) : in zoology, the Zanzibar Pouched Rat (cricetomys gambianus Cosensi),
reported to be nearly three feet long from snout to the end of the tail. XI 448b
bukubulbis (A) : in zoology, the barbel. VIII 1021a
bularghuci -> yurtC!
bulbul (A) : in zoology, the Syrian nightingale. I 541b; I 1301a
♦ bulbula ->■ ibrIk
bulka (A) : in mineralogy, piebaldness, uneven colouring which is a defect or impurity
in a gem. XI 263a
bullayk (A) : in prosody, term used by Safi al-Din al-Hilli for a zadjal that is jocular
or obscene. XI 373b
buluk (P, pi. bulukdf) : a district, in particular a district watered by river water. V 873b f.
bumi ->■ ZAMINDAR
bunbuk -» khinzir al-bahr
bunduk (A) : in botany, the parasol pine. V 50b; and -» raws al-bunduk
bunica (P) : in Persia, a group assessment, on the basis of which taxes were levied
on the craft guilds. The tax based on this assessment was subsequently allocated among
the individual members of the guild. This form of tax was abolished in 1926. II 151b;
the right to exercise a trade, given to some guilds, was called hakk al-~. IX 645b
bunit ->■ balamida
bunn (A) : in zoology, the carp. VIII 1023a; and -»■ kahwa
♦ bunni al-Nll (A) : in zoology, the Nile barbel, whose Arabic term is found again
in the Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Barbus
bynni). VIII 1021b
burak -» bawrak
burd -»■ burda
burda (A), or burd : a wrap of striped woollen cloth produced in the Yemen, before
and during the Prophet's time, usually worn by men. I 1314b; III 316a; V 734a
burdj (A, pi. burudj) : a square or round tower, whether adjacent to a rampart or iso-
lated and serving as a bastion or dungeon; masonry pier of a bridge. I 1315a; a move-
able tower, used as a siege instrument. Ill 473a; a pigeon-house. Ill 109a
In astronomy, each of the twelve signs of the zodiac. I 1315a; and -»■ mintakat al-
burudj
In music, ~ denotes a mode. I 1315a
♦ burdj-i kabutar (P) : pigeon towers, the construction of which on the fertile plain
around Isfahan was encouraged by Shah 'Abbas so that he could heavily tax the guano
harvest. XII 457a
burdjas (A) : a chivalrous duel with lances, an equestrian sport regularly practised in the
6th-7th/12th-13th centuries. II 954a
burdjin (A) : in botany, the name of one of five varieties of the red jujube; it has small
fruits with a violent astringency, spreads on the ground and grows to the height of sit-
ting. X 868b
burdjuma (A) : 'knuckle'; in its plural form, baradjim, was the term for five (or six or
four) components of the Hanzala b. Malik group, the less numerous ones, against their
brothers, three other sons of Hanzala, X 173b
burghul (A, T bulgur) : crushed wheat, considered a dish of the poor. II 1067a
burghuth (A) : in zoology, fleas, diptera of the pulex family. IV 522a
♦ burghuth al-ma' (A) : in zoology, the water-beetle (Daphnia pulex). VIII 1022a
burhan (A) : decisive proof, clear demonstration; a Qur'anic term signifying a brilliant
manifestation, a shining light from God. In correlation, ~ is also the decisive proof
194 BURHAN — BUZURG
which the infidels are called upon to furnish as justification of their false beliefs. I
1326b
In law, ~ refers to the quality of certitude (based upon an argument of authority, which
can be either a scriptual text or the eye-witnessing of an obvious fact) which is proper
to reasoning 'in two terms', in order to prove the radical distinction between or the
identity of two comparable 'things'; it is found especially in al-S_hafi'i, Ibn Hanbal and
Dawud. I 1326b
In logic, ~ came to designate syllogistic demonstration. I 1327a
buri (A) : in zoology, the grey mullet. I 168b; VIII 1023a
burku' (A) : in early Islam, a woman's face veil consisting of a fabric suspended from
the centre front of the headband by a string creating a mask-like effect. It is still worn
by married women among the Sinai Bedouin. V 735a
In military science, a chamfron or armour for the horse's head (syn. kashka, sari, tishtaniyya).
XII 739a
burnus (A) : a sort of high cap or bonnet, worn in the Prophet's time. Already this early,
the ~ must also have designated by extension a woollen hooded cloak. V 734b; X 612a
burt (A, < L portus) : 'gate', the northeastern border of Muslim Spain, called as such
by the geographers, although they differed as to where it lay. I 1337a
burtukal, burtukaliyyat -> narandj
burtul[la] (A; P pertele) : in clothing, a high cap; with the pronunciation bartala, a low
skullcap. In modern parlance, it means the taqj of a bishop. X 612a
burume (T) : 'one with a coat of mail', in the Ottoman army, a qJEBELI who held a
timar of above 2,000 akCes. II 528b; a coat of mail consisting of linked steel rings
that a djebelii who enjoyed a timar above 3,000 akCes. X 503a
bus (A) : a term used in addition to the general term lawn 'colour' for a notion of
brightness, of clear colour. V 699b
bush (A) : a variety of 'aba' made in North Syria. V 740b
♦ bushi (A), or pushi : a black face veil worn by women in Iraq. V 740b
bushaki -»• fIruzadj
busht (A) : woollen wraps. IX 765a
busr -> TAMR
bussadh -»• marqjan
bustan -> bostanqj!
butak (A, pi. bawatik) : in chemistry, a melting-pot. V 114b
butta (A) : a measure used in Egypt for weighing flour. The ~ was equal to 50 Egyptian
ratls, i.e. 22.245 kg. VI 119a
biiyiik kirpi -> kunfudb
buyuruldu (T) : an order of an Ottoman grand vizier, vizier, beglerbegi, defterdar
(-»■ daftardar), or other high official to a subordinate. A ~ is of two main types: a
decision written in the margin of an incoming petition or report, or an order issued
independently. It deals with various administrative matters, especially appointments, grants
of fiefs, economic regulations, safe-passage, etc. I 1357b
buyutat (P) : under the Safawids, the Royal Household, which was divided into a num-
ber of offices and workshops. II 335a; in Muslim Spain, the most influential families.
XI 191b
buz (A) : snout.
♦ abu buz -> abu bCz
buz-kashi (P) : in Afghanistan, the equestrian sport of 'goat-dragging'. IV 1144b
buzuk -»• tunbur
buzurg -»• badj-i buzurg; shashmakom
CABUTRA — CASHNA-GlR
cabutra (P) : in Mughal architecture, a platform. X 59b
cadirkhayal (T) : one of two varieties of puppet theatre in Central Asia, a marionette
show with full-bodied miniature marionettes suspended and activated from above on
strings. VI 765a
cadur -> ru band; shawdar
caghana (T) : in music, the 'Jingling Johnny' (Fr chapeau chinois, Ger Schellenbaum),
now superseded by the portable glockenspiel. X 37b
cahar (P) : four.
♦ cahar bagh (P) -» bagh
♦ cahar suk -» suk
♦ cahar tak (P) : the mostly diminutive Sasanian fire temple with four axial arched
openings. Set in the midst of a large open space, it served to house the sacred fire.
This layout obviously lent itself to Muslim prayer, and literary sources recount how
such fire temples were taken over and converted into mosques. The domed chamber,
characteristic of Iranian mosques, derives from the ~. VI 684a
♦ cahartar -»■ tar
caklr (T) : a merlin and falcon, one of the birds of prey making up the traditional sport
of hawking at the Ottoman court. The others were the shdhin 'peregrine falcon' and
the atmaaja 'sparrow-hawk'. II 614b
♦ cakirdji-bashi (T) : chief falconer, a high official of the Ottoman court and head
of the whole organisation of hawking. II 6a; II 614b
cakshir (T, A shakshlr) : Turkish-style pantaloons, underdrawers, worn by both sexes in
Egypt, Syria and Palestine. V 740b
calish -»■ SHALISH
calpara -»■ musaffahat
candi : a temple of either Hindu or Buddhist intention, ultimately of Indian origin but
modified by Indonesian religious concepts. The ~ has been proposed as one of the ori-
gins of the basic Indonesian mosque. VI 701b
cankri : a word used in Lak society to designate children of marriages between bagtals
and women of lower social orders. V 618a
cao (P, < Ch ts'au) : the name given to paper currency in circulation in Iran for about
two months in 693/1294. It was made of the bark of the mulberry tree, was oblong in
shape, and bore the shahada. II 14a
capar -»■ alp
capuk -* TUTUN
carkh -» sang
♦ carkh-kaman (P) : a multiple-firing arbalest, borrowed from the Mongols. IV 798a
carkhadji -»■ karaghul
carpara -»■ musaffahat
carshi (T) : in Ottoman times, common term for both individual business locales and
covered markets, which may encompass over a hundred shops, contrasting with pdzar,
an open-air market held once or several times a week. IX 796b
cartar -»■ tar
cashna-gir (P, A dhawwdk) : 'taster', the title of an official, generally an amIr, at the
court of the Muslim sovereigns from the time of the Saldjuks. The title does not appear
to be found under previous dynasties, although caliphs and princes did undoubtedly
have overseers for their food. The term ~ is also found as the name of a kind of crys-
tal decanter. II 15a
CASHNA-GIR — CEPKEN
♦ cashnagir-bashi (T) : 'chief taster', a high official at the Ottoman court. A doc-
ument dated 883/1478-9 lists 12 tasters as subordinate to the ~. Later, the number
employed rose considerably, reaching as high as 117. By the 18th century, the ~ had
clearly fallen in status and had responsibilities more related to the preparation of food.
II 15a; an Ottoman court dignitary, whose duty it was to assist the sultan in mounting
his horse by holding him under the arm or under the armpit. VIII 529b
catr (P), or citr : a term used in the Iranian cultural sphere to designate a parasol held
over the sovereign and considered as one of the insignia of rank. In this, it is the syn-
onym of the Arabic mizalla. VII 192b; the variant citr gave rise to the Arabicised
forms ajitr and shitr which were used in the Mamluk sultanate. VII 192a
ca'ush (T) : officials staffing the various Ottoman Palace departments; low-ranking mil-
itary personnel. In Uygur, ~ refers to a Tou-kiu ambassador. In North Africa, it is still
seen in its Arabic form of sha'ush, where it means a court usher or mace-bearer. II 16a
Under the ancient Turks, the Saldjuks, the Ayyubids and the Mamluks, the ~ formed
a privileged body under the direct command of the ruler; under the Ottomans, they
were part of the official ceremonial escort of the sultan on his departure from the
palace or when he had an audience with foreign dignitaries. Their services were also
used as ambassadors or envoys by the sultan or his grand vizier. The ranks of ~ and
ca'ush wekili were used in the cavalry and the navy at the beginning of the 19th cen-
tury. After the army reorganisation in 1241/1826, a ~ held the equivalent rank of a
sergeant. II 16a
In certain religious sects, the term designates a grade in the hierarchy of the sect. II
16a
cawgan (P) : the stick used in polo. The term is also used in a wider sense for the game
itself, which originated in Persia and was generally played on horseback, though some-
times on foot; ~ was also used for any stick with the end bent back, particularly those
for beating drums. II 16b
cawk : in Muslim India, a market usually located at places where four roads met. IX
800b
cay (P) : tea, introduced to sultan Mawlay Isma'il in Morocco in ca. 1700; ~ is vari-
ously termed atay, tdy, shay and shahl, in different parts of the Islamic world. II 17b
♦ cay-khana (P) : lit. tea-house, ~ covers a range of establishments in Iran serving
tea and light refreshments. The term kahwa-khana 'coffee-house' is used synony-
mously, although coffee is never served. XII 169a
cebken ->■ Cepken
cedik (T) : an indoor shoe with a low leg, worn in the Ottoman period. It was most
often made in yellow Moroccan leather, with a supple sole. V 752b
cektiri -*■ bashtarda
celebi (T) : a term of unknown origin applied to men of the upper classes in Turkey
between the end of the 13th and the beginning of the 18th century, as a title primar-
ily given to poets and men of letters, but also to princes and heads of a sufi order; ~
is the most general title of the head of the Mawlawi order of dervishes. II 19a; VI
883a; its Syrian and Egyptian variant, shalabi or djalabl, has the meaning of 'barbar-
ian'. II 19a
celtukdji (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a rice grower with a special status as labourer of
the sultan on the state's rice fields. They are also listed in the surveys as kiirekdfi or
ortakaji. The condition of a ~ was quite onerous, since apart from the hardships borne
by him in irrigating and cultivating the rice, he had to surrender half of his production
to the state treasury. V 880a
cepken (T), or cebken, sallama : a short caftan with sleeves, buckled and bordered, worn
as an outer garment in the Ottoman period. V 752a; XI 494a
CESHME — CILLA 197
ceshme (T, < P) : one of two kinds of water fountains (->■ sabIl) in Istanbul. The - is
self-service, the water being received from a tap above a basin, while the other, called
sebil, is served by an attendant behind a grill. The ~s of Istanbul are mural fountains
which consist of a recessed niche framed by a rectangle with a protruding basin, made
of carved white marble. II 26a; VIII 682a
cewgan (T) : a crescent-shaped, jingling rattle with bells, one of two types of brass per-
cussion supporting the drum of the musical ensemble mehter. VI 1008a
ceyrek (T, < P caharyak) : a quarter of an hour; a coin, also known as beshlik, or five
piastre piece. The silver ~ had a fineness of 830, weighed 6.13 grams and measured
24 mm in diameter. II 28b
chadjdja : an architectural feature found in Indian mosques, namely, the eaves pent to
throw off monsoon water and increase shade. VI 690b
chatri (H, < San, dim. of chattra) : lit. umbrella; an Indo-Muslim architectural form of
the Chattra, sc. small, canopied structures placed at the junctions of the chemin de
ronde of a fortification, or as decorative elements at roof level on mosque, tomb or
other building, or as simple cover of an inhumation less imposing than a tomb proper.
The characteristic form is that of a domed canopy supported on four strong pillars, with
heavy protecting eaves. Ill 442b ff.; VII 195a
chattra ->■ chatrI
cheng (Ch) : a Chinese musical instrument which was probably not used by Islamic peo-
ples, although known to them. The ~ was made of tubes of reed joined together. It was
blown through a tube and the notes were obtained by fingerholes. VII 208b
chiao-chu -► tao-chang
chundawand (H) : a custom among Indian Muslims by which the group, being the sons
of each wife, is entitled to its allotted portion of the inheritance until the extinction of
its last member. I 172a
cift-resmi (T) : the basic land tax in the Ottoman empire paid in principle by every
Muslim peasant possessing one cift (->■ Ciftlik). Depending upon the fertility of the
soil, it was originally levied in the lands conquered from the Byzantines in Western
Anatolia and Thrace, on both Muslim and Christian peasants alike, although in other
parts of the empire, the Christians were subjected to a different tax. The Kanunname
of Mehemmed II specifies that the rate of the tax was 22 akCes, the equivalent of
seven services for the TlMAR-holder. II 32a; VII 507b; VIII 486b
cifte nakkare ->■ nakkara
ciftlik (T, < P djuft 'pair' + Turkish suffix life), or cift : farm.
In Ottoman times it designated, at first, a certain unit of agricultural land in the land-
holding system, and then, later on, a large estate. Originally, it was thought of as the
amount of land that could be ploughed by a pair of oxen; it applied to a holding of
agricultural land comprising 60 or 80 to 150 donums, the size depending upon the fer-
tility of the soil. In the Slav areas of the Ottoman empire, the term bashtina was often
substituted for ~. II 32b
cihra (U) : descriptive rolls for the soldiers of the Indian army, introduced by Akbar to
check evasions of military obligations. XII 176b
In Urdu poetry, ~ denotes the introductory verses of the elegy, marthiya, setting the
tone with no restrictions as to details. VI 611b
cile -» DEDE
cilim -> NARDJlLA
cilia (P, A al-arba'iniyya) : a quadragesimal fast. 1 1 122a; forty days of spiritual confinement
in a lonely corner or cell for prayer and contemplation; one of the five main Ci&hti sufi
practices adopted in order to harness all feelings and emotions in establishing commu-
nion with God. II 55b; IV 991a
198 CILLA — CUPUK
♦ cilla-i ma'kus (P) : the inverted Cilla, performed by tying a rope to one's feet
and having one's body lowered into a well, and by offering prayers in this posture for
forty days. II 55b
cimshirlik -> kafes
ciragh (T, pi. ciraghan) : a means of illumination, such as candle, torch or lamp.
Cirdghdn festivities, in which tulip gardens were illuminated with lamps and candles,
were held at a palace on the European side of the Bosphorus of the same name. II 49a
cit (P, T, H chini) : chintz, a popular British imitation of Indian muslin that enjoyed
demand in the Ottoman empire after 1780. V 564a
citak (Serb 'coarse', pi. citaci) : in some parts of southern Serbia and Bulgaria, desig-
nation of Bulgarian Muslims, said sometimes to be only given to Serbs converted to
Islam; ~ seems to be, however, limited to Turks in the two countries. VIII 320a; in for-
mer Yugoslavia, the designation of Muslims speaking Serbo-Croat, Macedonian or
Albanian, who are largely of South Slavonic stock converted to Islam under the
Ottomans from the 9th/15th century onwards. An alternative, gadjal, was used less
often by also pejoratively. X 697b ff.
citr -> Catr
cizme (T) : the most widespread shoes in Turkey during the Ottoman period, with a high
leg reaching up as far as the knee and a supple sole. V 752b
cogiir -> Cugur
corbadji (T) : lit. soup-provider; the commander of eight units of infantry or cavalry,
boluk, in the Galipoli odjak. I 1256a; the title applied among the Janissaries to com-
manders of the ortas and the agha boliikleri. The title of ~ was also given to the vil-
lage notables who entertained travellers. Later, until a half-century ago, it became an
appellation of merchants and rich Christians. II 61b; VIII 178b
♦ corbadji kecesi (T) : the crested headdress generally worn on ceremonial occa-
sions by the Corbadji, also called kalafat. Its crest was made either of cranes' feath-
ers or of herons' feathers. II 61b
♦ corbadji yamaghi (T) : the aide to the Corbadji. II 61b
cot (P) : the pair of oxen used for labour; the work carried out by the peasant in one
day. V 473a
cub (P) : wood; and -> tutun
♦ cub-i cini (P) : the china root, considered a universal cure, and which the Safawid
physician 'Imad al-Din stated cured infertility, opium addiction, baldness, rheumatism
and haemorrhoids. VIII 783b; X 457b
cugur (T) : a musical instrument of the pandore type, with five strings and a wooden
belly. It was invented by Ya'kub Germiyani of Kutahiya, and was used by the
Janissaries. X 626a; as gogiir, a variant of the saz 'lute', originally from eastern
Turkey and Adharbaydjan, characterised by a shorter neck and with a total length of
about 100 cm. IX 120a
cukadar (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a valet-de-chambre at the palace. IX 706b
cul : loess dune. IX 431a
cumak (T) : the club or mace. X 595a
cupan (P) : 'herdsman, shepherd', a term adopted by Turkish peoples in close contact
with the Iranian language-area. II 69a, where also can be found many words, chiefly
plant names, in which coban forms a compound
♦ cupanbegl (P) : a tax on flocks and herds, levied in 9th/15th-century Persia. It was
possibly synonomous with kubCur. IV 1042a
CUptik -► TUTUN
DABB — DADJADJA
dabb (A) : in zoology, the thorn-tail lizard {Uromastix spinipes). II 70a
dabba (A, pi. dawdbb) : in zoology, any living creature which keeps its body horizon-
tal as it moves, generally a quadruped, in particular, a beast of burden or pack animal:
horse, donkey, mule, or camel. II 71a
dabbaba (A) : penthouse, a siege instrument, mainly a Frankish weapon. Ill 473a ff.; tes-
tudine. Ill 472a
dabbagh (A) : the profession of a tanner. XII 172a
dabbus : in music, a wooden sceptre, to the head of which is attached a number of
chains with jingling pieces of metal fixed loosely in the links, used by the dervish. IX
11a
In Mamluk terminology, fann al-dabbus is the mace game, one of the branches of
horse-riding. II 955a
dabdab, dabdaba -»■ tabl al-markab
dabib (A) : 'crawling', in literature, a theme originating in pre-Islamic poetry where it
was possible to crawl under the tent in order to approach a woman but became purely
conventional with later urban poets. V 778b
dabiki : a type of material, manufactured more or less everywhere but stemming origi-
nally from a locality in the outer suburbs of Damietta called Dabik. II 72b; cloth made
essentially from linen and often stitched with gold or silk. X 532a
dabir (P) : scribe, secretary, used as the equivalent in the Persian cultural world, includ-
ing the Indo-Muslim one during the sultanate period, of the Arabic katib. The head of
the Correspondence ministry in the Dihli sultanate was called dabir-i khdss. IV 758b;
XII 173a; and -»■ c umdat al-mulk
♦ dabir-i sara (IndP) : in the Dihli sultanate, the registrar of the palace. IV 759a
dabit (A, T zabit) : an Ottoman term for certain functionaries and officers; later, officers
in the armed forces. Originally, ~ designated a person in charge or in control of a mat-
ter or of (? the revenues of) a place. By the llth/17th century, it was already acquir-
ing the technical meaning of army officer, and in the 12th/18th century, it was in
common use in this sense. II 74a
In Persia, in the smaller ports, a tribal chief or goverment official who managed the
port's customs. XII 717a
For ~ in the science of Tradition, -* sahih
dabr -»■ nahl
dabt (A) : the assessment of taxable land by measurement, applied under the later Dihli
Sultanate and the Mughals. II 74b; II 155b
♦ dabtiyya (A, T zabtiyye) : a late Ottoman term for the police and gendarmerie.
II 74b
dabu' (A, < Sem; P kaftdr, T sirtlan, B ifis), and dab' : in zoology, the hyena. From this
generic term, other terms have been derived to differentiate the male, dib'dn (alongside
dhlkh), and female, dib'dna. The cub is called fur'ul. XII 173b, where can be found
other synonyms
dabur (A) : in meteorology, the west wind. VIII 526b
dad (A) : the fifteenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed d, with the numerical
value 800. Its definition presents difficulties but the most probable is: voiced lateralized
velarized interdental fricative (in Arabic: rikhwa madjhura mutbaka). II 75a
dadjadja (A) : in zoology, the domestic fowl. II 76a
In astronomy, the constellation of the Swan, also called al-Td'ir. II 76a
200 DADJADJA DAFTAR
♦ dadjadjat al-bahr (A), dadjadjat al-kubba : (in local pronunciation, didjddja),
certain kinds of fish. II 76a
♦ dadjadjat al-ma' -»■ shunkub
dadjdjal (A, < Syr) : lit. deceiver; the personage endowed with miraculous powers who
will arrive before the end of time and, for a limited period of either 40 days or 40
years, will let impurity and tyranny rule the world. His appearance is one of the proofs
of the end of time. II 76a; IV 408b
dadjin (A) : among the pre-Islamic Arabs, a sheep kept near the house and especially
fattened for the table. II 1057b
♦ dadjina -» kayna
dadjr (A), or dudjr, dudjur : in mediaeval agriculture, the wooden cross-beam of the
ancient tiller to which the ploughshare was fixed by means of a strap of iron; some-
times the dual (dadjrdn) can be found, because it was in two parts with one joined to
the other by another strap and/or a cord. VII 22a
daf (A) : in law, the reply, and, by extension, every reply made by a party in contra-
diction of a plea raised by his opponent. II 171b
dafa'ir (A, s. dafira), or ghadd'ir : locks of hair. IX 312a
dafn al-dhunub (A) : burial of offences; a nomadic practice which consists of a make-
believe burial of the offences or crimes of which an Arab is accused. II 248a; IV 407a
daf tar (A, < Gk; T defter) : a stitched or bound booklet, or register, more especially an
account or letter-book used in administrative offices. According to the administrative
tradition, Khalid b. Barmak introduced the register into the central administration dur-
ing the reign of al-Saffah; until that time, records were kept on papyrus, suhuf. I 1090a;
II 77b
♦ daftar-i awaridja : a cash-book, showing the balance of moneys in hand, one of
the seven main registers on which the Ilkhanid system of book-keeping was based. II
81a
♦ daftar-i derdest : one of the auxiliary registers used in the Ottoman period along-
side the daftar-i khakani to note changes, the ~ was a list of the villages or towns
constituting the nucleus of the military fiefs and showing the successive changes which
each fief had undergone. II 82b
♦ daftar-i idjmal : one of the auxiliary registers used in the Ottoman period along-
side the daftar-i khakanI to note changes, the ~ was a summary based on the
detailed register, omitting the names of the inhabitants and giving the revenues only as
lump sums for each unit. II 82a; X 113a
♦ daftar-i khakani : the collection of registers in which were entered, during the
Ottoman period, the results of the surveys made every 30 or 40 years until the begin-
ning of the llth/17th century, containing primarily lists of the adult males in the vil-
lages and towns, their legal status, their obligations and privileges, and the extent of
the lands which they possessed, information on the way in which the land was used,
and fiscal information with regard to revenues of the country. The ~ cannot be called
a land-register; the land-register, in the modern sense of the term, was established in
Turkey only from the second half of the 19th century. II 81b
♦ daftar-i mufradat : a budget register showing the income and expenditure by
cities, districts and provinces under the Ilkhanids, one of the seven main registers on
which their system of book-keeping was based. II 81a
♦ daftar-i ruznamce : one of the auxiliary registers used in the Ottoman period
alongside the daftar-i khakani to note changes, the ~ was a 'day-book', into which
the deeds of grants issued to new fief-holders were copied as they occurred. II 82b
♦ daftar-i tahwilat : an off-shoot of the daftar-i tawdjihat, a register dealing with
disbursements for stocks and running expenses in state establishments and enterprises
DAFTAR — DA'IF 201
under the Ilkhanids, one of the seven main registers on which their system of book-
keeping was based. II 81a
♦ daftar-i ta'lik -»■ ruznamadj
♦ daftar-i tawdjihat : a register of disbursements under the Ilkhanids, one of the
seven main registers on which their system of book-keeping was based. II 81a
♦ daftardar (P, T defterdar) : keeper of the daftar; an Ottoman term for the chief
finance officer, corresponding to the mustawfi in the eastern Islamic world. The title
~ seems to originate with the Ilkhanids who appointed persons to make and keep the
registers. The office of ~ was renamed maliyye (Ministry of Finance) in 1253/1838,
although the term remained in use for provincial directors of finances. II 83a
♦ daftarkhane (T) : under the Ottomans, the archives of the register-office to which
the old registers were consigned each time a new survey was made. II 82b
♦ defter-i mufassal -»■ tahrir
dagh u tashiha (IndP) : a term used in Muslim India for the branding of horses and
compilation of muster rolls for soldiers, introduced by Akbar in order to check all eva-
sions of military obligations. V 685b; XII 176b
daghta (A) : pressure; in the religious sense, the pressure applied in the tomb by the
questioning asked of one's religion. I 187a
daha' (A) : the period corresponding to the sun's progress over the second quarter of the
diurnal arc. It comes to an end at midday. V 709b
dahan band (P) : a face veil consisting of a small, white mask covering only the mouth
and chin. It was worn in the Timurid period. V 749a
dahi : a title in Serbia under the Ottomans, derived from day!. IX 671b
dahik (A) : risibile. V 1261b
In anatomy, the pre-molar. VI 130a
dahiya (A, pi. duhdt) : statesman. XI 521b
dahiyya (A) : the name for the animal sacrificed on the occasion of the feast of the 10th
day of Dhu '1-Hidjdja. II 213a; in the Negev and other parts of former Palestine, ~ is
used synonymously with fidya to designate a blood sacrifice made in the interests of
the living for purposes of atonement. II 884a
dahnadj (A, P dahna, dahana, T dehne-i frengi) : in mineralogy, malachite, green
copper-ore. II 92a
dahol : a Kurdish bass drum which is beaten on both sides. V 478a
dahr (A) : time in an absolute sense. I 2a; infinitely extended time. II 94b
♦ dahriyya : holders of materialistic opinions of various kinds, often vaguely denned;
philosophers of Greek inspiration. They were called the azaliyya by the Ikhwan al-
Safa'. I 128a; II 95a; II 770b
dahul (A) : oviparous, like the female ostrich, who scratches and flattens in the sand a
shallow hole (udhi) in which to lay her eggs. VII 829a
dahya -»■ kishsha
da'i (A) : 'he who summons' to the true faith, a title used among several dissenting
Muslim groups for their chief propagandists; it became especially important in the
Isma'IlI and associated movements, where it designated generically the chief authorised
representatives of the imam. The title ~ came to mean something different in each of
the sects which issued from the classical Fatimid Isma'ilism. II 97b
da'if (A, pi. du'afd') : weak (syn. wad?); unable to bear arms, as opposed to sharif. IX
330a
In the science of Tradition, the term for a weak Tradition, along with sakim, infirm. Ill
25a; Traditions without any claim to reliability. VIII 983b
In modern South Arabia, the plural form du'afd' denotes non-arms bearers, a group
comprising builders, potters and field workers. VII 145a; and -»■ miskin
202 DA'IR — DALK
da'ir (A) : in astronomy, the time since rising, fadl al-~ being the 'hour-angle'. XI 505b;
and -> da'irat al-zill
♦ da'ira (A) : in music, with duff, a generic name for tambourine, but reserved for
a round type; a round tambourine with small bells attached to the inside of the shell
or body, sometimes attached to a metal or wooden rod fixed across the inside of the
head. This instrument is popular in Persia and Central Asia. II 621a; and ->■ dawa'ir;
zmala
♦ da'irat al-ma'arif (A) : an expression with the double meaning 'Department of
Education' and 'encyclopaedia'. As of the 1960s Arab countries of the former Ottoman
empire had replaced ma'arif with tarbiya for 'education'. V 903a
♦ da'ira saniyya (T) : the term used in the Ottoman empire during the last quarter
of the 19th century for the administration of crown lands. XII 179a
♦ da'irat al-zill (A) : in astronomy, the cross-section of the shadow of the earth dur-
ing an eclipse of the sun or moon. V 536a
dakhil (A) : in the Ottoman empire, one of two categories of viziers, the ~ sitting in the
imperial dIwan in Istanbul and the khdridj who sat in the provinces. XI 197a; and -»■
MUHALLIL
dakhil (A) : interior, inward, intimate; hence 'guest, to whom protection should be
assured' and, 'stranger, passing traveller, person of another race'. II 100a; XII 78b
In philology, ~ denotes a foreign word borrowed by the Arabic language. II 100a; VII
261b
In metrics, ~ is a term denoting the consonant preceding the rhyming consonant, the ~
itself being preceded by an alif. II 100a; IV 412a
dakik (A) : in culinary matters, meal. X 788b
dakka -»■ dikka
dakkak (A) : a miller. XII 758a
dakkur (A, pi. dakakira), or dakkur (pi. dakdklr) : fetish. XI 177a
dal (A) : the eighth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed d, with the numerical value
4. It is defined as voiced dental occlusive. II 101a
For ~ in Persian zoology, -»■ nasr
dalang (Mai, Ind) : puppetmasters. IX 245a
dalal (A) : in rhetoric, the plural daldldt can mean semantics of individual words and
sentences. V 901a; and -»■ tasharruf
dalay (Mon), or dala : a term applied in Ilkhanid Persia originally to the subjects of the
Great Khan came to be applied to land which belonged immediately to the ruler. The
term rapidly went out of use. IV 975b
dalil (A, pi. dala'il) : sign or indication; proof. II 101b; the demonstration of that which
is not immediately and necessarily known. Ill 544a
In Medina, the ~ (pi. adilld') is a guide who is responsible for the physical needs of
the pilgrim, such as food, lodging and local transport. V 1004a
daliya (A) : a kind of draw-well still in use in Egypt and other eastern countries for rais-
ing water for irrigation. It usually consists of two posts about five feet in height. These
posts are coated with mud and clay and then placed less than three feet apart. They
are joined at the top by a horizontal piece of wood, in the centre of which a lever is
balanced. The shorter arm of the lever is weighted, while at the end of the longer arm
hangs a rope carrying a leather pail. The peasant stands on a platform on the river bank
and pulls down the balanced pole until the pail dips into the water and is filled. A
slight upward push, which is helped by the counterweight, raises the bucket above the
irrigation canal, into which it is emptied. V 863b
dalk (A) : a ritual ceremony of appeasing the djinn in Iraq, carried out by pouring
water mixed with sugar and salt. XII 777a
dalla ->■ BAKRADJ
dallal (A), or simsar : lit. guide; in law, ~ indicates a broker, an agent, 'the man who
shows the purchaser where to find the goods he requires, and the seller how to exact
his price'. Women are also found taking the part of agents. Known as dalldla, they act
as intermediaries for harems of a superior sort. II 102b
In the Muslim West, the ~ is exclusively an intermediary who, in return for remuner-
ation, sells by public auction objects entrusted to him by third parties. In the large
towns, they are grouped in specialised guilds. II 102b
dallala -> dallal
dallina ->■ dillIna
dalw (A) : a 'water bucket', in ancient Arabia, said to be made mostly from the hides
of two young camels, in which case the bucket may be called ibn adimayn. I 1230a;
I 1231b
In astronomy, al-~ is the term for Aquarius, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations.
VII 84a
dam (A, pi. dimff) : blood; blood-guilt. XII 188b
In botany, ~ al-akhawayn 'the blood of the two brothers' is used for dragon's-blood.
IX 808b
♦ damawiyya ->■ 'amar al-dam
dam ->■ paysa; walI 'l-dam
damad (P) : son-in-law, title used by sons-in-law of the Ottoman sultans. II 103a
damama : a kettle-drum, probably of a smaller size than the kurga. X 34a
daman (A) : in law, ~ is the civil liability in the widest meaning of the term, whether
it arises from the non-performance of a contract or from tort or negligence. In the sense
of suretyship, guarantee, ~ is a liability specially created by contract. In a wider sense,
it is used of the risk or responsibility that one bears with regard to property of which
one enjoys the profit. II 105a; and -> kabd daman
In a financial sense, ~ stands for 'farming' (of taxes). The tax-farmer, damin, pays
annually to the State a contracted sum, less than the calculated revenue from the tax,
and afterwards undertakes its recovery on his own account. The State is assured of a
precise and immediate return from the pockets of rich individuals but loses a portion
of the money paid by the tax-payer and the control of operations. I 1 144b; II 105b; III
323b; and ->■ kabala
♦ daman al-adjir (A), or daman al-sunnd' : in law, the liability for the loss or dam-
age caused by artisans. II 105a
♦ daman al-darak (A) : in law, the liability for eviction. II 105a; the guarantee
against a fault in ownership. XII 198a
♦ daman al-ghasb (A) : in law, the liability for the loss of an object taken by
usurpation. II 105a
♦ daman al-mabi' (A) : in law, the liability for the loss of an object sold before the
buyer has taken possession. II 105a
♦ daman al-rahn (A) : in law, the liability for the loss of a pledge in the possession
of the pledgee. II 105 a
♦ daman al-sunna' ->■ daman al-adjir
damani (A) : a variety of apple (from Daman in Mesopotamia), said to be proverbial
because of its redness, one of a number of varieties praised by the geographers, most
named, as the ~ apple, after their provenance, e.g. al-isfahdni, al-kufanl, etc. X 587b;
and ->■ ghalk
damin ->■ daman
damir (A) : a woman's jacket with short sleeves, worn in Syria and Palestine. V 740b
204 DAMIR — DAR
damlr (A) : in grammar, as ~ muttasil 'bound pronoun' and its opposite, ~ munfasil 'sep-
arate, independent pronoun'. XI 173a; and ->■ mudmar
damma (A) : in grammar, ~ denotes the short vowel u. Ill 172a
dammusa (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, the slippery sand-swimming skink. I 541b
damus, damus : a brick vault. I 207b; crypt. XI 488b
da'n (A) : in zoology, sheep. XI 411b
dana-farang (H, < P) : malachite. VIII 269a
dananir ->■ dinar
dandi : a (West-African) locally-woven cloth. XI 8a
dandi (H) : a simple kind of litter used in India for transporting people. It was essen-
tially a hammock slung from a pole. VII 932a
danishkada ->■ kulliyya
dann (A, pi. dinari) : an amphora with tapered base, in which the fermentation of grapes
takes place. IV 997b
♦ danniyya ->■ kalansuwa
dar (A) : (dwelling place), house. The two words most commonly used to designate a
dwelling place, bayt and ~, have etymologically quite different meanings. Bayt is,
properly speaking, the covered shelter where one may spend the night; ~ (from ddra
'to surround') is a space surrounded by walls, buildings, or nomadic tents, placed more
or less in a circle. II 113b; palace, large dwelling complex. IV 1016b; VIII 344a
In the 5th/llth and 6th/12th centuries in Baghdad and Damascus, ~ was the name
borne by the large depots with the name of the commodity for which the establishment
was noted. IV 1015a
♦ dar al-'ahd (A) : 'the land of the covenant'; considered by some Muslim jurists
as a temporary and often intermediate territory between the dar al-islam and the dar
al-harb. II 116a
♦ dar al-damana (A) : among the Wazzaniyya, a Moroccan sufi order, the 'house
of warranty', which the founder's eldest son Sidi Muhammad made the order's
zawiya, meaning that the baraka of the shurafd' (->■ sharif) was sufficient to save
any sinner from the Last Judgement. XI 201b
♦ dar al-darb (A) : the mint, the primary function of which was to supply coins
for the needs of government and of the general public. At times of monetary reforms,
the ~ also served as a place where obliterated coins could be exchanged for the new
issues. The large quantities of precious metals which were stored in the ~ helped to
make it serve as an ancillary treasury. I 24a; II 1 17b; and -»• darbkhane-i 'amire
♦ dar al-hadith (A) : a term first applied to institutions reserved for the teaching
of hadith in the 6th/12th century. Until these special institutions were set up, the
teaching of hadith, as of other branches of religious learning, was carried out in the
mosques. II 125b; V 1129a; XII 195a
♦ dar al-harb (A) : the territories under perpetual threat of a missionary war,
djihad. The classical practice of regarding the territories immediately adjoining the
lands of Islam as the ~ and inviting their princes to adopt Islam under the pain of inva-
sion, is reputed to date back to the Prophet. Classically, the ~ includes those countries
where the Muslim law is not in force, in the matter of worship and the protection of
the faithful and the dhimmis. I 26a; II 126a; II 131b
♦ dar al-hikma (A) : 'the house of wisdom', a term used by Arab authors to denote
in a general sense the academies which, before Islamic times, spread knowledge of the
Greek sciences, and in a particular sense the institute founded in Cairo in 395/1005 by
the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim. II 126b; II 859b; V 1125b
♦ dar al-'ilm (A) : 'the house of science', the name given to several libraries or
scientific institutes established in eastern Islam in the 3rd/9th and 4th/10th centuries.
DAR — DARAY, HINDI 205
The most important ~ was the one founded in Baghdad by the vizier Abu Nasr Sabur
b. Ardashir in the last quarter of the 4th/10th century, with more than 10,000 books on
all scientific subjects. It was burnt down when the Saldjuks reached Baghdad in
447/1055-56. II 127a
♦ dar al-islam (A) : 'the land of Islam', the whole territory in which the law of
Islam prevails. Its unity resides in the community, the unity of the law, and the guar-
antees assured to members of the umma. In the classical doctrine, everything outside ~
iS DAR AL-HARB. II 127b
♦ dar al-kharadj (A) : a brothel, in the Muslim West. XII 134a
♦ dar al-ma'arif (A) : schools founded by the Ottoman sultan c Abd al-Madjid I in
1849. I 75a
♦ dar al-mulk (A) : the private quarters of the caliph and his close associates in
Muslim Spain. IX 45a
♦ dar al-nadwa (A) : the name of a town hall in Mecca in the time of the Prophet.
II 128b
♦ dar al-salam (A) : 'the abode of peace', a name of Paradise in the Qur'an; also
a name for the city of Baghdad. II 128b
♦ dar al-sina'a (A), or dar al-san'a : an industrial establishment, workshop; the
term is always applied to a state workshop, e.g. under the Umayyads in Spain to estab-
lishments for gold and silver work intended for the sovereign, and for the manufacture
and stock-piling of arms. The most widely-used sense is that of an establishment for
the construction and equipment of warships, giving rise to the word 'arsenal' in the
Mediterranean languages. II 129b; XII 120a
♦ dar sini -* darsInI
♦ dar al-sulh (A) : 'the house of truce', territories not conquered by Muslim troops
but by buying peace by the giving of tribute, the payment of which guarantees a truce
or armistice. The Prophet himself concluded such a treaty with the Christian popula-
tion of Nadjran. II 131a
♦ dar al-'ulum (A) : 'the house of sciences', an establishment for higher instruc-
tion founded in 1872 by c Ali Pasha Mubarak, whose aim was to introduce students of
al-Azhar to modern branches of learning; the religious institutions at Deoband and Lucknow.
I 817b; II 131b
♦ dar al-wakala (A) : 'the house of procuration or agency', term for the urban car-
avanserai before this became a synonym for funduk, which itself at the end of the
7th/13th century began to be replaced by khan as a designation for suburban hostel-
ries. IV 1015a
darabukka : in music, a vase-shaped drum, the wider aperture being covered by a mem-
brane, with the lower aperture open. In performance it is carried under the arm hori-
zontally and played with the fingers. II 135b; the ~ has come to have a variety of
names east of Morocco, e.g. the dirridj, darbuka, dirbakka, darabukka and even tabla.
In Persia ~ is known as the dunbak or tanbak. X 33a
daradj (A) : in zoology, the courser, nearly ubiquitous in the Arabian desert. I 541b
dara'ib, or 'awd'id : the customary law of the Bedouin of the Western Desert and
Cyrenaica. X 889b
darak -* daman al-darak
daraka (A, > adarga) : in military science, a shield, probably made from hide stretched
over a wooden frame (syn. turs, djunna, midjann). V 651b; XII 736a
darara bashu : in Ethiopia, at the tomb of Shaykh Nur Husayn, a black stone that the
shaykh is believed to have brought back with him from Mecca, which is kissed and
touched as part of the ceremony of ziyara. XI 539b
daray, hindi : in music, the Indian bell. X 35a
206 DARB — DARUGHA
darb -»• shari'
darb (A) : in prosody, the last foot of the second hemistich, as opposed to the last foot
of the first hemistich, the 'arud. I 672b; IV 714b; VIII 747; and -> isba'
In mathematics, ~ is the term used for multiplication. Ill 1139b
In the art of the book, a cancellation. X 408b
For ~ as lithomancy, ->■ tark
♦ darb khane, darrabkhane -» darbkhane-i 'amire
♦ darb al-raml -»• raml
♦ darb al-sad'a (A) : shell-divination. VIII 138b
♦ darb al-silah (A) : 'body piercing', one of the deeds transcending the natural
order, khawdrik al- c dddt, practiced by the Sa'diyya order. VIII 728b
♦ darbkhane-i 'amire (T), or darrabkhane, nukrakhdne, ddr al-darb : the Ottoman
mint. II 118a
darbazin (A) : a balustrade. VI 662a
dardar (< sardar) : 'sultan' in Tagorri, an 'Afar dialect in Tadjura. The ~ is assisted
by a banoyta 'vizier', which two functions alternate within two clans, the Burhanto and
Diinite. X 72b
dargah (P) : lit. place of a door; royal court, palace in Persia; in Muslim India, ~ is
used to designate a tomb or shrine of a plr (-»• murshid). II 141b; IV 26a; VI 125b;
VIII 954a
dari (P) : the court language, and language of government and literature, in pre-Islamic
Persia. II 142a; IV 55a; XII 429b
In India, ~ is used to designate the normal floor-mat, a flat-woven pile-less rug of thick
cotton. VIII 742a
dari (A) : in the mediaeval eastern Muslim world, the perfume merchant. IX 100b
dariba : in Muslim India, a short lane or street, usually one where betel leaves were sold.
IX 800b
dariba (A) : a tax, applied in particular to the whole category of taxes which in prac-
tice were added to the basic taxes, zakat, qjizya and kharadj. Apart from d/izya,
these taxes form the basis of the official fiscal system of Islam and are essentially con-
cerned with agriculture and stock-breeding. II 142b; XII 199b; an urban tax on build-
ings. V 1199a
daridja (A) : the colloquial Arabic language (syn. al-lugha al-'dmmiyya). I 561b
darih -»• kabr
darim -»• hayiham
darrab (A) : a minter, one of the craftsmen employed as staff in the mint who carried
out the actual coining operation. II 1 1 8a
In Muslim Spain, ~ was the term used for night-watchman. I 687b
♦ darrabkhane -»• darbkhane-i 'amire
dars (A, pi. durus) : lesson, lecture; in mediaeval usage, ~ meant 'a lesson or lecture on
law'. V 1124b; a class, consisting of lecture and dictation. X 80b
darshan (San) : the (Hindu) ceremonial appearance of a king to his subjects, adopted
by the Mughal emperor Akbar and his immediate successors. It was abandoned by
Awrangib in 1078/1668. II 162a
darsini (A, < P ddr cini) : Chinese cinnamon, Cinnamomum cassia, although it cannot
be established with certainty with what original plant ~ is to be associated. In pharma-
cognosy texts Cinn. cassia is also rendered by salikha, which allegedly is not identi-
cal with ~ . XII 197a
darugha (P, < Mon) : originally a chief in the Mongol feudal hierarchy, ~ is first met
in Persia in the Ilkhanid period. In his main capacities he belonged to the military hier-
archy. In Safawid Persia, his functions were sometimes those of a governor of town,
DARUGHA — DASTAN 207
but more commonly those of a police officer, his duties to prevent misdeeds, tyranny,
brawls, and actions contrary to the shari'a. In the 12th/18th and 13th/19th centuries, his
function at times superseded even that of the muhtasib (-»■ hisba). At the beginning of
the Constitutional period, most of his duties were taken over by the municipalities and
the police force. In some cases, the ~ was appointed to collect taxes or to control cer-
tain ethnic minorities; ~ was also used to denote a kind of head clerk controlling the
staff of the larger government departments in Safawid Persia. II 162a
In Muslim India, ~ denoted an official in the royal stables; the British used it to des-
ignate the native head of various departments and, later, the local chief of police. II
162b
darura (A), and idtirar : necessity; in law, ~ has a narrow meaning: what may be called
the technical state of necessity (resulting from certain factual circumstances which may
oblige an individual to do some action forbidden by the law), and a wider sense: to
describe the necessities or demands of social and economic life, which the jurists had
to take into account in their elaboration of the law which was otherwise independent
of these factors. The legal schools agree that prohibitions of a religious character may
be disregarded in cases of necessity and danger, while most of the offences committed
under the rule of necessity are excused without any form of punishment. However,
murder, the amputation of a limb, and serious wounding likely to cause death, irrespec-
tive of the circumstances, are never excused. The term in its wider sense signifies prac-
tical necessity, the exigencies of social and economic life. It takes into consideration
the existence of rules and whole institutions in Muslim law which reasoning by strict
analogy would have condemned. II 163b
darwa (A) : a typical style of hairdressing used by an Arabic-speaking tribe of Bedja
origin in Upper Egypt with branches in the northern Sudan. I lb
darwaza (P) : in architecture, a gatehouse. X 59a
darwish (P) : a mendicant, dervish; a member of a religious fraternity. II 164a
darya-begi (T), or deryd-beyi : 'sea-lord', a title given in the Ottoman empire to certain
officers of the fleet, who usually held their appointments for life and transmitted them
to their sons. II 165b
dasatin (A) : in music, the frets of an 'ud. X 769b
dashisha -> simat
♦ dashisha kubra (A) : the endowments made for the Holy Cities by the Mamluk
sultans Djakmak and Ka'itbay; under the Ottomans, Murad III made a new endowment
called the dashisha sughrd. XI 66b
dasht : steppe, e.g. dasht-i Kipcak, the Kipcak Steppe, the great plains of Southern
Russia and western Kazakhstan. IX 61a; XII 203b
dasim (A) : the quality of foods being oily and greasy, similarly samin 'rich in fats'. II
1071b
dasini -> yazidI
dasitan (Ott) : in literature, the brief verse section in praise of the dynasty appended to
the longer didactic poem Iskender-ndme by the poet Ahmedi. X 291a
dastaban (P, N.Afr kuffdz) : the glove used by a falconer during the hunt. I 1152b
dastak -+ mikwam
dastan (U, P destdn) : in Urdu literature, a collection of short stories within a 'frame',
recited to general audiences as well as to royal courts and rich households. They are
the Urdu equivalents of Arab collections like Alf layla wa-layla and Sirat 'Antar and
can be considered precursors of modern Urdu fiction. Ill 119a; III 375b; V 201b
In Turkish literature, the Persian term destdn is used for the ancient popular epics in
syllabic verse, transmitted orally, as well as the first verse chronicles of epic type. Ill
1 14b; IX 844a; X 733b
208 DASTAN DAWAHl
♦ destandji (T) : one of two groups of Turkmen bards, a relater of epics; the other
group is made up of the tirmedji, who sings poems (tirme) on various themes.
dastar (P) : the turban cloth, also known as mayzar. X 611a
dastur (P, A dustur) : a Persian term which in the period of the classical caliphate
came to be used as a synonym of kanun in the sense of 'tax-list'. IV 558a; in the
Safawid period, ~ is defined as a Zoroastrian priest who knows the Avesta and the
Zand, the Middle Persian literature, and has the authority to command laymen
(behdlns) to do religious works. VII 215b
In classical Muslim administration, ~ is a copy of the djamd'a made from the draft. II
79a
In East Africa, ~ is the term used for custom and customary law, synonymous with
'Ada. I 170a
♦ dastur al-'amal (P) : a detailed assessment of revenue, prepared and sent annually
by the mustawfis of the central government in Persia to the provinces, on the basis
of which the provincial mustawfis allocated the tax demand among the provincial pop-
ulation. II 151a
daw' -> nur
da'wa (A) : call, invitation; propaganda. II 168a; pretension. IX 432a; and -> da' wet
In the Qur'an, ~ is the call to the dead to rise from the tomb on the day of Judgement.
II 168a
In the religious sense, ~ is the invitation addressed to men by God and the prophets,
to believe in the true religion, Islam. The concept that the religion of all the prophets
is Islam and that each prophet has his own ~, was developed by the Isma'ilis. II 168a
In its politico-religious sense, the ~ denotes the invitation to adopt the cause of some
individual or family claiming the right to the imamate over the Muslims, thus the
'Abbasid ~, which was, strictly speaking, propaganda for a member of the Prophet's
family, and Isma'ili ~, propaganda for the imam, who alone could give mankind good
guidance. II 168a
Among the Isma'ilis, ~ is one of nine periods of instruction which completed the ini-
tiation of Isma'ili neophytes. II 169b; IV 203b
♦ al-da'wa al-djadida (A), or da'wa djadlda : the branch of Isma'ilis, known as the
Nizaris, who refused to recognise Musta'li after the death of al-Mustansir in 487/1094.
They are now represented by the Khodjas. II 170b; III 254a
♦ al-da'wa al-kadima (A) : the branch of Isma'ilis, known as the Musta'lis or
Tayyibis, who followed Musta'li after the death of al-Mustansir in 487/1094. They are
now represented by the Bohoras in India. II 170b
♦ da'wat (IndP) : the communal administration of the Yemeni SulaymanI sect,
which split off from the Bohoras in the 10th/16th century. I 1255a
♦ da'wat-i sama' (IndP) : in the Shattari mystic ideology, the control of heavenly
bodies which influenced human destiny. IX 370a
da'wa (A) : action at law, case, lawsuit. II 170b
In hunting, a live calling bird. IV 745a
dawa' (A, pi. adwiya) : every substance which may affect the constitution of the human
body; every drug used as a remedy or a poison. I 212b; gunpowder. I 1056a
♦ adwiya mufrada (A) : simple drugs. I 212b; V 251b; and ->■ saydana
♦ adwiya murakkaba (A) : composite drugs. I 212b; V 251b; and -> saydana
dawadar (P) : the bearer and keeper of the royal inkwell, which post was created by
the Saldjuks. It was held by civilians. II 172b; secretary. VIII 432a; and ->• dawatdar
dawahi (A), or dawahi 'l-Rum : 'outer lands' (of the land of the Greeks), constituting a
kind of no-man's land in the Arab-Byzantine frontier regions. X 446b
DAWA'IR — DAWSHAN 209
dawa'ir (A, s. da'ira) : circles.
In the science of metrics, the ~ are the five metric circles used by al-Khalil for the
graphic presentation of the sixteen metres. They are arranged according to the number
of consonants in the mnemonic words of the metres which compose them. I 669b
In Algeria, a group of families attached to the service and person of a native chief.
Before the French conquest, ~ denoted especially four tribal groups encamped to the
south-west of Oran and attached to the service of the bey of that city. They were
organised as a militia. II 172b
dawar (A) : an encampment of the Arab Bedouin in which the tents are arranged in a
circle or an ellipse around the open space in the middle where the cattle pass the night.
In North Africa, this arrangement is called duwdr or dawwar. II 174b; XII 318b
In Algeria, douar has lost its original meaning, and is employed to designate an admin-
istrative area, either nomad or sedentary, placed under the authority of the same chief.
II 175a
According to Ibn al-Kalbi, ~ is the procession that the Arabs made around the ansab
'sacred stones', which served as replicas of the Black Stone of the Ka'ba. VIII 155b
dawat (A) : ink-holder, inkwell (syn. mihbara); ~ is also used for miklama 'the place
for keeping the pen', and for kalamdan 'penbox'. IV 471b; V 988b; XII 203b
♦ dawatdar (IndP) : the keeper of the sultan of Delhi's inkpot or inkhorn. IV 759a;
and -» DAWADAR
da'wet (T, < A da'wa) : in the science of Turkish diplomatic, the invocation composed
of the formula containing the name of governor (the Bey's name), ranging from the
simplest huwa to the longest titles. II 314b
dawiyya (A, O.Fr devot) : the Knights Templars, one of the Frankish military orders,
known to the Arabs from their experiences with the Crusaders. The Knights Hospital-
lers, known to the Arabs as Isbitdriyya, was another such order. XII 204b
dawla (A) : turn, reversal (especially in battle); victory; the reign of the MahdI. From
the middle of the 3rd/9th century, ~ attained the meaning of 'dynasty, state', still in
force today. Al-dawla is used as the second element in titles; its earliest usage was
noted at the end of the 3rd/9th century. II 177b; IV 293b; V 621b ff.
dawm (A) : in botany, the gingerbread tree, a palm which on occasion replaces the date
palm in the Gulf. I 540a; the edible fruit of the jujube, called ~ by the Bedouin of
Arabia and kunar by the townsmen. I 540b
dawr (A, pi. adwar) : lit. revolution, period; the periodic movement of the stars.
In shi'ism, ~ is for the extreme sects the period of manifestation or concealment of God
or the secret wisdom. XII 206b
In music, ~ denotes one of two cycles which make up an ika\ each of which is com-
posed of several basic notes and a pause. XII 408b
♦ dawr al-kashf (A) : 'period of manifestation', the period for the Isma'iliyya before
the dawr al-satr, during which the twelve angels of the zodiac kept the unadulter-
ated pure unity of God, tawhid. At the end of time, the ka'im will bring forth a new
~. XII 206b
♦ dawr al-satr (A) : 'period of concealment', the period for the Isma'iliyya from
Adam to the ka'im, the last speaking prophet. A synonym is al-dawr al-kabir. XII 206b
dawsa (A) : lit. trampling; a ceremony formerly performed in Cairo by the shaykh of
the Sa'di order, consisting of the shaykh riding over the members of the order on horse-
back. It was believed that by such physical contact, the baraka of the shaykh was
communicated to his followers. II 181b; VIII 525b; VIII 728b
dawshan (A) : in the context of Yemen, a sort of tribal herald, considered a menial job.
XI 277a
210 DAWUDU — DEDE
dawudu : a land-leasing system in Kurdish Iran, in which the landowner, in return for
supplying earth and seed, takes two-tenths of the harvest. V 473b
dawul -> TABL
dawwar -> dawar
day c a (A, pi. diya') : estate.
In its fiscal context, ~ denotes an estate subject to tithes. The holder of the ~ was not usu-
ally its cultivator, and the peasant rents went for the greater part to the holder of the
~ . II 187b
♦ diya' al-khassa (A), diya' al-sultdn and diya' al-khulafd' : the private estates of
the caliph in early Islamic times. IV 972b
daydaban (A, < P dldebdri) : a term applied at different times to certain categories of
sentinels, watchmen, inspectors, etc. II 189a
dayf (A) : guest; host, which meaning, however, occurred later. II 189a
dayi (T) : lit. maternal uncle; an honorific title used to designate official functions in the
Regencies of Algiers and Tunis. II 189a; title of the Janissary rulers of Algiers, Tunis
and Tripoli in North Africa. IX 671b
dayman (A) : lit. always; said after finishing a cup of coffee to thank the host, one of
several customs associated with coffee drinking, another being the saying of 'amir (lit.
fully inhabited) when finishing drinking coffee in a house of a bereaved person. XII
756a
dayn (A, pi. duyun) : debt; claim; in law, an obligation, arising out of a contract (loan,
sale, transaction or marriage) or out of a tort requiring reparation. I 29a; XII 207a
♦ dayn fi dhimma (A) : in law, an obligation which has as its object a personal
action. XII 207a
♦ dayn fi 'l-'ayn (A) : in law, an obligation which has as its object a non-fungible,
determinate thing. XII 207a
♦ duyun-i 'umumiyye (T) : the Ottoman public debt; more particularly the debt
administration set up in 1881. II 677a
dayr (A, < Syr) : a Christian monastery, which continued functioning after the Arab
conquest of the Middle East. They were often named after a patron saint or founder
but also occasionally after the nearest town or village or a feature of the locality. II
194b
For its meaning in Somalia, ->■ gu'
♦ (A) : in prosody, a poem describing evenings spent in a convent or monastery. IV
1005a
dayra -> zmala
daysam (A) : the first swarm that leaves with the young queen bee (syn. lath, rid', tard).
VII 907a
daywan (A) : in zoology, the Fettered cat (Felis ocreata), and also used for the Euro-
pean wild cat (Felis sylvestris lybica) and the Sand cat (Felis margarita). IX 651b,
where are listed synonyms
dayzan (A) : a man who marries his father's widow (the marriage is called nikah al-
makt), a practice which the Qur'an disapproves of. VI 476b
dede (T) : lit. grandfather, ancestor; a term of reverence given to the heads of darwish
communities. II 199b; a member of a religious order resident in one of the cells of the
dargah or zawiya, who has fulfilled his tile (period of trial) and been elevated to the
rank of dervish. VI 884a
In western Turkish heroic tales, ~ is used for the rhapsodes. II 199b
In Istanbul and Anatolia, ~ was also used as a term of respect for various wonder-
working holy men. II 200a
In the terminology of the Safawid order, ~ denoted one of the small group of officers
in constant attendance on the murshid. II 200a
DEFTER — DHABH 211
defter -> daftar
deglet nur -> ghars
deli (T) : 'mad, heedless, brave, fiery', a class of cavalry in the Ottoman empire, formed
in the Balkans at the end of the 9th/15th century or the beginning of the 10th/16th cen-
tury. Later, they were officially styled as delil (guides) but continued to be popularly
known by the their original name. Called ~ on account of their extraordinary courage
and recklessness, they were recruited partly from the Turks and partly from the Balkan
nations. They became brigands in the 12th/18th century and were disbanded in the 13th/19th
century by sultan Mahmud II. II 201a
demirbash (T) : lit. iron-head; the movable stock and equipment, belonging to an office,
shop, farm, etc. In Ottoman usage ~ was commonly applied to articles belonging to the
state and, more especially, to the furniture, equipment, and fittings in government
offices, forming part of their permanent establishment. II 203b; ~ also means stubborn
or persistent, and was applied by the Turks to King Charles XII of Sweden, possibly
in this sense or to indicate his long frequentation of Turkish government offices. II
203b
derbend (T) : a mountain pass, defile. XI 114b
derebey (T) : 'valley lord', the Turkish designation of certain rulers in Asia Minor who,
from the early 12th/18th century, made themselves virtually independent of the Otto-
man central government in Istanbul. Ottoman historians usually call them mutaghallibe
'usurpers', or khaneddn 'great families'. The best known ~ families are the Kara
'Othman-oghlu of Aydin, Manisa and Bergama in western Anatolia, the Capan-oghlu
of Bozok in central Anatolia, and the family of 'Ali Pasha of Djanik in eastern
Anatolia or Trebizond and its neighbourhood. II 206b
dergah -> tekke
derya-beyi ->• darya-begi
destan(dji) -> dastan
destimal (T) : lit. napkin; in relation to relics of Islam, the gauze with inscriptions
printed on it in which some objects holy to Islam are kept at the Istanbul University
Library. The ~ was specially made for the visits to the Holy Mantle organised by the
Sultan-Caliph on 15 Ramadan. V 761b
devedji (T, P shuturbdn) : 'cameleer', the name given to certain regiments of the corps
of Janissaries. II 210b
devekushu ->■ na'am
devshirme (T) : the term in the Ottoman period for the periodical levy of Christian chil-
dren for training to fill the ranks of the Janissaries and to occupy posts in the Palace
service and in the administration. The earliest reference to the term appears to be con-
tained in a sermon delivered by Isidore Glabas, metropolitan of Thessalonica, in 1395.
By the end of the 10th/16th century, the system began to show signs of corrupt prac-
tices by the recruiting officers. By the beginning of the llth/17th century, the ranks of
the Janissaries had become so swollen with Muslim-born 'intruders' that frequent
recruitments were no longer necessary. The system, however, continued at least till
1150/1738, but sporadically. I 36a; I 268b ff.; II 210b; II 1086a ff.
dey (Alg, < T day!) : a ruling power in Algeria, who succeeded the aghas of the army
corps and ruled until the capture of Algiers by France. I 368a; and -> day!
♦ deynek (T) : a commander's baton or cane, carried by a number of high Ottoman
navy officers. It was also called sadafkdri c asd, because it was encrusted with mother
of pearl of different colours. VIII 565b
dhabh (A) : one of the two methods of slaughtering animals according to Muslim law
by which the animal concerned becomes permissible as food. It consists of slitting the
throat, including the trachea and the oesophagus (there are divergencies between
the schools in respect of the two jugular veins); the head is not to be severed. At the
212 DHABH — DHAT
moment of slaughter, it is obligatory to have the necessary intention and to invoke the
name of God. Preferably the victim should be laid upon its left side facing in the direc-
tion of the kibla. II 213b
dhabiha (A) : in law, a victim (animal) destined for immolation in fulfilment of a
vow, for the sacrifice of 'akIka, on the occasion of the feast of the 10th day of Dh u
'1-Hidjdja, or in order to make atonement for certain transgressions committed during
the hadjdj. II 213a; XII 221b
dhabl (A) : in botany, the shell of the tortoise, highly valued for the manufacture of
combs and bracelets, masak. IX 811a
dhahab (A) : in mineralogy, gold. II 214a
♦ dhahabiyya (A) : a Nile vessel, especially known in the 19th century. VIII 42b
dhaka'a (A) : the strict ritual of slaughtering the dhabIha which must be followed and
which does not differ in form from the ritual slaughter of animals permitted as food.
II 213a
dhal (A) : the ninth letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value 700, repre-
senting the voiced interdental fricative (rikhwa maajhura). II 217b
dhanab (A) : tail.
In astronomy, ~ or dhanab al-tinnin 'the dragon's tail' refers to the waning node, one
of the points where the moon passes through the ecliptic during an eclipse of the moon.
V 536a; VIII 101b; X 531a; and ->■ kawkab al-dhanab
♦ dhanab al-dadjadja -*■ radif
♦ dhanab al-kitt (A) : 'cat's tail', in botany, the Bugloss (Anchusa italica) and the
Goldylocks (Chrysocoma). IX 653a
♦ dhanab al-sirhan -»■ al-faqjr al-kadhib
dhanb (A, pi. dhunub) : sin. Synonyms are khati'a, sayyi'a, which is an evil action, and
ithm, a very grave sin, a crime against God. IV 1106b; and -» dafn al-dhunub
dhara'i' (A) : a method of reasoning to the effect that, when a command or prohibition
has been decreed by God, everything that is indispensable to the execution of that order
or leads to infringement of that prohibition must also, as a consequence, be com-
manded or prohibited. I 276a
dhararihi (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a vagrant feigning serious wounds for begging pur-
poses. VII 494b
dharih (A) : in architecture, a silver enclosure, which surrounds a shi'i shrine. XI 533a
dharr -»■ naml
♦ dharra (A) : a term denoting in the Qur'an the smallest possible appreciable
quantity, interpreted by the commentators of the Qur'an as: dust which remains cling-
ing to the hand after the rest has been blown off, or weightless dust, seen when sun-
light shines through a window; the weight of the head of a red ant; the hundredth part
of a grain of barley; or atom, -was not generally used to denote the philosophical
atomism of Democritus, Epicurus and the Muslim 'atomists'. In its stead, the two tech-
nical terms djuz' and djawhar fard were preferred. Modern Arabic does render atom
with ~. II 219b
dhat (A) : thing; being, self, ego.
In philosophy, ~ is most commonly employed in two different meanings of substance
and essence, a translation of the Greek ovaia. When used in the sense of 'substance',
it is the equivalent of the subject or substratum and is contrasted with qualities or pred-
icates attributed to it and inhering in it. In the second sense of 'essence', it signifies
the essential or constitutive qualities of a thing as a member of a species, and is con-
trasted with its accidental attributes (-» 'arad). Some Muslim philosophers distinguish,
within the essence, its prior parts from the rest. II 220a; V 1262a
In Muslim India, ~ was one of the two ranks into which the mansabdar (-> mansab)
DHAT — DHIKR 213
was divided, the other being suwdr. The rank of ~ was meant for calculating one's
salary according to the sanctioned pay scale. V 686a
♦ dhat al-anwat (A) : 'that of the suspended things', among early Muslims, the
name for the sidr tree. IX 549b
♦ dhat al-halak (A) : an armillary sphere, constructed by 'Abbas b. Firnas in 9th-
century Muslim Spain. I lib
♦ dhat al-nitakayn (A) : 'she of the two girdles', the nickname of Asma\ elder half-
sister of 'A'isha and wife of al-Zubayr. XI 550b
♦ dhati (A) : essential; the conceptually and ontologically prior part of the essence
of a thing. II 220b; V 1262a
dhawk (A) : taste; insight or intuitive appreciation. II 221a; direct experience. II 1041a
In philosophy, ~ is the name for the gustatory sense-perception which, according to
Aristotle, is a kind of sub-species of the tactual sense, localised in the gustatory organ,
the tongue. It differs, however, from tactual sense because mere contact with skin is
not sufficient for gustation to occur. II 221a
In aesthetics, ~ is the name for the power of aesthetic appreciation, something that
'moves the heart'. II 221a
In mysticism, ~ denotes the direct quality of the mystic experience. The metaphor of
'sight' is also often used, but ~ has more qualitative overtones of enjoyment. II 221a
dhawlak (A) : tip (of the tongue). VI 130a; VIII 343a
♦ dhawlaki (A) : 'pointed'; in grammar, for al-Khalil, those consonants that are pro-
duced with the tip of the tongue, such as the r. VIII 343a
♦ dhawlakiyya (A), and asaliyya : in grammar, two terms used by al-Khalil to indi-
cate articulation with the tip of the tongue but specifying only the form of the tongue.
Ill 598a
dhawu T-arham (A) : relatives in the maternal line; in law, a third class of heirs recog-
nised only by the Hanafi and Hanbali schools of law, who can only succeed to an
inheritance in the total absence of any representative of the fixed-shares heirs and the
'as aba. IV 916b
dhawwak ->■ Cashna-gir
dhayl (A, pi. dhuyul, adhyal) : 'tail', a continuation of a text, simultaneously attached to
the work of which it is the 'appendix' and detached from it. IX 158b; IX 603b f.; X
277a; and ->■ mudhayyal
♦ dhayl al-kitt (A) : 'long cat's tail', in botany, either the Cat's tailgrass {Phleum
pratense) or Alfagrass (Lygeum spartum). IX 653a
dhi'b (A) : in zoology, the wolf, and, in local usage, the jackal. II 223a
dhikh -»■ dabu'
dhikr (A) : 'remembering' God, reciting the names of God; the tireless repetition of an
ejaculatory litany; a religious service common to all the mystical fraternities, performed
either solitarily or collectively, also known as hadra, 'imara, or simply madjlis. II 164b;
II 223b; II 891b; IV 94b; X 245a; a discourse. IX 112a; the revelation sent down to
Muhammad. V 402a
♦ dhikr-i 'alaniyya -»■ dhikr-i dil
♦ dhikr al-'awamm (A) : the collective dhikr sessions. II 224a
♦ dhikr-i dil (P) : the dhikr of the heart, as opposed to a public one {dhikr-i
'alaniyya, or dhikr-i tan). As practiced by al-Hamadani, the first figure of the Kh w adjagan
sufi movement, it was accompanied by the prolonged holding of the breath. XII 521a
♦ dhikr-i djahr (< A) : a practice of reciting the names of God loudly while sitting
in the prescribed posture at prescribed times, adopted by the Cishti mystics. II 55b; as
~ djahri, repetitive oral prayer, called '- of the saw' (T arra) (in Arabic, ~ al-minshar),
which practice gave the Yasawiyya the name of Djahriyya. XI 295a
214 DHIKR DIBDIBA
♦ dhikr-i khafi (< A) : a practice of reciting the names of God silently, adopted by
the Cishti mystics. II 55b
♦ dhikr al-khawass (A) : the dhikr of the privileged (mystics who are well ad-
vanced along the spiritual path). II 224a
dhimma (A) : the term used to designate the sort of indefinitely renewed contract
through which the Muslim community accords hospitality and protection to members
of other revealed religions, on condition of their acknowledging the domination of
Islam; the beneficiaries of the ~ are also collectively referred to as the ~, or ahl al-
dhimma. Originally only Jews and Christians were involved; soon, however, it became
necessary to consider the Zoroastrians, and later, especially in Central Asia, other
minor faiths not mentioned in the Qur'an. II 227a
In law, ~ is a legal term with two meanings: in legal theory, - is the legal quality
which makes the individual a proper subject of law, that is, a proper addressee of the
rule which provides him with rights or charges him with obligations. In this sense, it
may be identified with legal personality (fi 'l-dhimma 'in personam'). The second
meaning is that of the legal practitioners and goes back to the root of the notion of
obligation. It is the fides which binds the debtor to his creditor. II 231a; XII 207a;
abstract financial responsibility. I 27a
♦ dhimmi (A) : the beneficiary of the dhimma. A ~ is defined as against the
Muslim and the idolater; and also as against the harbl who is of the same faith but
lives in territories not yet under Islam; and finally as against the musta'min, the for-
eigner who is granted the right of living in an Islamic territory for a short time (one
year at most). II 227a
dhira' (A) : cubit, a basic measure of length, being originally the length of the arm from
the elbow to the top of the middle finger. The name ~ is also given to the instrument
used for measuring it. One ~ was 24 isba', although the cubit was not always used
with great precision and a considerable number of different cubits were in common use
in Islam, e.g. the legal cubit, the black cubit, the king's cubit, and the cloth cubit. II
231b; VII 137b
A minor branch of a river, also called khalldi, as distinguished from the main stream
{'amud). VIII 38a
In anatomy, the arm. XII 830b
dhrupad -»■ bandish; khayal
dhu'aba ->■ Adhaba
dhubab (A) : in zoology, the fly. II 247b
♦ dhubabl (A0 : a variety of emerald, which when drawn near a snake's eyes, make
them bulge out of their sockets and burst. Other types of emeralds were experimented
with but did not have the same effect. XI 570a
dhubban (A) : the term used in navigation to designate the standard angular distance of
four fingers, isba's, wide, i.e. a handbreadth. IV 96b; VII 51a
dhura (A) : in botany, the great sorghum {Sorghum vulgare), also called Indian millet,
djdwars hindl. IV 520a; XII 249b
dhurr -»■ kamh
dhurriyya (A) : the descendants of c Ali, one of a class of noble blood, sharaf, that
existed in Egyptian terminology of the 9th/15th century. IX 332a
dibaca (P) : in prosody, a conventional introduction. IV 1009b
dlbadj (A, < P) : silk brocade. Ill 209b
♦ dibadja -► 'unwan
dib'an -> dabu c
dibdiba (A) : any flat, firm-surfaced area; the term is related to the classical dabdaba,
referring to the drumming sounds of hooves on hard earth. II 248b
DIBS — DIN 215
dibs (A) : syrup, molasses; a treacle of grapes, carob, etc. I 69a; II 1062b; IX 804b
dibshi -» djihh
didd (A, pi. addad) : contrary; one of the four Aristotelian classes of opposites, viz. rel-
ative terms, contraries, privation and possession, and affirmation and negation. II 249a;
and -> addad
diffiyya (A) : a heavy winter cloak for men, worn in Egypt. V 740b
difla (A) : in botany, the oleander. IX 872b
dig-i djQsh -» TASHARRUF
dih -» TIK WA-TUM
dihkan (A, < P dehkdn) : the head of a village and a member of the lesser feudal nobil-
ity of Sasanian Persia. They were an immensely important class, although the actual
area of land they cultivated was often quite small. Their principal function was to col-
lect taxes. In Transoxania, the term was applied to the local rulers as well as the
landowners. The spread of the ikta c system in the 5th/l 1th century and the depression
of the landowning classes diminished the position and influence of the ~, and the term
acquired the sense of peasant, which is its meaning in modern Iran. I 15b; II 253b; V
853b
dihliz (A) : the palace vestibule where the ruler appeared for public audience. VIII 3 1 3b
dik (A) : in zoology, the cock, of which several kinds (hindl, nabatl, zandji, etc.) are
mentioned in the sources. II 275a
dikk -> KATTAN
dikka (A), or dakka : a platform in a mosque near the minbar to which a staircase leads
up. This platform is used as a seat for the muezzin when pronouncing the call to prayer
in the mosque at the Friday service. Mosques of the Ottoman period have their ~ in
the form of a rostrum against the wall opposite the mihrab. II 276a; VI 663a; and ->
FUTA
♦ dikkat al-muballigh -» muballigh
dil c -» djabal; sak; shay'
dilk (A) : the patched garment of sufis, also worn by clowns. V 740b
dillina (A, < Gk), or dalllna : the flat mussel (Tellina planata). VIII 707a; its export as
pickled mussels from Rosetta, in Egypt, was mentioned by the mediaeval geographer
al-Idrisi. VIII 438a
dilsiz (T, P bizabdn) : lit. tongueless; the name given to the deaf mutes employed in the
inside service of the Ottoman palace, and for a while at the Sublime Porte. Established
in the palace from the time of Mehemmed II to the end of the sultanate, they served
as guards and attendants, and as messengers and emissaries in highly confidential mat-
ters, including executions. II 277a
dimak (A, < P dima 'cheek'), or daymak : in archery, the 'arrow-pass', sc. the side of
the handle continuous with the the part facing the archer as he shoots (wadjh). IV 799a
din (A, pi. adydn) : religion; the obligations which God imposes on man; the domain of
divine prescriptions concerning acts of worship and everything involved in it. II 293b;
IV 171b
For ~ as second element in titles, V 621b ff.
♦ din al-hakk (A) : a Qur'anic expression denoting 'the religion of Truth'; the
revealed religion; the religion of the golden mean. II 294b
♦ din-i Hani : the heresy promulgated by the Indian Mughal emperor Akbar in 989/ 1 58 1 ,
as a result of his discussions with learned men of all religions, which he vainly hoped
would prove acceptable to his subjects. The new religion was related to earlier alfi
heretical movements in Indian Islam of the 10th/16th century, implying the need for
the reorientation of faith at the end of the first millennium of the advent of the Prophet
I 317a; II 296a
216 DINAR DIWAN
dinar (A, < Gk; pi. dananir) : Muslim gold coin issued by the Umayyad caliph c Abd
al-Malik b. Marwan, to replace the Byzantine denarius. There are earlier types of
dinars dating from ca. 72/691-2, but the coinage reform of 'Abd al-Malik drastically
affected the style which it would henceforth have. I 77b; II 297a; V 964a ff.
♦ dinar dhahabi (A) : a double dInar, of a weight of 4.57 gr, struck first by the
Almohads. The traditional dinar was called dinar fiddi or 'ashri in the Marinid sources.
VI 573a
♦ dananir al-sila (A) : special coins, presentation issues, struck for non-currency
purposes. XI 228b
dir' (A), or sard, zarad, muzarrad (< P zard) : in military science, protective body
armour in the shape of coats of mail, which were considered valuable in desert fight-
ing in the pre-Islamic period. XII 735b
diraya (A) : the term used by al-Ramahurmuzi to distinguish transmissions of Traditions
by people who have learned to discern between all transmission minutiae, from those
by people who merely transmit without paying proper heed to all sorts of crucial details
in isnad as well as contents of Tradition, which he terms riwdya. VIII 421a; X 934a
dirham (A, < Gk) : the name indicates both a weight and the silver unit of the Arab
monetary system, used from the rise of Islam down to the Mongol period. II 319a; V
964a ff.; VI 118a
In early mathematics, -was the term used for the absolute number. II 361a
♦ dirham warak (A), or dirham aswad : in numismatics, so-called black dirhams,
which were described as 'rough, uneven, small rectangles or squares of low silver con-
tent, the weight of which depended on the haphazard way the cold chisel of the flan
cutter fell'. XI 199b
dirlik (T) : living, livelihood; a term used in the Ottoman empire to denote an income
provided by the state, directly or indirectly, for the support of persons in its service. It
is used principally of the military fiefs, but also applies to pay, salaries, and grants in
lieu of pay. II 322a; IX 656a
dirra (A) : a whip of ox-hide, or of strips of hide on which date-stones have been
stitched. X 406b
dirridj (A), or durraydj : a drum. II 135b; X 33a; a lute with a long neck and plucked
strings. VI 215b; and ->■ darabukka
dirs (A, pi. adrds, duriis), and shibrik (pi. shabdrik) : in zoology, the kitten of both wild
and domestic cats. IX 651b; the young of the jerboa. XI 283b
dirwa (A) : a typical style of hairdressing, which has given rise to the nickname Fuzzy-
wuzzy, practised by the c Ababda tribe of Upper Egypt. I lb
diw (P) : the name of the spirits of evil and of darkness, creatures of Ahriman, the
personification of sins, whose number is legion. II 322b
di'wa -*■ ISTILHAK
diwan (A) : a register; an office. I 801b; I 1145b; II 323a; IV 937b
In literature, a collection of poetry or prose. II 323a
For a list of diwdm not listed below, II 328b ff.
♦ diwan al-badal : under the Mamluks, a special department established to facilitate
the exchange of feudal estates of the members of the halka against payment or com-
pensation which had become usual after the death of the Mamluk al-Nasir Muhammad.
Ill 99b
♦ diwan-begi : the title of high officials in the Central Asian khanates in the 16th-
19th centuries. XII 227b; among the Timurids, the office of secretary of the diwan or
chief of the secretariat of the diwan. VIII 481b
♦ diwan efendi : in the Ottoman empire, chancellor of the Admiralty. VIII 422a; in
the Ottoman provinces, an important official attached to the wall. In Egypt, under
DlWAN — DJABIH 217
Muhammad 'All, the ~ became a kind of president of the council of ministers. VIII
481b
♦ diwan rakamlari (T) : term for the siyakat numerals, in effect the 'written out'
shapes of the numerals in Arabic, reduced to a skeletal and schematised form. IX 693a
♦ diwan-i humayun (T) : the name given to the Ottoman imperial council founded
by Mehemmed II after the conquest of Istanbul, which, until the mid-1 lth/17th century,
was the central organ of the government of the empire. II 337b
♦ diwani (A) : in land management, land held by the ruler as head of state as
opposed to crown land. IV 974b
In calligraphy, a form of Arabic script which consisted of letters and particular signs
devised from abbreviations of the names of numbers. It was already in use during the
'Abbasid caliphate by the army of scribes and accountants working in the Treasury,
although according to Turkish sources, the ~ script was allegedly invented for writing
official documents and registers of the dIwan-i-humayun. Djall diwani is a variant
type of ~ with the letters written within each other. It flourished from the 9th/15th cen-
tury onwards. I 1145b; II 315b; IV 1125b; VIII 151b; and -» tawkI'
diya (A), or 'akl, ma'kula : in law, a specified amount of money or goods due in cases
of homicide or other injuries to physical health unjustly committed upon the person of
another. It is a substitute for the law of private vengeance. In its restricted and most
usual sense in law, it means the compensation which is payable in cases of homicide.
I 29a; I 171b; I 338a; II 340b; V 180a
diyamlrun : in medicine, a robb, made from mulberry juice for swellings of the mouth
and for angina. X 752a
diyanay (P) : an ancient type of double reed-pipe. Its two pipes have been described as
being of equal length, each of which is pierced by five finger-holes, which gave an
octave between them. According to al-Farabi, the ~ was also called the mizmdr al-muthanna
or muzdwadj. VII 208a
dja'ala -> dju'l
dja'ba (A) : in archery, a fairly large, leather quiver having a lid fixed by means of a
cord, mikhdhaf. IV 799b
djaba (T), or djabd benndk : in Ottoman times, married peasants possessing no land. I
1169b
djabaduli (Mor), or djdbddur : a full-length, caftan-like garment with either no buttons
or a single button in front. V 745b; a short tunic worn over a waistcoat. XI 543b
djabadur -► djabaduli
djabal (A, pi. djibal) : a massive mountain, rocky hillock; other synonyms in common
use among the Bedouin in Arabia are diV (pi. dulu', dil'dn), hazm, which is usually
lower than a ~, abrak (pi. burkdri) and barka' (pi. burk). Promontories jutting out from
the island escarpments are called khashm 'nose' (pi. khushum). I 536b; II 534b; the
name for a very large ruby, of which three were known to have been bought by the
'Abbasid caliphs al-Mansur, al-Mahdi and al-Mutawakkil. XI 263b
djabbadha -► sarafsar
djabbana (A, pi. djabbdndt) : a piece of unbuilt land serving, i.a., as a meeting place and
a cemetery. V 23a; V 347a; and -► makbara
djabbar -> djawza'
djabha -► sudjdja
djabi (A) : a collector of the sadaka tax. X 50b
djabih (A) : 'that which comes from in front', one of the technical terms designating the
directions of a bird's flight, or an animal's steps, which play an important part in the
application of divination known as fa'l, tIra and zadjr. II 760a; and -► natih
218 DJABR — DJAFR
djabr (A) : compulsion. I 27b; and -> djabriyya
In law, ~ is compulsion in marriage exercised upon one or other of the prospective
partners. XII 233a
In medicine, minor or simple surgery. II 481b
♦ al-djabr wa M-mukabala (A) : originally two methods of transforming equations,
later, the name given to algebra, the theory of equations. II 360b
♦ djabriyya (A), or mudjbira : the name given by opponents to those whom they
alleged to hold the doctrine of djabr 'compulsion', viz. that man does not really act
but only God. It was also used by later heresiographers to describe a group of sects.
The Mu'tazila applied it to traditionists, Ash'arite theologians and others who denied
their doctrine of kadar 'free will'. II 365a; III 1 142b
♦ djabriyyun (A) : in the writings of the Ikhwan al-Safa' (4th/10th century), the
name of the representatives of the branch of mathematics called a/-DJABR wa 'l-mukab ala.
II 361b
djadal -► adab
♦ djadaliyyun (A) : controversialists. X 440b; and -> adab
djadha' ->• *atud
♦ djadha'a (A) : a female camel in its fifth year. XI 412a
djadhba (A) : in mysticism, divine attraction. VIII 306b; IX 863a
djadhi -> za'faran
djadhidha (A) : in agriculture, wheat husked and crushed. II 1060b
djadhr (A) : in mathematics, ~ is the term used for the square root. Ill 1139b
djadi -> za'faran
djadid (A, T djedld) : new, modern. II 366a
In Persian prosody, the name of a metre of rare occurrence, said to have been invented
by the Persians. I 677b
In Central Asia and among the Muslims of Russia, the name of a reform movement
(followers of the usul-i djedldfe] 'the new methods') in the 19th and 20th centuries. II
366a; XII 466b
djadwal (A), or khatim : a scientific table. XI 497b
In sorcery, quadrangular or other geometrical figures into which names and signs pos-
sessing magic powers are inserted. These are usually certain mysterious characters,
Arabic letters and numerals, magic words, the Names of God, the angels and demons,
as well as of the planets, the days of the week, and the elements, and lastly pieces
from the Qur'an. II 370a
For ~ in the Ottoman context, -> khark
♦ al-djadwal al-mudjarrad (A) : in dating, a double-argument table used for the cal-
culation of maddkhil (->• madkhal) from which the initial week day can be read off
directly for every month of every year within the respective cycles. X 270b
djady (A) : lit. kid; in astronomy, al- ~ is the term for Capricorn, one of the twelve zodi-
acal constellations. VII 84a; and -> sakhla
dja'fari -> kaghad
djafir (A) : in archery, one of the terms for quiver. IV 800a
djafna -> mi'djan
djafr (A) : the generic name for an esoteric literature of apocalyptic character which
arose as a result of the persecution which the descendants of c Ali and Fatima had suf-
fered. Later, deviating from its original form of esoteric knowledge, reserved for the
successors and heirs of c Ali, it became assimilated to a divinatory technique accessible
to the wise whatever their origin, particularly mystics, consisting of speculations based
on the numerical value of the Arabic letters. II 375b; IV 1 1 29a; and -> sakhla
DJAGHANA — DJALBA 219
djaghana (A, < P caghana) : in music, a jingling instrument of small cymbals attached
to a frame, in Europe given the name Chapeau Chinois or the Jingling Johnny. Another
name for it is zilll mdsha. IX 10a ff.
djagir : land given or assigned by governments in India to individuals as a pension or
as a reward for immediate services. The holder of such land was called ajdgirddr. II
378b; IX 581a
♦ djagirdar ->■ djagIr
djah (P) : in astronomy, the north pole, used by Islamic navigators of the Indian Ocean.
The term was also used for the Pole Star. V 543a; VII 51a
djahannam (A) : hell. I 334b; II 381b; and ->■ sa'ir
djahardah ->■ shahardah
djahbadh (P, pi. djahdbidha) : a financial clerk, expert in matters of coins, skilled
money examiner, treasury receiver, government cashier, money changer or collector. I
1144b; II 382b; the functionary in the Treasury whose task it was to prepare the
monthly statement of income and expenditure. II 79b
djahfal ->■ kurdus
djahil (A, pi. ajuhhdl) : 'ignorant'. Among the Druze, members of the community not
yet initiated into the truths of the faith; the initiated are the 'ukkdl. II 633a
♦ djahili (A) : 'pre-Islamic'; in Sayyid Kutb's book Ma'dlim fi 'l-tarik, ~ means
'barbaric', 'anti-Islamic', 'wicked', and implies apostasy from Islam, punishable by
death. IX 1 17b
♦ djahiliyya (A) : the term for the state of affairs in Arabia before the mission
of the Prophet; paganism; the pre-Islamic period and the men of that time. II 383b
djahmarish (A) : a term used for a female hare while suckling. XII 84b
djahr ->• dhikr-i djahr
djahwash (A) : a child who has passed the stage of weaning. VIII 822a
dja'ifa (A) : a wound penetrating the interior of the body; a determining factor in the
prescription of compensation following upon physical injury, diya. II 341b
dja'ila ->■ dju'l
dja'iz (A) : permissable; in law, the term preferred by Hanafi authors to specify that the
juridical act was legitimate or licit, in point of law, apart from its being valid, sahih,
or not. Other schools also use it to denote the revocability of e.g. a contract. II 389b
In logic, ~ means what is not unthinkable. II 390a
In the vocabulary of tents, ~ is the main ridge piece, which was of considerable impor-
tance. IV 1 147b
♦ dja'iza ->• sila
djalabi ->■ CelebI
djalali (P) : the name of an era founded by the Saldjuk sultan Malikshah b. Alp Arslan,
called after his title Djalal al-Dawla, although it is sometimes termed maliki; a calen-
dar used often in Persia from the last part of the 5th/Hth century onwards. II 397b;
VI 275b; X 267b
In Ottoman Turkish, a term used to describe companies of brigands, led usually by idle
or dissident Ottoman army officers, widely spread throughout Anatolia from about 999/1590
but diminishing by 1030/1620. IV 499a; IV 594a; XII 238a
djalam (A) : shears. XII 319a; a strain of sheep in the time of Djahiz found in Ta'if,
which was very high on its hooves and had a fleece so smooth that it appeared bald.
XII 318a
djalba (A, < Por/Sp gelbalgelva) : a large type of barque used by Arabs on the Arabian
Sea and Indian Ocean shores. Ibn Djubayr observed that they were stitched together
with coir, i.e. coconut palm fibres. VIII 811a
220 DJALI — DJAMAKAN
djall (A), or djalll : a name given to every large type of script, but more specifically
used for the large type of ihuluih. It was used for large-sized frames and also for
public buildings and their inscriptions. IV 1123b; V 224a
♦ djall diwani ->■ dIwanI
djalil -> djali
djalish (A, < T calish 'battle'), also written shalish : in military science, the vanguard
of an army, as described during the battle of Hittin in 584/1187, syn. talI'a, mukad-
dama; also during the Mamluk period, a special flag hoisted over the tablkhdna to
make known the decision to dispatch a large expedition against a strong enemy. Ill
184a; XII 722a
djaliya (A, pi. djawalI) : the term used for the Arabic-speaking communities with spe-
cial reference to North and South America. II 403b; II 470b
djallab (A) : 'importer', slave-trader. I 32b; I 929a; an outer garment used in certain
parts of North Africa, variant of djallabiyya. II 404b; sheep merchant. XII 316b
♦ djallabiyya (A) : in Morocco and the west of Algeria, a hooded outer robe with
long sleeves, originally worn by men only, now by both sexes. II 404b; V 745b; in
Egypt, the loose body shirt still commonly worn by men, pronounced gallabiyya. V
741a
djallala (A) : a 'scatophagous animal', mentioned in Tradition and developed in fikh
with regard to the prohibition of certain foods. II 1069b; V 8b
djalsa (A), and c and', zina : in Morocco, the prevalent system of perpetual lease by
wakf of dilapidated shops and workshops, whereby the tenant makes the necessary
repairs, pays an annual rent and thus acquires the perpetual usufruct of the property.
XII 369a
♦ djalsat al-istiraha (A) : in the Islamic ritual prayer, the return to the sitting posi-
tion after the second inclination, rak'a, which practice is common among the Hanbalis
and the Shafi'is, and now also widespread among Maliki worshippers. VIII 929b
djaltita -»• faltIta
djalwa -»• djilwa
djam' (A), or djamd'a : in grammar, the plural for units numbering three or more. II
406b; VIII 990b
In mysticism, ~ is contrasted with fark 'separation', and denotes seeing all things as
brought together through God's reality. XI 38a
djama-dar ->■ djamdar
djama'a (A, T djemd'a) : meeting, assembly.
In religion, the community (of believers). II 41 la; the common practices and beliefs of
the Companions. II 295a
In North Africa, as djemaa, ~ denoted local administrative assemblies, which owned
property collectively. II 412b; IV 362a
In Morocco, a tribal assembly of men able to bear arms, which dealt with all the busi-
ness of the tribe, civil, criminal, financial and political. V 1 198b
In the Ottoman empire, as djemd'at or piyddegdn, one of three principal subdivisions
of the Janissary corps, later expanded to 101 regiments, for those created before
Mehemmed's time. The other two were the segbdn, a small corps of keepers of the
palace hounds, and the boluk or agha boliikleri. XI 323b
For ~ in grammar, -»• djam 1
djamad -»■ ma'din
djamahat (P, < A djamd'a) : among the Shahsewan in Persia, a community which moved
and camped as a unit during the autumn migration in October and the spring migra-
tion in May, performing many religious ceremonies jointly. IX 224a
djamakan (T) : a disrobing chamber in the Ottoman sultan's palace. X 567a
DJAMAKIYYA — DJAMUS 221
djamakiyya (A, < P) : salary; originally, that part of the regular salary given in dress
or cloth; under the Mamluks, ~ denoted the part of the salary given in money. II 413b;
a grant. IX 269a
djamal (A, Heb gimel) : in zoology, the male camel, sometimes used equally with ibil
for the species. Ill 666a
♦ djamal al-bahr (A), or kuba' : in zoology, the humpbacked whale. VIII 1022b
djamalun (A) : in architecture, a gable roof. I 616a
djamdar (A, < P djdma-ddr 'clothes-keeper') : 'platoon commander', the lowest com-
missioned rank in the Indian Army. It also denotes junior officials in the police, cus-
toms, etc., or the foreman of a group of guides, sweepers. II 421b
♦ djamdariyya (A) : under the Mamluks, the keepers of the sultan's wardrobe. II
421b; VIII 432a
djamedan (T) : a short, trimmed waistcoat without sleeves, worn as an outer garment in
the Ottoman period. V 752a
djami' (A, pi. djawdmi') : mosque; and ->■ masdjid djami'
In philosophy and science, the plural form, djawdmi', is used to denote the com-
pendium or handbook. VII 536b; djawdmi' is also used for the 'short' recension of Ibn
Rushd's commentary on Aristotle's works. VII 539a; summaries. X 454b
♦ djami' al-hisab (A) : the master-ledger of the Ilkhanids, from which the annual
financial reports were prepared, one of the seven main registers on which their system
of book-keeping was based. II 81b
♦ djami' al-sadaka (A) : an alms collector, one of the 'representatives' despatched
to Yemen under the early regimes. XI 272a
djami'a (A) : an ideal, a bond or an institution which unites individuals or groups; uni-
versity. II 422b; in modern usage, ~ has also been used to characterise a political,
united movement; more specifically, ~ signifies the political unification of Muslim
states. VIII 359b ff.
djam'iyya (A, T djem'iyyet; P andjuman) : society; association. This term was perhaps
first used to refer to the organised monastic communities or congregations which
appeared in the Uniate Churches in Syria and Lebanon. In the middle of the 19th cen-
tury, ~ came into more general use, first in Lebanon and then in other Arabic-speak-
ing countries, to refer to voluntary associations for scientific, literary, benevolent or political
purposes. By the middle of the 20th century, hizb had replaced ~ to refer to political
movements and organisations. II 428b; III 514b ff.
djammal (A) : camel-driver or cameleer; also an owner and hirer of camels, and a
dealer in camels. XII 241b
djamra (A, pi. djimdr) : pebble. II 438a; tribe. VIII 381a; ~ is the name given to the
three places (al-djamra al-uld, al-djamra al-wustd, djamrat al-'akaba) where pilgrims
returning from 'Arafat during the pilgrimage stop to partake in the ritual throwing of
stones. II 438a; III 36a; VIII 379a
♦ djamarat al-'arab (A) : tribes that never allied themselves with others. VIII 120a;
X 173b; the groups of Bedouin tribes. VIII 379a
djamuh (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that checks its head to escape
from control by the hands. II 953b
djamulyan -► gonullu
djamus (A, < P gdv-i mlsh 'bull-sheep') : in zoology, the Indian buffalo or water buf-
falo (Bubalus bubalis). XII 242b
In Algeria, ~ designates women's bracelets carved from the horns of the water buffalo.
XII 244a
♦ djamus al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the hippopotamus, to some writers. XII 244a
♦ djamus al-khala' (A) : in zoology, the African buffalo (Syncerus coffer), called
thus by the Sudanese. It was unknown to the Arab writers. XII 242b
222 DJANABA — DJARID
djanaba (A) : in law, the state of major ritual impurity, caused by marital intercourse,
to which the religious law assimilates any effusio seminis. II 440b; VIII 929a
djanah (A) : wing; in botany, ~ al-nasr 'vulture's wing' is the Cardoon (Cynara cardun-
culus). VII 1014b
djanaza (A) : corpse, bier, or corpse and bier, and then, funeral. II 441b
djanbaz (P, Egy ganbddhiya) : an acrobat, especially 'rope-dancer'; soldier; horse-
dealer. II 442b
♦ djanbazan : the name of a military corps in the Ottoman empire, serving only in
time of war, in the vanguard, and charged with dangerous tasks. It was abolished
towards the end of the 16th century. II 443a
djandar (P) : the name of certain guards regiments who provided the sovereign's body-
guard from the Saldjuks on. II 444a; V 685a
djandji dalem (J) : 'the royal promise', a term in Java for the ta'lik-talak institution.
I 173b
djang (U) : in Urdu poetry, the part of the elegy, marthiya, where the battle is de-
scribed, with stress on the hero's valour and often including a description of his sword.
VI 611b
djanin (A) : the term for the child in its mother's womb; foetus. VIII 821b
djank (A) : in music, the harp. II 1073b; IX 10a
djanki (P) : council of state. XI 194a
djanna (A) : garden; Paradise. II 447a
♦ djannat al-khuld (A) : 'the garden of eternity', i.e. Paradise. XII 529b
djantita -> faltita
djanub (A) : in meteorology, the south wind. VIII 526b
djar -> iqjara
djarab (A) : in medicine, scabies. V 107a; VIII 783a; IX 902b; X433a
♦ djarab al-'ayn -> ramad hubaybI
djarad (A, s. djardda) : in zoology, locusts. For the different stages of the locust's
development, Arabic has special names, such as sirwa, dabd, ghawghd', khayfdn, etc.,
which, however, are variously denned. II 455a; and -> kayna
djara'id (Tun) : a pair of men's leather leggings. V 745b
djaras (A, pi. adjrds) : in music, the cup, bowl or cone-shape bell; the sphere-shaped bell
was called the djuldjul. ~ also stood for a large bell, djuldjul meaning a small bell. A
collection of these bells, on a board or chain, is known as a tabla. IX 10b f.
djardak, djardhak -> raghif
djarf (A) : one of a number of terms for a seine or drag-net, i.e. a large pouched net
used for fishing on the high seas, also called djdruf, djarrdfa, kattd'a and batdna. VIII
1021b
djarh (A) : in law, the contestation that a witness is c adl. I 209b
♦ al-djarh wa 'l-ta c dil (A) : lit. disparaging and declaring trustworthy; in the sci-
ence of Tradition, a technical phrase used regarding the reliability or otherwise of tra-
ditionists. II 462a; VIII 515a
djarib (A) : the basic measure of area in earlier Islamic times, which, as well as being
a measure of capacity for grain, etc., equal to four kafIzs, became a measure of sur-
face area, originally the amount of agricultural land which could be sown with a djarlb's
measure of seed. The extent of the ~ of area varied widely. Canonically, it was made
up of 100 kasabas, hence approx. 1600 m 2 . VII 138a
djarid (A) : the firm central stem of the palm which, when stripped of the leaf, is used
for different purposes. Used in the manner of a javelin, the ~ gave its name to djerid,
the well-known equestrian sport so popular in Abyssinia, the Near East and Turkey.
VII 923a
DJARID — DJAWALl 223
♦ djarida (A, pi. djard'id) : lit. leaf; a usual term in modern Arabic for a newspa-
per, the adoption of which is attributed to Faris al-Shidyak (syn. sahifa, usually used
in the pi. suhuf). II 464b; XII 247a; in Sicily, a document which set out the different
legal and social levels, defining the status on the one hand of the people of the coun-
tryside, having limited rights, and on the other that of the urban classes. IX 585b
♦ al-djarida al-musadjdjala (A) : in classical Muslim administration, the sealed reg-
ister. II 79a
♦ al-djarida al-sawda 5 (A) : in classical Muslim administration, the central register
of the army office prepared annually for each command, showing the names of the sol-
diers, with their pedigree, ethnic origin, physical descriptions, rations, pay, etc. II 78b
djarih (A, pi. ajawdrih) : a 'beast of prey', used in hawking. I 1152a
djarima (A), or djurm : a sin, fault, offence; in modern law, the technical term for
crime. II 479b
In Ottoman usage, in the forms ajeiime and ajereme, fines and penalties. Other pre-
scribed fines were called klnlik and gharamet. II 479b; II 604a
djariya (A) : maidservant, female slave. I 24b
djarkh (A, < P carkh) : a crossbow. II 506b; an individual arbalest whose bow is drawn
back by means of a wheel (whence its name); by this, very long arrows, approaching
the length of javelins, could be fired. IV 798a
djarm ->■ garmsIr
djarr (A), or khafd : in grammar, the genitive case. Ill 1008a
In mediaeval agriculture, the trace, which attached the beam of the ploughshare to the
centre of the yoke (nlr). VII 22b
♦ djarr al-djiwar (A) : in grammar, a term denoting 'attraction of the indirect case'.
II 558b
djarrah (A) : in medicine, surgeon. II 481b
djarrar (A) : 'he who drags (someone) along'; in military terminology, the commander
of 1,000 men. X 91a; an army corps. IV 1144b
In the context of the pilgrimage, ~ is the name given to the few mutawwifiln (->•
mutawwif) who worked outside the special guild. They dealt primarily with pilgrims
too poor to hire the services of a bona fide mutawwif. VI 171a
djars (A, pi. adjrds) : in grammar, the result of the application of the articulatory organs
to the place of the 'cutting', makta c . Ill 597b
djarusha (A) : the ancient tribulum, a technique using animal power motivating sharp
stones and iron blades for threshing corn. X 411a
djasad (A, pi. aajsdd) : body, in particular that of a higher being such as an angel. II
555a
♦ adjsad (A) : in alchemy, the metals, corresponding to Gk to aconata. V Ilia
dja'sh (A) : in archery, a light and weak bow which, contrary to the katum, vibrates
when loosed. IV 798a
djashankiriyya ->■ ustadar
djass (A) : gypsum manufactured in the town of Si'ird, which was used in the building
of local houses. IX 574b
♦ djassas (A) : a seller of gypsum. XII 759a
djasus (A) : spy; in particular, a spy sent among the enemy. II 486b
djati (H) : an Indian musical term for modes, constructed on heptatonic series of notes,
murcchana. Ill 452b; caste. Ill 459b
djawab ->• shart
djawad (A) : in zoology, the 'excellent runner', one of the more precise terms for a
horse. IV 1143b
djawali (A, s. ajdli) : lit. emigres; and ->• djaliya
224 DJAWALl — DJAZA'
As a fiscal term, ~ came to mean the poll-tax levied on non-Muslims, djizya. II 490a;
II 561a
djawami' -»• djami'
djawars (A, < P gdwars) : in botany, millet (Panicum miliacewri). XII 249b
djawarsh (A, pi. djawarish) ■ in medicine, a stomachic. IX 805a; XI 381b
djawarshin (A) : in medicine, an electuary. XII 641a
djawf (A) : in geography, a depressed plain, sometimes replaced by djaww, a basin with
a spring well. II 491b; VIII 1048b
djawlakh (P) : sack-cloth, probably the origin for the name, arising from the founder's
distinctive garb, of the Djawlakiyya movement that penetrated into Anatolia in the first
half of the 7th/13th century. IV 473b
djawhar (A, < P) : jewel; atom. II 494b; XII 250b
In philosophy, the technical term for otxria 'substance'. I 784b; II 493a
djawka (A, pi. djawkat) : in Lebanon, a troupe accompanying the zadjal poet, with
whome they engage in poetic duelling at festivals. XI 376a
djawr (A) : oppression. XI 567b
djawshan (A, P) : in military science, a lamellar armour, popular throughout most
Islamic countries but the Islamic West by the 12th century. XII 737b
djawun -»• hawun
djaww -»• DJAWF
djawwala (A) : globetrotter. I 116a
djawz (A, < P gawz) : the nut in general, and the walnut (Juglans regia) in particular.
XII 264a; the walnut tree. VIII 732b; for many fruits combined with ~, XII 264b
♦ djawzahar (A, < P djawz cihr 'nut-shape'), tinnin, or 'ukda (< Gk) : in astron-
omy, the two opposite points in which the apparent path of the moon, or all planets,
cuts the ecliptic. In course of time, these points come to move on to the ecliptic. In
texts dating from the 5th/llth century, ~ also indicates the circulus pareclipticus of the
moon; and the nodes of the orbit of any of the five planets. II 501b; V 536a; VIII
101b; and -»• falak al-djawzahar
djawza 5 (A) : in astronomy, al-~ is the term for Orion, the stellar figure, replaced by the
translators with al-djabbar, and Gemini, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations, also
called al-taw'aman. VII 83a
djawzal (A, pi. djawdzil) : the chick of a sandgrouse, kata. IX 744b
djayb -»• djIb
♦ al-djayb al-ma c kus -»■ sahm
♦ al-djayb al-mustawi -»• sahm
♦ djayb-i humayun (T) : the privy purse of the Ottoman sultans, which contents
provided for the immediate needs and expenses of the sovereign. II 502b
djaysh (A) : army. II 504a
In the south of Algeria and Morocco, djish means an armed band to go out on an
ambush, ghazw, against a caravan or a body of troops. When the ~ consisted of sev-
eral hundred men, it was called a harka. II 509b
In Morocco, djish (pronounced gish), denotes a kind of feudal organisation in the
Moroccan army. II 509b
djaza' (A) : recompense both in a good and in a bad sense, especially with reference to
the next world. II 518a
In Ottoman usage, ~ means punishment. II 518a; and -»• kanun-i djaza'i
For ~ in grammar, -»• shart
♦ djaza'ilci : tribal levy, as e.g. that known as the Khyber Rifles, paid by the gov-
ernment of India for the protection of the Khyber in the late 19th century. I 238a; and
-> KHASSADAR
DJAZIRA — DJILWA 225
djazira (A) : island; peninsula; territories situated between great rivers or separated from
the rest of a continent by an expanse of desert; a maritime country. II 523a
Among the Isma'ilis, ~ is the name of a propaganda district. II 523a
djaziza -»■ djazzaz
djazm (A) : in grammar, quiescence of the final harf of the mudari'. Ill 173a
djazz -»■ ihfa'
djazzar (A) : a slaughterer of camels, sheep, goats and other animals. Today, ~ is syn-
onymous with kassdb and lahham, the two terms for butcher, but in mediaeval times,
they formed a distinct group of workers. XII 267a
djazzaz (A) : a shearer of wool-bearers. The shears he uses are called djalam and the
wool obtained djaziza. XII 319a
djebedji (T) : the name given to a member of the corps of 'Armourers of the Sublime
Porte', which had charge of the weapons and munitions of the Janissaries. The corps
was closely associated with the Janissaries, and was abolished together with the latter
in 1241/1826. I 1061b; XII 269b
djebe (T) : in Ottoman army usage, a simple armour perhaps made of metal plates,
which a djebeli who enjoyed a small tImar as low as 730 akCes had to wear. X 503a
♦ djebeli (T), or djebelii : an auxiliary soldier in the Ottoman empire, mostly of
slave origin. II 528b; man-at-arms. IX 656b; a fully-armed auxiliary horseman. X 503a
djedhba -»■ hal
djerid (A) : a wooden dart or javelin used in the game of the same name, popular in
the Ottoman empire from the 10th-13th/16th-19th centuries. The game consisted of a
mock battle in the course of which horsemen threw darts at one another. II 532a
dji'al ->• dju'l
djib (A, < San jiva 'bow-string, half chord') : in mathematics, often misread as djayb
'breast-pocket', this transcription from Sanskrit led to Eng 'sine' (< L sinus 'breast').
X232a
djibaya (A) : the collection of taxes. X 307b; XI 532b
djidar -»■ lu'ama
djidd (A) : a common ancestor (which links different sections of a tribe). XI 276b
djiddaba (A) : in zoology, the djeddaba kingfish, whose Arabic term is found again in
the Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region
(Caranx djeddaba). VIII 1021b
djidha' -»■ adjdha'
djidhr (A) : root; in mathematics, ~ is represented by the area of a rectangle having the
side of the square as its length and the unit as its width. II 360b
djiflik (T, pi. djafalik) : land given by Muhammad 'AM and his successors to themselves
or to members of their family. XII 179a
djihad (A) : an effort directed towards a determined objective; a military action with the
object of the expansion of Islam and, if need be, of its defence. II 64a; II 126a; II
538a; III 180a fif.; IV 772a; VIII 495a ff.; IX 845b
djihh (Nadjdi A) : in botany, the term for watermelon in Nadjd (habhab in the Hidjaz,
dibshl in the south). I 540b
djika (P) : a plume, for a headdress. XI 192b
djild (A), or adlm : leather; parchment. Synonyms of the latter meaning are warak,
kirtas, rakk or rikk. II 540a; VIII 407b
djilfa (A) : the nib of a reed-pen. IV 471a
djillaya (A) : an embroidered coat-like outer garment, a wedding costume, worn by
women in Syria and Palestine; in Yemen, a man's marriage caftan. V 741a
djilwa (A) : the ceremony of raising the bride's veil, and the present made by the hus-
band to the wife on this occasion. II 542b
226 DJILWA DJIWAR
In mysticism, ~ (or djalwa) is the name of the state in which the mystic is on coming
out of seclusion, khalwa. II 542b
djim (A) : the fifth letter of the Arabic alphabet, with the numerical value 3, represent-
ing the g (occlusive, postpalatal, voiced, shadlda madjhura). II 543b
djima' (A) : coitus (syn. bah). XII 641a
djimat (Mai) : an amulet, in particular a written one. II 545a
djinas (A) : paronomasia; -»• tadjnIs
♦ djinas al-kalb (A) : in literary theory, an imperfect paronomasia whereby there is
difference in the arrangement of the letters, e.g. the juxtaposition of fath and hatf.
When the two words occur at the beginning and the end of the verse, it is called
mudjannah. X 69b
♦ djinas al-khatt -»• musahhaf
djindar (T) : the second animal in the row of mules forming the caravans that used to
operate in Anatolia. IV 678b
djinn (A) : a Qur'anic term applied to bodies composed of vapour and flame, who came
to play a large role in folklore. II 546b; III 669a; V 1101a; and -»• 'amluk; hinn;
khuss
djins (A, < Gk) : genus; race. II 550a; sex. II 550b
Under the Circassian rule in the Mamluk period, al-djins, meaning the Race, denoted
the Circassian race. II 24b
In music, ~ denotes the 'form' of the Ika', whose metrical patterns were chosen by the
musician by modifying the basic notes. The early music schools knew seven or eight
forms. XII 408b
djiraha -»• 'amal bi 'l-yad
djiraya (A) : salary, in the terminology of the Azharis during the Ottoman period; orig-
inally, a number of loaves of bread sent daily by the Ottoman sultan to someone. II
413b
djirdjir (A) : in botany, rocket (Eruca sativa). IX 653a
djirga (Pash) : an informal tribal assembly of the Pathans in what are now Afghanistan
and Pakistan, with competence to intervene and to adjudicate in practically all aspects
of private and public life among the Pathans. I 217a; V 1079a; XII 270a
djirm (A) : body, in particular the heavenly bodies. II 554b
djirrat (A) : in Cishti mysticism, a ~ is a mystic who visits kings and their courts and
asks people for money. This was considered an abuse, along with the status of a
mukallid (a mystic who has no master), as contact with the state in any form was not
permitted. II 55b
djisan -»• za'faran
djish -»• djaysh
djism (A) : body. II 553b; for synonyms, -»• badan; djasad; djirm
♦ djism ta'limi (A) : mathematical body; a term used by Aristotle in contrast to
djism tabVi 'physical body'. II 555a
♦ djismiyyat (A) : a term employed by Abu '1-Hudhayl to denote the corporeal
pleasures of Paradise. II 449b
djisr (A, pi. djusur) : a bridge of wood or of boats. II 555a; IV 555a
In mediaeval Egypt, the plural djusur is used for 'irrigation dams', of which there were
two types: the small irrigation dams (al-djusur al-baladiyya), important for conveying
water from one field to another in the village, and the great irrigation dams (al-djusur
al-sultaniyya), constructed for the provinces. V 862b
djiss (A) : plaster. II 556b
djitr -»• MIZALLA
djiwar (A) : protection of another tribe; neighbourhood. I 429b; I 890b; II 558a; IX
864b; and -» djarr al-djiwar
DJIZYA — DJUMLA 227
djizya (A) : the poll-tax levied on non- Muslims in Muslim states. II 490a; II 559a
djonk (T) : a manuscript collection of folk poetry. VIII 171b
dju c (P) : hunger; in mysticism, voluntary hunger was one of the foundations of the
Khalwatiyya order. IV 992a
dju'aydi -> harfush
♦ dju'aydiyya (A) : the populace. XI 546a
djubba (A) : a woollen tunic with rather narrow sleeves, worn over the shirt, kamIs, by
both sexes in the time of the Prophet. V 733b; a coat-like outer garment worn by both
sexes today in the Arab East. V 741a; in Tunisia, ~ denotes a full-length, sack-like
chemise without sleeves. V 745b; a gown. IX 765a
djubn (A) : a mild cheese; its residual whey is termed ma' al-djubn. XII 318b
djudham (A) : in medicine, leprosy. Other terms for the disease, depending on the
symptoms, were baras, bahak, wadah and kawdbi. XII 270b; for more euphemisms,
XII 271a; elephantiasis. V89b; X 433a; impetigo. VII 1014a
djudi (A) : a large, sea-going ship. Ill 324b
dju'dju' -> SADR
djughrafiya (A, < Gk) : geography; in mediaeval Arabic, geography was termed surat
al-ard or kaf al-ard, with ~ being explained as 'map of the world and the climes'. The
Arabs did not conceive of geography as a science, and the use of ~ for geography is
a comparatively modern practice. II 575b
djuhhal -> djahil
djuhlul ->■ SHUNKUB
djuhud (A) : in theology, denial of God. XI 478a
djukandar (P) : an official responsible for the care of the Cawgans and for the conduct
of the game of polo. II 17a
djukh (A), or djukha : a wide-sleeved coat worn by men in the Arab East. V 741a; a
long, woollen outer robe without sleeves or collar which is closed by a single button
at the neck worn by men in North Africa. V 745b
dju c l (A), or dji'dl, dja'dla, dja'ila : in early Islamic warfare, a kind of contract, regarded
as degrading, received by mercenary irregulars often drawn from tribal splinter-groups
and led by their own chieftains; ~ also served to designate the sum, levied in advance,
as insurance against failure to participate in an obligatory razzia. VIII 496b
djulab (P) : rose julep. XII 550b
djulaha : in India, a low Muslim weaver caste. XII 483a
djulahik -* kaws al-bunduk
djulandjubin (P) : rose honey. XII 550b
djulban (A) : in botany, bitter-vetch, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
djuldjul -> DJARAS
♦ djuldjulan -> simsim
djull -> WARD
djulla -> KABUSH
djullanar (A, < P gul-i andr) : in botany, the blossom of the wild pomegranate tree,
also called al-mazz. XII 277a
♦ djullanar! (A) : the deeply saturated yellow colour of the yellow sapphire. XI
262b
djulus (A, T djiilus) : accession to the throne. XII 504a
djum'a -> yawm al-djum c a
djumhuriyya -> mashyakha
djumla (A, pi. djumal) : in law, a term meaning a general Qur'anic statement made more
specific only by a hadIth which supplies a more precise definition, as opposed to
nass. VII 1029a
228 DJUMLA DJUZAZAT
In grammar, a sentence. IX 526a
Its plural form diurnal denotes a compendium or handbook, especially in grammar. VII
536b
djummar (A) : the pith of the palm-tree, eaten by pre-Islamic Arabs. II 1058b
djummayz ->■ tIn
djund (A, pi. adjndd) : an armed troop. Under the Umayyads, ~ was applied especially
to (Syrian) military settlements and districts in which were quartered Arab soldiers who
could be mobilised for seasonal campaigns or more protracted expeditions. Later, ~
took on the wider meaning of armed forces. II 601a; IX 263b
Under the Mamluks, ~ is sometimes applied to a category of soldiers in the sultan's
service, but distinct from the personal guard. II 601b
For geographers of the 3rd/9th and 4th/10th centuries, the plural adjndd denoted the
large towns. II 601b; V 125a
djundub (A) : in zoology, the locust. V 566b
djung (P) : lit. boat; an informal notebook with poetical fragments. VII 529a; VII 602a
djuni ->■ kata
djunna ->■ daraka
djunub (A) : in law, a person who is in a state of major ritual impurity. II 440b
djura ->■ tunbur
djuradh (A, pi. djirdhdn, djurdhdri) : in zoology, a term defining all rats of a large size
without distinction of species. XII 285b
♦ djuradban (A) : 'the two rats', the name of the two symmetrical dorsal muscles
of the horse. XII 286b
♦ djurdhana (A) : the name of a variety of date, on the Arabian peninsula. XII 286b
djuraydi '1-nakhl (Ir) : 'palm-tree rat', a term used in 'Irak to designate the ichneumon
or Egyptian mongoose, sub-species persicus or auropunctatus. VIII 49b
djurdjunadji (T) : a comic dancer. VIII 178b
djurm ->■ DJARlMA
djurn ->■ ha win
djurnal (A) : under Muhammad 'Ali of Egypt, a 'daily administrative report'; the term
was borrowed during the reign of Ottoman sultan 'Abd al-Hamid I to denote written
denunciations. I 64a
djuruf (A) : in Yemen, caves hewn out of the rock. X 449b
djusur ->■ djisr
djuz' (A, pi. adjzd') : part, particle; a technical term used in scholastic theology (kaldm)
and philosophy to describe the philosophical atom in the sense of the ultimate (sub-
stantial) part that cannot be divided further, sometimes also called al-djuz' al-wdhid. II
220a; II 607b
In prosody, the eight rhythmic feet which recur in definite distribution and sequence in
all metres. I 669b
In the science of the Qur'an, ~ is a division of the Qur'an for purposes of recitation.
II 607b
In literature, a booklet. XI 354b
djuz shikastan (P) : 'breaking the nut', a rite performed by the superior of the C AH-Ilahis.
X 398a
djuzaf (A) : in law, buying or selling provisions wholesale without fixing weights and
measures. X 467b; unascertained quantities. XII 703b
djuzazat (A) : index cards, as for example the collection in the Egyptian Academy of
Science that was prepared for the historical dictionary and for the dictionary of tech-
nical and scientific terms. V 1092b
DO'AB — DU'A' 229
do'ab (P) : lit. two waters; in the subcontinent of India, ~ is generally applied to the
land lying between two confluent rivers, and more particularly to the fertile plain
between the Jamna and the Ganges in present Uttar Pradesh in India. II 609b; XI la
dogah -> SHASHMAKOM
doghandji (T) : falconer. Hawking was a favourite traditional sport at the Ottoman
court. II 614a
doha : in Indo-Persian poetry, couplet. XII 483a
dokkali (B) : woollen and cotton wall covers, once a major craftsmanship in Adrar,
Algeria. I 210b
dolab (T) : a swivel-box, through which servant in Ottoman Turkish houses of the upper
class communicated with the women's apartments. IV 899a
dolama (T) : a caftan worn by the least important Ottoman palace servants, which had
a long robe, fastened in front, with narrow sleeves. V 752a
doli (H) : a litter used in India for transporting people. It is a simple rectangular frame
or bedstead, usually suspended by the four corners from a bamboo pole and carried by
two or four men; when used by women there are usually curtains hanging from the
bamboo. The ~ was much used for the transport of sick persons, and in war to carry
casualties off the battlefield. A form where the frame is supported on two poles is used
as the bier to transport a corpse to the burial-ground. VII 932a
dombra : a lute used in Kazakhstan, with two or three strings. X 733b
donadon (K), or kirds gihorrin 'changing one's shirt' : reincarnation, a belief of the
yazIdI religion. XI 314a
donanma (T) : a fleet of ships, navy; the decoration of the streets of a city for a Muslim
festival or on a secular occasion of public rejoicing such as a victory, and, more par-
ticularly, the illumination of the city by night and the firework displays which formed
part of these celebrations. II 615a
doniim (T, A dunam) : the standard measure of area in the Turkish lands of the Ottoman
empire and the Arabic lands of 'Irak, Syria and Palestine directly under Ottoman rule
until 1918, originally considered to equal one day's ploughing. In Turkey it equalled
939 m 2 (approx. 1,000 sq. yards), but in the 19th century the new ~ was equated with
the hectare; in 1934 the metric system of weights and measures was officially adopted
by the Turkish Republic. In Syria and Palestine in recent times, the ~ is 1,000 m 2 =
0.247 acres, while in Iraq a larger ~ of 2,500 m 2 is used, despite the official adoption
of the metric system in 1931. II 32b; V 474a; VII 138a
dort (T) : four.
♦ dort boliik (T), or bolukat-i erba'a : a collective name for the four lowest cavalry
regiments of the kap! kullarl They were regarded as inferior in comparison to the
remaining two higher divisions, the sipdhi oghlanlarl and the sildhddrlar. II 1097b
♦ dort kapi (T) : 'four doors', a doctrine of the Bektashiyya, comprising tarlka,
hakika, ma'rifa and sharVa. X 332b
♦ dortluk (T) : in Turkish prosody, a strophe consisting of four lines, hence synony-
mous with the term ruba'I in its broader sense. VIII 580b
doston (Taj) : a lyrical epic poem. X 65b
drafsh-i kawiyan (P) : the Iranian national flag; according to legend, it was the apron of
the blacksmith Kawah, who brought about the fall of the tyrant Zohak. IV 775 a
du'a' (A, pi. ad'iya) : appeal, invocation (addressed to God) either on behalf of another
or for oneself, or against someone; hence, prayer of invocation. II 617a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ is the formula of benediction for the addressee. II 302a;
II 314b
In prosody, ~ is the sixth and final section of a kasIda, wherein the poet implores God
for the prosperity of the sultan or person to whom the poem is addressed and expresses
his thanks for the completion of the work. IV 715b; V 956b; V 960a
♦ du'a' al-wasila ->• tasliya
♦ du c akh*an ->• bakhshI
dubayti -> ruba'I
dubb al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the sea lion, also called asad al-bahr and bakrat al-bahr.
VIII 1022b
dubba 3 -► kuththa'
dud al-kazz (A) : in zoology, the silkworm. X 752a
dudjr ->• dadjr
dudjur -» DADJR
duff (A) : in music, the generic term for any instrument of the tambourine family. II
620a
dugh -► AYRAN
diigiin -> toy
duha (A) : 'forenoon', the first part of the day, up to the moment when the sun has tra-
versed a quarter of the diurnal arc. II 622b; V 709b
♦ salat al-duha (A) : a sixth prayer performed in some circles, on top of the five
compulsory prayers, at the same time before midday as the c asr was performed after
midday. VII 28a
duhn (A, pi. adhdn) : oil extracted from any plant other than the olive. XI 486a
♦ duhn al-hall (A), or sallt djuldjuldn, shlradj (P shlra) : the oil of sesame. IX 615a;
XI 486a
duhul (A, P dohol) : a drum with a shorter body than the long-bodied cylindrical drum,
mentioned by Nasir-i Khusraw as one of the martial instruments of the Fatimids. In
Egypt of modern times it is known as tabl al-baladl. X 33b
duka (Tun) : a pointed bonnet for women. V 745b
dukhan ->• tutun
dukhla (A) : 'entering', consummation of a marriage. The wedding night was known as
laylat al-~. X 903a; X 905b
dukhn (A) : in botany, the small sorghum (Pennisetum spicatum) widespread in the
Sudan and also called Moorish millet. XII 249b
dukmak (A) : in zoology, a silurus of the Nile, the Euphrates and the Niger, whose
Arabic term is found again in the Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species lim-
ited to a particular region (Bagrus docmac). VIII 1021b
dulab (P, pi. dawdlib) : a water-wheel. Al-Mukaddasi (4th/10th century) noted that there
were many alongside the banks of the Nile for irrigating orchards during the low
waters. According to him, the kddus was the bucket. V 863b f.
dulband ->• tulband
dum (A) : in botany, jujube-like fruits of the Ziziphus trees, highly valued for food. IX
549a
du'mus (A) : the maggot. VIII 1022a
dunam ->• donum
dunbak, or tanbak ->■ darabukka
dundj -► c ikbir
dunya (A) : lit. nearer, nearest; in theology, this (base) world, as opposed to din and
the correlative akhira. II 295a; II 626b
durab (A) : in zoology, the chirocentrus, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Chirocentrus
dorab). VIII 1021b
durada (A, < Sp dorado) : in zoology, the goldfish {Spams aurata). VIII 1021a
durar -> durr
durbash (P) : lit. be distant; the mace or club used as an emblem of military dignity,
and in Persian and Turkish usage, the functionary who carries the mace. II 627b
DURKA'A — EFENDI 231
durka'a ->• ka'a
durr (A), or durar : pearl. II 628a; artistic poetry of high quality. IX 448b; and ->
lu'lu 3
durra'a (A) : the gown worn by a secretary (kdtib) in mediaeval times. IV 756a; in Syria
and Palestine, a woman's outer coat, open in front, sometimes synonymous with
djubba. V 741a; in North Africa, a long robe with sleeves for both sexes. V 746a
durud ->• TASLIYA
dus : in metallugry, cast iron. V 971b
dushab (P) : in the mediaeval Near East, a drink from syrup or from preserves of fruit
which is sometimes non-alcoholic, but which is frequently mentioned in the context of
drinks which can ferment and become alcoholic. VI 720b
dushakh (P) : a crown-like hat with a pointed rim on either side, worn by men of high
rank in Saldjuk Persia and of Inner Asian, Turkish origin. V 748a
dustur (A) : originally from Persian, ~ seems originally to have meant a person exer-
cising authority, whether religious or political. Later, ~ acquired a specialised meaning,
designating members of the Zoroastrian priesthood. The word occurs in Kalila wa-
dimna in the sense of 'counsellor'. More commonly it was used in the sense of rule or
regulation, and in particular the code of rules and conduct of the guilds. In Arabic, ~
was employed in a variety of meanings, notably 'army pay-list', 'model or formulary',
'leave', and also, addressed to a human being or to invisible djinn, 'permission'. In
modern Arabic, ~ means constitution. II 638a; and -»■ dastur
Under the Ayyubids, ~ meant a legal release from a campaign. The term gradually died
out in the period of the Mamluks. Ill 186b
In astronomy, a circular instrument, known also as a/-§HAKKAZiYYA. V 84a
♦ dustur (T) : principle, precedent, code or register of rules; applied in particular to
the great series of volumes, containing the texts of new laws, published in Istanbul (and
later Ankara) from 1279/1863 onwards. II 640a
♦ dustur-i mukerrem (T) : one of the honorific titles of the grand vizier of the
Ottoman empire. II 638a
dutar (T), variants dotar, dutar : in music, a lute with two strings. VIII 234b; X 733b f.
duwar ->• dawar
duwwama (A) : the game of tops (syn. khudhruf). V 616b
duyun ->• dayn
duzale : a Kurdish flute with two pipes of reed or bird bone, pierced with holes and
whose mouthpiece has a kind of vibratory tongue. The sound resembles that of the
Scottish bagpipes. V 478a
duzdidha -> andargah
diizen (T) : in music, the tunings [of the lute]. IX 120b
efe (T) : the chief of the Zeybek or Turkish mountaineers in Western Anatolia. His word
was law, even to the extent of whether one could marry another. His assistant was
called kizan. XI 493b
efendi (T, < Gk) : an Ottoman title, already in use in the 7th/13th and 8th/14th centuries
in Turkish Anatolia. A 16th-century fatwa applied the term to the owner of slaves and
slave-girls. Later, ~ became increasingly common in Ottoman usage as a designation
of members of the scribal and religious, as opposed to the military, classes, in partic-
ular of certain important functionaries. During the 13th/19th century, although the
Ottoman government made attempts to regulate the use of the term by law, ~ was used,
232 EFENDI — ESHAM
following the personal name, as a form of address or reference for persons possessing
a certain standard of literacy, and not styled bey or pasha; - thus became an approx-
imate equivalent of the English mister or French monsieur. In 1934 it was finally abol-
ished, but has remained in common use as a form of address for both men and women.
I 75a; II 687a
eflak (T, < Ger Wallach) : under the Ottomans, ~ denoted the Balkan Rumanians and
those north of the Danube. II 687b; II 915a
efsane (T, < P afsdna) : legend; completely fantastic story, fabricated or superstitious.
Ill 373b
eklan -»• imqhad
elci (T) : envoy, messenger; in Ottoman diplomacy, the normal word for ambassador,
although sefir (< A safir) was used. II 694a; and ->■ maslahatguzar; safIr
In eastern Turkish, ruler of a land or people. II 694a
elifi nemed (T) : a woollen initiatic girdle, worn by the Mewlewis, so called because
with its tapering end when laid out flat, it resembled the letter alif. They also wore a
second type of woollen girdle, the tighbend, during their dance, in order to hold in
place the ample skirt of the garment known as the tennure. IX 167b
emanet (T) : the function or office of an emin. II 695b; the system of collection of
mukata'a revenues directly by the emin. II 147b
♦ emanet-i mukadesse (T) : the name given to a collection of relics preserved in
the treasury of the Topkapi palace in Istanbul. II 695b
♦ emaneten (T) : one of three principal ways in which mining activity was organ-
ised in the Ottoman empire, the others being iltizamen and ihale; ~ meant the direct
administration of mines or mining districts through state-appointed superintendents. V
974b
emin (T, < A amin) : an Ottoman administrative title usually translated intendant or
commissioner. Primarily, an ~ was a salaried officer appointed by or in the name of
the sultan, to administer, supervise or control a department, function or source of rev-
enue. The term is used also of agents and commissioners appointed by authorities other
than the sultan, and at times, by abuse, the ~ appears as tax-farmer. II 695b
emr (T, < A amr) : a term denoting a general order issued in the name of the Ottoman
sultan, as well as a special order which decreed the issue of a berat. I 1170a
enderun (T) : inside.
Under the Ottomans, ~ was used to designate the inside service (as opposed to birun,
the outside service) of the imperial household of the Ottoman sultan, comprising four
departments, viz. the Privy Chamber, the Treasury, the Privy Larder, and the Great and
Little Chambers. II 697b; IV 1097a
entari (T) : a kind of caftan, worn in the Ottoman period under the real caftan and fur,
descending as far as the ankle or covering the knee. V 752a
enzel (Tun, < A inzal) : in law, a perpetual lease system found not only on 'habous'
(inalienable property, the yield of which is devoted to pious purposes) but also on pri-
vate, mulk, properties, peculiar to Tunisia. XII 369a; XII 423a
eren ->■ ermish
ermish (T, < 'to reach, attain') : with baba, ata, eren and yatir, a term for saint in the
Turkish world.
esham (T, < A asham, s. sahm 'share') : the word used in Turkey to designate certain
treasury issues, variously described as bonds, assignats and annuities. Although the ~
reverted to the state on the death of the holder, they could be sold, the state claiming
a duty of one year's income on each such transfer. The ~ were introduced in the early
years of the reign of Mustafa III and the practice was continued by later sultans; their
purpose and names varied from time to time. I 692b
ESHKINDJI — FADJR 233
eshkindji (T), or eshktindji : a term in the Ottoman army denoting in general a soldier
who joined the army on an expedition. As a special term, ~ designated auxiliary sol-
diers whose expenses were provided by the people of peasant, re'aya (-> ra'iyya), sta-
tus. From the mid-10th/16th century, the ~ lost importance and gradually disappeared.
II 714b; cavalry participating in the campaigns. X 503a
esrar : a pandore viol from India, with the tawus one of the two best-known examples.
The ~ has a membrane on its face and has five strings played with the bow together
with a number of sympathetic strings. VIII 348b
eyalet (T, < A iydla) : in the Ottoman empire, the largest administrative division under
a governor-general, beglerbegi. An ~ was composed of sandjaks, which was the
basic administrative unit. The ~ system was replaced by that of wilayet in 1281/1864.
I 468b; I 906b; II 721b
ezan -> adhan
fa' (A) : the twentieth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed /, with the numerical
value 80. It is defined as fricative, labio-dental, unvoiced. II 725a
fada'il (A, s. fadila) : lit. virtues, a genre of literature exposing the excellences of things,
individuals, groups, places, regions and such for the purpose of a laudatio. II 728b; VI
350a
In Mamluk terminology, ~, or kamalat, was often applied to the exercises necessary for
the mastery of horse-riding. II 954b
♦ fada'il al-af al (A) : in the science of Tradition, a genre consisting of Traditions
that list human actions which are believed to be particularly pleasing to God. VIII 983a
fadan (A) : a word that seems to have been applied at the same time to the yoke, to the
pair of oxen and to the implement that they pull to till the land, i.e. the tiller. An
evolved form, faddan, came to designate also the area that a pair of oxen could till
in a given time. VII 21b
faddan (A) : a yoke of oxen; the standard measure of land in Egypt in former times. It
was defined by al-Kalkas_handi (9th/15th century) as equalling 400 square kasabas, i.e.
6,368 m 2 . Since 1830, the ~ has corresponded to 4200.833 m 2 . VII 138a
fadhlaka (A, < fa-dhdlika) : in mathematics, the sum, total. Besides being placed at the
bottom of an addition to introduce the result, ~ is also employed for the summing up
of a petition, report, or other document. By extension, ~ acquired the meaning of com-
pendium. II 727b
fadikh (A) : a kind of date, from which wine was made. IV 995b; a drink composed of
fruits (dates, etc.) mixed in water. VI 720b; an intoxicating drink made from different
kinds of dates. VII 840a
fadila -> fada'il
fadjdja' -> far c
fadjr (A) : dawn, daybreak.
♦ al-fadjr al-kadbib (A), or al-subh al-kddhib : lit. the false dawn; the Arabic term
for the column of zodiacal light which is a symmetrically converse phenomenon in the
circadian cycle (syn. dhanab al-sirhdn 'the wolf's tail') during which prayers are for-
bidden. It is followed by the 'true dawn', al-subh al-sddik. VIII 928b; IX 179b
♦ salat al-fadjr (A) : the morning prayer which is to be performed in the period
from daybreak, or 'the true dawn', when faces can still not yet be recognised, until
before sunrise. VII 27b; VIII 928b
fadl -> da'ir; rahma; sila
fafir (Egy) : in Egypt, the term used for papyrus. VIII 261a
faghfur (P), or baghbur : title of the emperor of China in the Muslim sources. II 738a
♦ faghfuri : Chinese (porcelain). The term has entered Modern Greek in the sense
of porcelain, and also Slav languages, through the Russian farfor. II 738a; III 345b
faghiya, faghw -*■ hinna 1
fahd (A, < Gk or L pardus ?; P yuz) : in zoology, the cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus). II
738b
fahisha (A) : a sin. XI 509a
fahl (A, pi. fuhul) : lit. stallion; in literature, a term given to a powerful poet. I 405b;
XII 648b
fahm ->■ idrak
fahm (A) : in mineralogy, coal, used in early Islam as fuel for ovens while its ashes
were utilised as a cleaning agent. V 1 1 8a; V 965a; a sort of charcoal. VII 886a
fahrasa (A, < P fihrist) : the name given in Muslim Spain to kinds of catalogues, in
which scholars enumerated their masters and the subjects or works studied under their
direction. Synonyms of this term are: barndmadj, thabat, mashlkha (mashyakha) and
mu'djam. The genre, which appears to be a particular speciality of the Andalusians,
should be associated with the transmission of hadIih. I 96b; II 743b
fa'il (A) : in grammar, the agent. VIII 384a
fa'it (A), or fawdt : continuation of a work (syn. sila), but connoting discontinuity in
relation to the original work. IX 604a
faM? ->■ AL-MAL AL-HURR
fak c (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, truffles. I 540b
fakhkhar (A) : earthenware vase, pottery, ceramics, produced by practically every coun-
try in the Islamic world. II 745a
fakhr (A) : self-praise. VIII 376b
♦ fakhriyya (T, < A) : in Turkish prosody, ~ is the last but one section of a kasida,
wherein the poet praises himself. IV 715b
faki' (A) : said of the child who has become active, and has started to grow. VIII 822a
fakih (A, pi. fukahd') : in its non-technical meaning ~ denotes anyone possessing knowl-
edge, fikh, of a thing (syn. 'dlim, pi. 'ulamd'). II 756a
In law, ~ became the technical term for a specialist in religious law and in particular
its derivative details, furu'. In older terminology, however, ~ as opposed to c dlim
denotes the speculative, systematic lawyer as opposed to the specialist in the traditional
elements of religious law. II 756a; and ->■ mutafakkih
In several Arabic dialects, forms like fikl have come to denote a schoolmaster in a
kuttab or a professional reciter of the Qur'an. II 756a
fakir (A, pi. fukard') : a needy person, a pauper; its etymological meaning is 'one whose
backbone is broken'.
In mysticism, a ~ is a person 'who lives for God alone'. Total rejection of private
property and resignation to the will of God were considered essential for the ~ who
aspired to gnosis. II 757b
In irrigation terminology (pi. fukur), the water outlet of a canal, kanat; a well or group
of wells linked by a gallery. IV 532b
fakk -»■ iwan
fakkak (A) : the individual who devotes himself totally or episodically to the ransoming
of Muslims held captive by infidels; in the Muslim West by the 13th century, ~ came
to denote the man who liberates a captive, whether Muslim or not, as an extension of
the equivalent appearing in a Christian context, called alfaqueque in Castillian. XII
307a
FAKKUS — FALLAH 235
fakkus (A) : in botany, unripe melons, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt. V
863a
fakr (A) : poverty. XI 141b
fa'l (A) : an omen, appearing in varied forms, ranging from simple sneezing, certain
peculiarities of persons and things that one encounters, to the interpretation of the
names of persons and things which present themselves spontaneously to the sight, hear-
ing and mind of man. II 758b
♦ fal-name (P) : book of divination, consulted in the Muslim East (especially in
Iranian and Turkish countries) in order to know the signs or circumstances that are aus-
picious for some decision. II 761b
faladj (A, pi. aflddj) : the term used in Oman, Trucial Oman, and Bahrain to designate
an underground aqueduct with surface apertures to facilitate cleaning. This type of
aqueduct, which may be of Persian origin, is now called sakI (pronounced sddji, pi.
sawddji) in al-Afladj, the district in Nadjd which takes its name from ~. I 233a; I 539a;
IV 531b
falak (A, pi. aflak) : sphere, in particular the Celestial Sphere. II 761b; VIII 101b
♦ falak al-awdj -»■ al-falak al-kharidj al-markaz
♦ falak al-burudj (A) : in astronomy, the term for L. ecliptica. II 762b
♦ falak al-djawzahar (A) : in astronomy, the massive ball into which, according to
Ibn al-Haytham, the moon is inserted, and which carries it along as it moves. V 536a
♦ al-falak al-hamil (A) : in astronomy, the deferent. II 762b; IX 292b
♦ al-falak al-kharidj al-markaz (A), or falak al-awdj. : in astronomy, the term for L.
excentricus. II 762b
♦ al-falak al-ma'il (A) : in astronomy, the term for L. circulus obliquus (or
deflectens). II 762b
♦ al-aflak al-ma'ila 'an falak mu'addil al-nahar (A) : in astronomy, the term for the
circles parallel to the equator. II 762b
♦ falak mu'addil al-nahar (A) : in astronomy, the term for L. circulus aequinoctialis
(the celestial equator). II 762b
♦ al-falak al-mumaththal li-falak al-burudj (A) : in astronomy, the term for L. cir-
culus pareclipticus. II 762b
♦ al-falak al-mustakim (A) : the astronomical term for L. sphaera recta, the celes-
tial sphere as appearing to the inhabitants of the equatorial region, where the celestial
equator passes through the zenith. II 762b
♦ falak al-tadwir (A) : in astronomy, the epicycle. II 762b; IX 292b
falaka (A) : an apparatus used for immobilising the feet in order to apply a bastinado
on the soles of the feet. The ~ existed in three different forms: a plank with two holes
in it, of the pillory type; two poles joined at one end; or a single, fairly stout pole with
a cord fixed at the two ends. In the Muslim East, especially among the Turks, the ~
was used as an instrument of torture, while in North Africa its use was confined to the
schoolmaster. II 763b
falasifa (A, < Gk; s. faylasuf) : the Greek thinkers; philosophers. II 764b
falidj (A, pi. fawdlidj) : the camelus bactrianus, or camel proper, with two humps. Ill
665b
In medicine, hemiplegia. V 89b; VIII Ilia; IX 8a
falidja (A), and shukka : bands of hair or wool forming the awning of an Arab tent.
They were sewn side-by-side and formed a rectangle. Those that were placed at the
two edges, that is, those that form the larger side of the rectangle, were called kisr or
kasr. IV 1147b
fallah (A, pi. falldhin) : ploughman; member of the sedentary rural population. I 575a;
II 899a
236 FALLAK FAR'
fallak (A, B fellaga) : brigands and subsequently rebels in Tunisia and Algeria.
Originally the term was applied to individuals who wished to escape punishment, to
deserters, and to fugitive offenders, who eventually formed bands supporting them-
selves by brigandage. The uprising brought about by Khalifa b. 'Askar in southern
Tunisia in 1915 gave new meaning to the word. Later, the incidents which occurred in
Tunisia between 1952 and 1954, as well as the Algerian rebellion in 1954, made the
term popular again. II 767b
fallata : term, strictly signifying the Fulani, used in the Nilotic Sudan for Muslim immi-
grants from the western bildd al-suddn, and in particular those from northern Nigeria,
many of whom are primarily pilgrims en route to Mecca. ~ has largely superseded the
older takdrir or takdrna. II 767b
fals (A, pi. fulus) : the name of the copper or bronze coin, regardless of its size or
weight. II 768a
In astronomy, a small ring placed under the wedge at the front of the astrolabe to pro-
tect one of the movable parts of the instrument, the 'spider', and ensure a smooth turn-
ing. I 723a
falsafa (A, < Gk) : Greek thought; philosophy. ~ began as a search by Muslims with
s_hi'i leanings for a coherence in their intellectual and spiritual life, evolving later to
grow closer to orthodox kalam and finally fusing with it. II 769b
falta (A) : a precipitate, arbitrary act, excusable only because God had bestowed success
on it. IX 422a
faltita (A), or dialtlta, diantlta : a skirt of Spanish origin worn mainly by Jewish and
Andalusian women in the Muslim West. V 746a
fam -> c ayn
fana' -> baka' wa-fana'
fanak (A, < P; pi. afndk) : in zoology, the fennec-fox (Fennecus zerda), in the Muslim
West, and the Corsac or Karagan Fox (Vulpes corsac, < T kursdk), in the Muslim East.
However, in the imagination of all the authors who used the word, ~ must have meant
the mink (Mustela lutreola), whose pelt was greatly esteemed in the luxury fur-trade.
II 775a
fani -> pIr
fanid -> sukkar
fann (A) : the modern name for art. II 775b
♦ fann al-multazim (A) : committed art, that is, art that shows social concern, first
examples of which are to be found after the Suez crisis in Egypt. X 365b
fa'r (A, pi. fi'rdn, fi'ara, fu'ar) : in zoology, the majority of types and species of the
sub-order of the Myomorphs; the family of Soricids. XII 285b, where can be found
many synonyms and varieties
♦ fa'r fir'awn (A) : lit. Pharaoh's rat; in Egypt, with the geographical sub-species
pharaonis, the ichneumon or Egyptian mongoose, sometimes called kitt fir'awn
'Pharaoh's cat'. VIII 49b
far c (A, pi. furu') : a branch; in archery, a self-bow (syn. fadidjd', fidpv, munfadjd). IV
798a
In fiscal law, ~ was a supplementary increase, discovered or invented in the course of
history, upon the official taxes for the defrayal of attendant expenses or any other rea-
son. I 1144a; IV 1041a; and -> furu 1 al-fikh
In military science, furu' are the operations by the irregulars, who do not form part of
the army proper but who may play a part in the preliminaries and on the fringes of the
battle. Ill 182a
In prosody, iht furu' are the modifications in the feet of the metres, due to deviations,
e.g. mu[s]taf'ilun becomes mutaf'ilun when its sin is lost, the 'normal' foot being part
FAR' — FARD 237
of the usul (->■ asl) form of the feet, and the altered foot, one of the furu'. I 671b
As a literary topos, ~ denoted thick, soft and fragrant hair. IX 313a
♦ furu c al-fikh (A) : in law, the body of positive rules derived from the sources of
legal knowledge, usul al-fikh (-»• asl). I 257b; II 889b; IX 323b
fara'a (A, pi. furu') : the firstling of a flock or herd, sacrificed in the pre-Islamic period
during the month of Radjab as an invocation to the deities to increase the number of
flocks. VIII 373b
faradjiyya (A) : a long-sleeved man's robe in Egypt. V 741a; a green robe. XII 612b;
the Moroccan variant faradfiyya (B tafaradjit) is a very light gown with a deep slit at
the breast which may or may not have sleeves and is worn under the khaftan or gar-
ment by both sexes. It also comes in a half-length version called nuss faradjiyya. V
746a
faraid (A, s. farlda) : lit. appointed or obligatory portions; as a technical term, ~ means
the fixed shares in an estate which are given to certain heirs according to the provi-
sions of Muslim law. The whole of the Islamic law of inheritance is called 'Urn al-
fara'id. II 783a; VII 106b
farakh (P) : a type of cloth brocade, which along with a type called mushti was manu-
factured especially in Yazd. XI 304a
faramush-khana (P) : in Iran, a centre of masonic activities, freemasonry seemingly
having come over from India where the first lodge was founded by the British in 1730.
XII 290a
faras (A) : in zoology, the horse (Equus caballus) in the sense of saddle-horse, the rider
of which is termed faris. II 784b; II 800a; IV 1 143b; the chesspiece. IX 366b
In astronomy, a wedge which is fitted into a slit in the narrow end of the broadheaded
pin at the front of the astrolabe to prevent the pin from coming out. I 723a; a 'cav-
allo'. X 367b
♦ faras al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the bellows fish (Centriscus). VIII 1021a
♦ faras al-ma' (A) : in zoology, the hippopotamus. XII 294a
farasha (A, P parwdna) : in zoology, the moth. IX 282a
farat (A) : lit. dying before one's parents; a child who dies before reaching maturity.
VIII 821b
fard (A, pi. afrdd) : 'only, solitary, unique, incomplete, incomparable'; in prosody, ~
denotes a line of verse taken in isolation (intact or reduced to a single hemistich). II
789b
In lexicography, afrdd are the words handed down by one single lexicographer, as dis-
tinct from ahad and mafarid. II 790a
In the science of Tradition, ~ is synonomous with gharib mutlak and means a Tradition
in which the second link of the chain of those who have transmitted it is only repre-
sented by a single transmitter. II 790a; ~ is used of an isnad with only one transmit-
ter at each stage, or of a Tradition transmitted only by people of one district. Ill 25b
In astronomy, ~ denotes the star alpha in Hydra, al-shudjd', and hence the most bril-
liant. II 790a
In arithmetic, al-'adad al-fard is the odd number (from 3 upwards, inclusive), as
opposed to the even number, al-'adad al-zawdj. II 790a
In theology and philosophy, ~ denotes the species, as restricted by the bond of individ-
uation. II 790a
In mysticism, al-afrdd are seven in number and occupy the fourth category in the hier-
archy of the saints. I 95 a
fard (A), or farida : lit. something which has been apportioned, or made obligatory; as
a technical term in religious law, ~ is a religious duty or obligation, the omission of
which will be punished and the performance of which will be rewarded. It is one of
238 FARD FARSI
the so-called al-ahkdm al-khamsa, the five qualifications by which every act of man is
qualified. II 790a; VIII 486b
♦ fard 'ayn (A) : the individual duty such as ritual prayer, fasting, etc. II 790a; VIII
497b
♦ fard kifaya (A) : the collective duty, the fulfilment of which by a sufficient num-
ber of individuals excuses others from fulfilling it, such as funeral prayer, holy war,
etc. II 539a; II 790a; VIII 497b
farhang (P) : politeness, knowledge, education; dictionary.
In recent decades, ~ has come to be used also in the sense of culture, while farhan-
gistdn has been adopted for 'academy'. V 1095b
farhangistan -» farhang
farida ->■ fara'id; fard
faridj -> katum
farik -»• saff
farina (A) : a soft variety of wheat, grown in Algeria. The indigenous hard variety,
triticum durum, was known as gemh. IX 537b
farir -> fazz; sakhla
faris (A, (pi. fursdn, fawdris) : the rider on horseback (and thus not applicable to a man
riding a camel or mule), implying, in contrast to rdkib 'horseman', the valiant, the
champion, the intrepid warrior. II 800a
fark (A, (pi. furuk) : like fasl, separation, difference; in law, the decisive difference that
brings about a different legal determination, hukm, that is, that indicates the difference
between outwardly similar cases. XII 517a
farkad (A) : in astronomy, the star 'the oryx calf (= Phercad), y Ursae minoris, and with
the associated (3 Ursae minoris together form al-farkadayn (= Elfarcadin) 'the two
calves', the 'guardians' of the North Pole. V 1230a; VII 51a; and -»• fazz
farman (P, T fermdn) : originally command, but by the 9th/15th century, ~ had come
to denote the edict or document, as issued by the ruler, itself. There were many syn-
onyms, such as hukm, mithdl and rakam, which later came to designate a document
issued by authorities of lower rank. II 309a; II 803a
♦ farman-i bayadi : in the Mughal period, a confidential and important farman, not
involving a sum of money, which received only a royal seal and was folded and dis-
patched in such a way that its contents remained private to the recipient. II 806a
farmasuniyya (A) : freemasonry. XII 296a; and -> faramush-khana
farran (A) : an oven-worker. V 41b
In Morocco, a communal oven. V 41b
farrash (A) : lit. spreader of the carpets; a servant who looks after the beds and the
house generally. IV 899a; an attendant in a library. VI 199a; and -» yurtCi
farrudj (A) : a robe similar to the kaba', but slit in the back, worn in the Prophet's time.
V733b
farsakh (P), and farsang : a measure of distance on a time basis, originally the distance
which could be covered on foot in an hour: approx. 5.94 km for cavalry, and 4 km for
foot-soldiers. In present-day Iran, the ~ is now fixed at precisely 6 km. II 812b
farsang -»• farsakh
farsha -»• 'ataba
farsi (P, A), also pdrsi : in linguistics, the name for modern Persian, the official language
of Iran. --/ darl or simply darI is also used in native sources, referring to the oldest
and most respected variety of (Classical) literary Persian or simply as an equivalent of
~. XII 427a ff.
♦ farsi-nigari (P) : a simple Persian style of writing, with a minimum of Arabic loan
words. XI 238b
FARSI — FASILA 239
♦ farsi-i 'amiyana (P) : Persian as it is written and spoken in Tehran, which is
becoming the common spoken standard all over Iran. XII 433b
♦ farsi-i bastani (P) : denomination for 'old archaic' modern Persian vs. farsi-i naw,
a 'new' variety, sometimes found in scholarly publications. XII 428b
♦ farsi-i naw -> farsI-i bastani
farudiyya (A) : a square kerchief bound around the cap by women in Egypt. V 741a; X
612a
farw (A), or farwa : a fur; a garment made of, or trimmed with, fur. Although farwa
can mean also a cloak of camel-hair, it is likely that this term in ancient poetry refers
to sheepskins with the wool left on (in Morocco called haydura), used as carpets, to
cover seats, or for protection against the cold. II 816b
fa's ->■ HAKMA
fasaha (A) : clarity, purity; in rhetoric, ~ is the term for the purity and euphony of lan-
guage, and can be divided into three kinds: fasahat al-mufrad, with respect to a single
word when it is not difficult to pronounce, is not a foreign or rare word and its form
is not an exception to the usual; fasahat al-kaldm, with respect to a whole sentence,
when it does not contain an objectionable construction, a discord, an obscurity (through
a confusion in the arrangement of the words) or a metaphor too far-fetched and there-
fore incomprehensible; and fasahat al-mutakallim, with respect to a person whose style
conforms to the above conditions. I 981b; II 824a
fasd (A) ; in medicine, bleeding. II 481b; XII 303b; and -> fassad
fasht (A, pi. fushut), or kut'a, nadjwa : the term for reef in the Persian Gulf. I 535b
fasid (A) : in law, a legal act which does not observe the conditions of validity stricto
sensu required for its perfection; vitiated and therefore null. Only in the Hanafi school
of law is ~ distinct from bdtil 'null and void', where it denotes a legal act which lacks
one of the elements essential for the existence of any legal activity. I 319a; II 829b;
VIII 836a; IX 324b
fasik (A) : in theology, one who has committed one or several 'great sins'. According
to the Mu'tazila, who elaborated the thesis of the so-called intermediary status, the ~
is not entirely a believer nor entirely an infidel, but 'in a position between the two' (fi
manzila bayna ' l-manzilatayn). Al-Ash'ari maintained the same opinion, but added that
if the ~ was a believer before becoming a sinner, the 'great sin' committed will not
invalidate his standing as a believer; this position was adopted by the sunnis as a
whole. II 833a
In law, ~ is the opposite of 'adl, a person of good morals. I 209b; II 834a
fasil (T) : a term in Ottoman music which in its classical form can be defined as a vari-
able selection of pieces, usually by different composers, fitting into a series of pre-
scribed slots organised in such a way as to emphasise, within the overall unity of
mode, contrast and variety. It thus alternates between instrumental and vocal, unmea-
sured and measured, and juxtaposes vocal pieces using contrasting rhythmic cycles. VII
1043a; X 143b
fasil ->■ iha'lab
fasil (A) : in architecture, an intervallum. I 616a
♦ fasila (A) : an object which is separated, like a young animal when weaned, and
a palmtree sucker when transplanted; also the smallest 'section' of a tribe, the closest
relatives. II 835a
fasila (A, pi. fawasil) : a separative; in prosody, ~ denotes a division in the primitive
feet, meaning three or four moving consonants followed by one quiescent, e.g. katalat,
katalahum. II 834b; VIII 667b; and -+ sadj'
In Qur'anic terminology, ~ signifies the rhymes of the Qur'anic text. II 834b; VIII 614b
In music, ~ denotes the pause which, with the basic notes, makes up the rhythm, Ika'.
XII 408b
faskh (A) : in law, the dissolution of any contractual bond whatever, effected, as a rule,
by means of a declaration of intention pronounced in the presence of the other con-
tracting party, or by judicial process. The term is to be distinguished from infisdkh
which comes about without the need of any declaration or judicial decree. Dissolution
of marriage open to the wife or her relatives is by way of ~, while the dissolution of
marriage by the man is talak. II 836a; III 1056b; and -> naskh
♦ faskha : in Mauritania, the dowry supplied by the family of the bride when she
joins the conjugal home. VI 313a
faskiyya -► sahrIdj
fasl (A, pi. fusul) : separation, disjunction; in logic, ~ is 'difference', and, in particular,
'specific difference', the third of the five predicables of Porphyry. For logicians, ~
stands both for every attribute by which one thing is distinguished from another,
whether it be individual or universal, and, in transposition, for that by which a thing
is essentially distinguished. II 836b; and ->■ sjja'Ira
In its plural form, fusul is employed in philosophy and science to denote aphorisms or
short chapters. VII 536b; in literature, brief sentences or paragraphs in rhymed prose.
X 427a; in shadow-play terminology, the acts into which plays are divided. IV 1136b
♦ al-fasl al-'amm (A) : 'common difference', a term in logic for what allows a thing
to differ from another and that other to differ from the former; equally it is what allows
a thing to differ from itself at another time. This is the case of separable accidents. II
837a
♦ al-fasl al-khass (A) : 'particular difference', a term in logic for the predicate
which is necessarily associated with accidents. II 837a
♦ fasl al-sulutat ->■ tawazun al-sulutat
♦ fasli (A) : 'seasonal', the term employed by Muslim rulers in India to designate
a variety of indigenous calendars. X 263b
fass ->■ kasab(a)
fassad (A) : lit. phlebotomist; in mediaeval Islamic society, the practitioner of fasd who
bled veins of the human body and performed circumcisions for men and women. A
similar profession was cupping, hiajdma, which was performed by a hadj.dj.am but was
less popular and enjoyed less status: the cupper was a much-satirised character in
Arabic tales. XII 303b
fata (A, pi. fitydri) : a boy, manservant; slave. I 24b; and ->■ futuwwa
In the mediaeval Muslim East, the fitydn (syn. 'ayydrun; -*■ 'ayyar) were private
groups, recruited from the depressed classes, which played the role of 'active wing' of
the popular oppositions to the official authorities. I 256b; VIII 402a
In Muslim Spain, ~ was the slave employed in the service of the prince and his house-
hold, or of the hadjib, who held an elevated rank in the palace hierarchy. II 837a
♦ al-fatayan al-kabiran (A) : the two majordomos under whose control the entire
management of the princely household in Muslim Spain was placed. II 837a
fath al-kitab (A) : bibliomancy, a form of sorcery. VIII 138b
fatha (A) : in grammar, ~ denotes the short vowel a. Ill 172a
In North Africa, ~ is a slit in the qjallabiyya at the top of the armlets through which
the bare forearm can be thrust. II 405 a
For ~ in prayer, -> fatiha
fath name (T) : an Ottoman official announcement of a victory; a versified narrative of
exploits, written by private persons as a literary exercise. II 839a
fatiha (A, pi. fawdtih) : the opening (sura); designation of the first sura of the Qur'an;
(or fatha) a prayer ceremony in certain Arab countries, particularly in North Africa, in
which the arms are stretched out with the palms upwards, but without any recitation of
the first sura. II 841a; V 409b; V 425a
FATIHA — FAZZ 241
♦ fawatih al-suwar (A), and awd'il al-suwar, al-huruf al-mukatta'dt : 'the openers
of the suras', a letter or group of letters standing just after the basmala at the begin-
ning of 29 suras and recited as letters of the alphabet. They are generally referred to
in European languages as 'the mysterious letters'. V 412a
fatik (A, pi. futtdk) : a killer, a syn. of su'lOk, or category into which the su'luk fell.
IX 864a
fatim (A) : a child weaned or ablactated. VIII 822a
fatir -> khamIr
fatra (A) : a relaxing; an interval of time, more particularly with respect to the period
separating two prophets or two successive messengers. In its more current usage, ~ is
applied to the period without prophets from the time of Jesus Christ to Muhammad. In
later times, ~ was also applied, by analogy, to periods of political interregnum. II 865a;
a suspension of (Qur'anic) revelation. XI 143a
fattama -► shamla
fatur (A) : the meal marking the end of the fast of Ramadan. IX 94b
fatus (A), or hut al-hayd : a fabulous marine creature mentioned by mediaeval Arab
authors. It shatters the ships which it encounters, but is put to flight when the sailors
hang from the peripheral points of the vessel rags stained with menstrual blood, hayd.
VIII 1023a
fatwa (A) : in law, an opinion on a point of law. II 866a; II 890a
fawat ->• fa'it
fawatih ->• fatiha; iftitah
fawdjar : under the Dihli sultanate, the superintendant of elephants, who, among other
things, was ordered to train them to stand firm at the sight of fire and in the noise of
artillery. V 690a
fawdjdar (IndP) : an executive and military officer, the administrative head of a district,
sarkdr, in the Mughal administration of India. I 317a; II 868a
fay' (A) : in pre-Islamic times, chattels taken as booty. II 869a; in early Islam, ~ were
the immoveable properties acquired by conquest, a foundation in perpetuity for the
benefit of successive generations of the community, in contrast to the moveable booty,
ghanima, which was distributed immediately. I 1144a; IV 1031a; spoils of war. VIII
130b
In the terminology of time, ~ denotes the shade in the east which, when it moves from
the west (where it is called zill) to the east, marks midday. V 709b
fayd ->• ifada
fayda ->• rawda; sahib al-fayda
faydj (A, < P; pi. fuyudj) : a courier of the government postal service and also com-
mercial mail serving the population at large. It was a common term all over North
Africa and Egypt during the 5th/llth and 6th/12th centuries, while on the Egypt-Syria
route the word kutubi, letter-bearer, was used. I 1044b; II 969b
♦ faydj tayyar (A) : express courier. II 970b
faylak ->• kurdus
faylasuf (A) : a philosopher; in popular language, ~ is applied in an uncomplimentary
sense to freethinkers or unbelievers. II 872a
fayruzadj ->• firuzadj
faza : in Arabia, the name the Tiyaha give to a tent whose ridge-pole rests on a row of
two poles. The Sba' use mgawren or garneyn. IV 1148a
faz'a (A) : a counter-attack (of a raiding group of Bedouin). II 1055b
fazz (A), farir, farkad, djawdhar : in zoology, the calf of the oryx or addax antelope
from birth until its weaning. A male bull calf has the arkh (and variants) and the adult
male shat. The old bull is termed karhab. V 1227b
242 FAZZ FIKR
fazz (A) : water which is still drinkable, found in the stomach of camels. Ill 666b; and
-»■ FlL AL-BAHR
fellaga -> fallak
ferman ->■ farman
farmla (Alg) : a vest for elderly men in Algeria. V 746a
fida' (A) : the redemption, repurchase, or ransoming of Muslim prisoners or slaves held
by unbelievers. Ill 183a; VIII 502a; XII 306b
fidam (A) : a piece of linen cloth which protected the mouth, worn by Zoroastrian
priests, but often also by the cup-bearer, saki, for whom it served as a filter for tast-
ing the drink and to help him know the precise taste. VIII 883b; X 612a
fidawl (A, < fida'i) : one who offers up his life for another. Among the Nizari Isma'ilis,
~ was used of those who risked their lives to assassinate the enemies of the sect. II
882a; VIII 442a
In Algeria, ~ means a narrator of heroic deeds. II 882a
During the Persian revolution of 1906-7, the term was applied in the first place to the
adherents of the republican party, later to the defenders of liberal ideas and the consti-
tution. II 882a
♦ fidawiyya (Alg) : a tale or song of heroic deeds. II 882a
fidda (A) : in mineralogy, silver. II 883a
fidjar (A) : sacrilege; known particularly in the name harb al-fidjdr 'the sacrilegious
war', a war waged towards the end of the 6th century AD during the holy months
between the Kuraysh and Kinana on the one side and the Kays-'Aylan on the other. II
883b
fidjw -> far 1
fidya (A) : a general designation among Syro-Palestinians for a blood sacrifice made for
purposes of atonement, practised in the interests of the living. II 884a; a Qur'anic term
to denote the fast which compensates for the days of Ramadan in which fasting has
not been practised, or to denote the impossibility of purchasing a place in Paradise. XII
306b; a minor kaffara or compensation, to be paid when one has taken advantage of
one of five dispensations. IX 94b
♦ fidyat al-mulk (P, < A) : in taxation matters, an additional levy of one-tenth from
landed estates, decreed, and later abolished, by the Salghurid ruler Sa'd b. Zangi. IV
1041a
fikh (A) : understanding, knowledge, intelligence, and thus applied to any branch of
knowledge (as in fikh al-lugha, the science of lexicography); the technical term for
jurisprudence, the science of religious law in Islam. In addition to the laws regulating
ritual and religious observances, containing orders and prohibitions, ~ includes the
whole field of family law, the law of inheritance, of property and of contracts and
obligations, criminal law and procedure, and, finally, constitutional law and laws reg-
ulating the administration of the state and the conduct of war. II 886a; IX 322b
In older theological language, ~ was used in opposition to 'ilm, the accurate knowl-
edge of legal decisions handed down from the Prophet and his Companions, and was
applied to the independent exercise of the intelligence, the decision of legal points by
one's own judgement in the absence or ignorance of a traditional ruling bearing on the
case in question. II 886a
fikr (A, pi. afkdr) : thought, reflection; in mysticism, ~ is used habitually in contrast to
dhikr: in the performance of ~, the sufi, concentrating on a religious subject, medi-
tates according to a certain progression of ideas or a series of evocations which he
assimilates and experiences, while in dhikr, concentrating on the object recollected, he
allows his field of consciousness to lose itself in this object. II 891b
FIKRA — FISK
fikra (T) : a kind of short news item generally of entertaining nature, combining anec-
dote with comment on some matter of contemporary importance. VI 94b
fil (A, < P pit) : in zoology, the elephant. II 892b; the bishop in chess. IX 366b
♦ fil al-bahr (A) : in zoology, the elephant seal; the walrus, also called fazz. IV
648b; VIII 1022b
fi'l (A) : act, action, opposed in noetics and metaphysics to kuwwa 'potentiality, power'.
II 898a; V 578a
In grammar, the verb. II 895b; and ->• ism al-fi'l
In logic, ~ is one of the ten categories, actio as opposed to passio. II 898a
In theology, ~ designates the action of God ad extra, 'what is possible (not necessary)
for God to do'. II 898b
♦ fi'l al-ta'adjdjub (A) : in grammar, the verb of surprise. IX 528a
filaha (A) : lit. ploughing; the occupation of husbandry, agriculture. II 899a
♦ filahat al-aradin (A) : agronomy. II 902a
♦ filahat al-hayawanat (A) : zootechny. II 902a
filawr (A), or hddjur : in mediaeval 'Irak, a beggar or vagrant who simulates a hernia
or ulcer or tumour or some similar affliction with his testicles or anus, or with her
vulva, in the case of a woman. VII 494a
filk (A), also sharidj : in archery, a bow consisting of a single stave split length-wise
and spliced with glue. IV 797b
filori (T) : the Ottoman name for the standard gold coins of Europe; a local Balkan tax
amounting to one ~, imposed on the semi-nomadic Vlachs of the Balkans, in which
sense it is usually referred to as resm-i filori. II 914b ff.; VIII 487a
filw (A) : a foal between birth and one year of age. II 785a
fi'ma : transversal associations, in 'Afar society, which counterbalance tribal divisions.
X 71b
findjan (A) : in clothing, a headdress worn by women in Cairo and Syria, gilt below and
decked with pieces of silver. X 612a; and -»■ bakradj
firandj ->• ifrandj
firasa (A) : physiognomancy, a technique of inductive divination which permits the fore-
telling of moral conditions and psychological behaviour from external indications and
physical states, such as colours, forms, and limbs. II 916a; V 100a; clairvoyance. XI
110b
fir'awni ->• kAghad
firda -»■ furda
firdjardat (A, < MidP fragard 'chapter, section') : a type of poems, as defined by Hamza
al-Isfahani in a commentary on a verse by Abu Nuwas. XI 210a
firfir (< G ?) : a loan-word in Arabic for the colour violet. V 699b
firind (A, < P) : damascening, or a pattern drawn on a sword. V 972a; VIII 237a
firk -»■ wakIr
firka (A) : sect. The ~ nddjiya is the sect that alone will be saved out of the 73 into
which the community will be divided, according to a Tradition. VIII 990a; XI 103a
firkate -> bashtarda
firsad -»■ tut
firuzadj (P), or fayruzadj : in mineralogy, turquoise, mined in the Sasanid period and
even earlier around Nishapur. There are different kinds, distinguished by colour; the
best kind was considered to be the bushdki (i.e. Abu lshaki) and the finest variety of
this, the sky-blue azhari. ~ is explained as 'stone of victory' whence it is also called
hadjar al-ghalaba. II 927b; VIII 112a
firz, or firzdn -> shatrandj
risk (A) : moral deficiency. XI 567b
244 FISKIYYA — FURDA
fiskiyya (A, pi. fasakl) : a small basin which collected water from the shadirwan. IX
175b
fitam -» SAKHLA
fitna (A) : putting to the proof, discriminatory test; revolt, disturbance; civil war; a
Qur'anic term with the sense of temptation or trial of faith, and most frequently as a
test which is in itself a punishment inflicted by God upon the sinful, the unrighteous.
The great struggles of the early period of Muslim history were called ~. II 930b
fitra (A) : a Qur'anic term meaning 'a kind or way of creating or of being created',
which posed serious theological and legal difficulties for the commentators. II 931b;
'common to all the prophets' or 'part of the general sunna or religion'. IX 312b
In law, the amount of zakat paid. XI 418a
fityan -» fata
♦ fityani (A) : a variety of couscous which is prepared by cooking grain in gravy
and which is sprinkled with cinnamon. V 528a
fizr -» KATf
foggara (Alg, < A fakkara; pi. fgdgir) : a term used in southern Algeria to designate a
kandt, a mining installation or technique for extracting water from the depths of the
earth. IV 529a; a subterranean drainage channel. XII 328b
frenk-khane (T) : in 19th-century Ottoman cities, a building in a European style,
intended to house European merchants during their more or less extended stays. IX
799b
frimla (N.Afr) : a corselet for women in Algeria; an embroidered bolero in Libya. V
746a
fudhandj (A, < P, < H pudana) : in botany, mint. The Arabic nomenclature for mint is
abundant; other names are habak, nammdm, for water-mint, and na'na' or nu'nu', pep-
permint. XII 309b
fudjl (A) : in botany, the radish, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
fuduli (A) : in law, an unauthorised agent. VIII 836a; XI 208a
fuh -» AFAWlH
fuhsh -» SUKHF
fuhQl -» FAHL
fQk -» TAFWlK
fukayaha -»• sandj
fukiyya : a body shirt for men worn under the djallabiyya in Morocco. V 746a
fukka' (A) : a sparkling fermented drink, almost a 'beer'. It was frequently sweetened
and flavoured with fruit, so that one might call ~ the mediaeval equivalent of shandy
or almost so. VI 721a; IX 225a; X 32a; XI 369b
ful (A) : in botany, beans, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
♦ ful mudammas -»■ ta'miyya
fuladh -» hadid
fulk (A) : a Qur'anic term for ship, used inter alia of Noah's ark and the ship from
which Jonah was thrown. IV 870b; VIII 808a
full -» YASAMlN
funduk (A, < Gk) : a term used, particularly in North Africa, to denote hostelries at
which animals and humans can lodge, on the lines of caravanserais or khans of the
Muslim East. II 945a; IV 1015a; IX 788b
In numismatics, an Ottoman gold coin. VIII 229b
furanik : messengers in the postal service in the 'Abbasid period. I 1045b
furar -» sakhla
fur da (A) : a term used interchangeably in Ottoman documents and Arabic texts with
fir da, with reference to personal taxes; the ~ was attested in Ottoman Egypt after 1775
FURDA — FUYUDJ 245
as one of the many illegal charges imposed on peasants by soldiers of the provincial
governors. II 948a; an emporium. XII 507a; and -»■ mIna 5
♦ furdat (firdat) al-ru'us (A) : a personal tax in Egypt under Muhammad 'All
amounting to 3 per cent on known or supposed revenue of all the inhabitants, paid by
all government employees, including foreigners, by employees of non-government
establishments, by the fallahln (-»• fallah), and by artisans and merchants. II 149a; II
948a
♦ firdat al-tahrir (A) : in Ottoman Egypt, the name for the comprehensive levy
which in 1792 replaced all the illegal charges imposed on peasants by soldiers of the
provincial governors. II 948a
furdj -»• KATUM
furfur -»• SAKHLA
furkan (A, < Ar) : a Qur'anic term, which poses problems of interpretation, and has
been variously translated as 'discrimination', 'criterion', 'separation', 'deliverance', or
'salvation'. II 949b; X 318a
furn (A) : a communal oven, in technical usage corresponding to kusha 'lime-kiln'. V
41b; X 30b
furs (A) : one of two terms, the other being 'adjam, to denote the Persians. II 950b
funY -»■ far'
fur'ul -»• dabu'
furiisiyya (A) : the whole field of equestrian knowledge, both theoretical and practical.
Treatises on ~ by actual horsemen, veterinary surgeons or riders appeared at a late
stage in Arabic literature, many repeating passages from earlier works written by
philologists, but also with added pages on riding, describing various methods and prin-
ciples co-existing in the Muslim world. II 953b
fusayfisa' (A, < Gk) : in art, mosaic. I 610b; II 955a
fustan (A) : in dress, the term for the European dress worn by women; a European suit
(takm) might also be worn by women who eschew the traditional mildya. XII 776a
fustat (A, < Gk) : a small hair tent used by travellers. II 957b; IV 1 147a
fusul -»• fasl
futa : in mediaeval Islam, a long piece of sari-like cloth originating in India and serv-
ing a variety of functions: as a loincloth, apron, and a variety of headdress. V 737b; a
simple cloth with a seam, fastened in front and behind to the girdle, tikka (modern
dikka). IX 676b
futurifu : in Gao, in West Africa, a horn, invented by the Askiya Muhammad Bunkan
(d. 1537). X 36b
futuwwa (A, T futuwwet) : a term invented in about the 2nd/8th century as the counter-
part of muruwwa (-»• murua), the qualities of the mature man, to signify that which is
regarded as characteristic of the fata, young man; by this term it has become custom-
ary to denote various movements and organisations which until the beginning of the
modern era were widespread throughout all the urban communities of the Muslim East.
I 520a; II 961a
futya (A), or ifta' : the act of giving an opinion on a point of law, fatwa; the profes-
sion of the adviser. II 866a
fuwwa (A) : in botony, madder. X 118a
fuyudj -»• FAYDJ
gabr (P) : a term of doubtful etymology, denoting Zoroastrians, and used generally in
Persian literature. II 970b
♦ gabri : in art, ceramic ware developed in Persia. The ornamentation of this ware,
produced by means of larger or smaller scratches in the slip that covers the body under
the transparent partly coloured glaze, consists of schematic representations, recalling
the ancient culture of Persia, notably of fire altars, as well as of men and beasts, birds,
lions and dragons depicted in a curiously stylised manner. II 746a
gadjal -> Citak
gam : a pace, a unit of measurement. X 43b
gandj : in Muslim India, a grain market. IX 800b
gandu (Hau) : the Hausa extended family, a largely self-supporting unit based on agri-
culture and formerly dependent on slave labour. Ill 277b
gandura (N.Afr) : a full-length tunic with short sleeves, worn by men in southern
Morocco and by both sexes in Algeria. V 746a
gara -»■ kara
gargadj (IndP) : in Mughal India, a movable tower used in sieges. These towers were
very strong structures with solid beams covered by raw hides, tiles, or earth to protect
them from the liquid combustibles thrown by the garrison; they could be destroyed only
by hurling heavy stones or by a sortie. Ill 482a
garmsir (P, A djarm) : in geography, a term used to denote hot, desert-type or subtrop-
ical lowland climates; in Arabic, ~ is particularly used for the hot, coastal region of
the Persian Gulf shores and the regions bordering on the great central desert. V 183a
garneyn -> faza
gat -> BANDISH
gattaya (B) : a kind of mat of plaited hair, which is worn very long and grown only
from the top of the cranium, the remainder of the head being shaved. The wearing of
the ~ is a local custom absorbed by the 'Isawi order. IV 95a
gaw-band (P) : the person who worked draft oxen. XI 305a
gawd (P) : a usually octagonal pit in the centre of a traditional gymnasium, zurkhana.
about a metre deep, in which the exercises take place. The ~ is surrounded by specta-
tor stands, of particular importance being the sardam, an elevated and decorated seat
reserved for the director, murshid, whose function is to accompany the exercises with
rhythmic drumming and the chanting of verse from classical Persian poetry. XI 573a
gawdar (P) : cattle-raiser. IX 682b
gay tan : corduroy. X 371b
gaz (P) : a measure of length in use in Iran and Muslim India, the Persian cubit, dhira 1 .
of the Middle Ages, either the legal cubit of 49.8 cm or the Isfahan cubit of 79.8 cm.
Until recently, a ~ of 104 cm was in use in Iran. II 232a; XII 313b; in 1926 an attempt
was made to equate the traditional Persian measures with the metric system, so that the
~ was fixed at 1 m; after 1933 the metric system was introduced but the older mea-
sures nevertheless remained in popular use. VII 138a
In Muslim India, sixty ~ formed the side of the square bIgha, a traditional measure of
area. Five thousand ~ made the length of a kuroh (Persian) or krosa (Sanskrit), the
traditional measure of road-length. XII 313b
In botany, tamarisk. XI 303a; a very hard and solid wood, used for cabinet- making and
for timber framing. V 669b
♦ gaz-i ilahi : a measure introduced by the Mughal emperor Akbar in 994/1586,
equal to ca. 32 inches. IV 1055b; XII 313b
GAZ GHALl 247
♦ gaz-i mukassar (P) : the 'shortened' cubit of 68 cm, used for measuring cloth. II
232a
♦ gaz-i shahi (P) : the 'royal' cubit of 95 cm, in use in 17th-century Persia. II 232a
gecid resmi (T) : tolls levied in the Ottoman empire at mountain passes and river fords.
II 147a
gedik (T) : lit. breach; in law, a form of long-term lease arrangement of wakf property
in Egypt, which involved, in addition to perpetual lease, the ownership and use of tools
and installations of shops and workshops. XII 369a; in the Ottoman period, the right
to exercise a craft or a trade, either in general or, more frequently, at a special place
or in a specific shop. They were inheritable if the heir fulfilled all other conditions for
becoming a master in the craft. VIII 207a; IX 542a; IX 798a; XII 421a
geguritan -»■ singir
gemh -»■ farina
geniza (Heb) : a place where Hebrew writings were deposited in order to prevent the
desecration of the name of God which might be found in them. As a term of scholar-
ship, ~ or Cairo geniza, refers to writings coming from the store-room of the 'Syna-
gogue of the Palestinians' in the ancient city of Fustat. II 987b
gerebeg (J) : a grand parade that takes place in certain areas in Java after the c Id prayers
at the end of Ramadan, with as its centerpiece a magical 'mount of blessing' that con-
veys some of the sultan's mystical power. XII 682b
gersh -> bilyun
gezme -»■ ahdath
ghaba (A) : forest. II 991a
ghabani (A), or ghabdniyya : a head scarf with an embroidered pattern of lozenges, worn
by both sexes in the Arab East. V 741a
ghabghab (A) : in zoology, an animal's dewlap. VII 22b
ghabn fahish (A) : in law, the concept of excessive loss, which is the only means by
which a contract can be challenged in the case of fraud. I 319a
ghadaf -> kata
ghada'ir -»■ dafa'ir
ghadat (A) : a variant name for the saldt al-fadjr (-> fadjr). VII 27a
ghaddar (A) : a traitor. XII 830a
ghadjar (A) : gypsies. IX 235b
ghadus (A, < L Gadus) : in zoology, the cod. VIII 1021a
ghafara ->■ khuwwa
ghaffar, ghafur -> ghufran
gha'ib (A) : absent; in law, usually the person who, at a given moment, is not present
at the place where he should be. But, in certain special cases, the term is applied also
to the person who is at a distance from the court before which he was to bring an
action or who does not appear at the court after being summoned. II 995b
♦ salat al-gha'ib (A) : the name given to the prayer said for a dead person whose
body cannot be produced. II 996a
gha'ira -> zahira
ghalath ->■ 'alaih
ghalca (P) : an imprecise designation of those mountain peoples of the Pamirs who
speak Iranian languages; a term used in English for the Iranian Pamir languages. The
word, though of uncertain origin, has different meanings in different languages: 'peas-
ant' or 'ruffian' in New Persian, 'squat, stupid' in Tadjiki; in old Yaghnabi, 'slave'. II
997b
ghali -> ghulat; kalI
248 GHALK — GHASIL AL-MALA'IKA
ghalk (A) : in meteorology, a closed period during the middle of the ~ season; before
this was awwal al-~ and after it the ddmdnl seasons. VII 52a
ghalla (A) : income. XI 414b
ghalta (A, pi. ghalatdt) : error.
♦ ghalatat-i meshhure (T) : lit. well-known errors; solecisms brought about by
phonetic changes, characteristic of Turkish, producing (drastic) modifications in Arabic
and Persian loan-words and branded by the purists, e.g. beddwd < bdd-i hawd. II 997a
ghammaz (A) : he who screws up his eyes, intriguer, one of the numerous terms in the
mediaeval and modern periods for 'rascal, scoundrel'. XI 546a
ghanam (A, pi. aghndm, ghuniim, aghdnim) : the class of small livestock with a predom-
inance of either sheep or goats, according to country. Also, understood in the sense of
'sheep-goat patrimony'. XII 316b
ghanima (A), or ghunm : booty, in particular moveable booty, which was distributed
immediately, as opposed to fay'. I 1144a; II 1005a; XII 316b
gharamet -> djarIma
gharanik (A) : cranes; in the Qur'an, 'the exalted ones', referring to the Arabian god-
desses, al-Lat, al- c Uzza and Manat, the origin of the Satanic verses, or those which
Satan inserted into the revelation, later abrogated by LIII, 21-7. V 404a
gharar -»■ bay c al-gharar
gharasa (A) : the act of planting. I 135b
gharaza (A) : the act of pricking, as with a tattooing needle (misham, pi. mawashim).
XII 830b
gharib -»■ tali'
gharib (A, pi. ghuraba 3 ) : lit. strange, uncommon; in philology, ~ means rare, unfamil-
iar (and consequently obscure) expressions (syn. wahshl, hushi), and frequently occurs
in the titles of books, mostly such as deal with unfamiliar expressions in the Qur'an
andHADlTH. I 157b; II 1011a
In the science of Tradition, ~ means a Tradition from only one Companion, or from a
single man at a later stage, to be distinguished from gharib al-hadlth, which applies to
uncommon words in the text, matn, of Traditions. Ill 25b
♦ gharib mutlak -> fard
gharim (A), or gharlm : in law, a debtor or creditor. II 1011b; XII 207b
gharkad (A) : a kind of bramble. I 957b
gharr -»■ taghrIr
gharra 3 (A) : in zoology, the spotted dogfish. VIII 1022b
ghars (Alg) : soft dates produced in the Suf, along with the variety known as deglet nur,
which are harvested for export only. IX 763b
gharuka (A) : in law, a system whereby a debtor landowner transfers part of his plot,
and the right to cultivate it, as security on a loan until redemption. Other Arabic terms
for the same system were rahn hiydzl and bay' bi ' l-istighldl, and in Ottoman Turkish
istighldl. ~ is a form of usury, and as such prohibited by Islamic law. XII 322b
ghasb (A) : in civil law, usurpation, the illegal appropriation of something belonging to
another or the unlawful use of the rights of another. II 1020a
ghashiya (A) : a covering, particularly, a covering for a saddle; one of the insignia of
royal rank carried before the Mamluk and Saldjuk rulers in public processions. II
1020a; VI 854a
In the Qur'an, ~ is used metaphorically of a great misfortune that overwhelms some-
one. II 1020b
ghasil -> GHASSAL
ghasil al-mala'ika (A) : 'washed by the angels', a term by which Hanzala b. Abi "Amir
is known, referring to the fact that he died without having performed the ghusl fol-
lowing sexual intercourse. IX 204b
GHASSAL — GHAZl 249
ghassal (A) : a washer of clothes and also of the dead, the latter more often known as
ghasil. The social position of the corpse-washer was higher than that of the washer of
clothes. XII 322b
ghata -»• ataba
ghatat ->■ kata
ghatma' ->■ kata
ghawgha' (A) : those who swarm like tiny beasts, one of the numerous terms in the
mediaeval and modern periods for 'rascals, scoundrels'. XI 546a
ghawr (A) : in geography, a depression, plain encircled by higher ground. II 1024b
ghawt (Alg, pi. ghitdn) : a funnel-like excavation, in which date palms are planted in
the Suf. IX 763b
ghawth (A) : lit. succour, deliverance; an epithet of the head of the sufi hierarchy of
saints (syn. badal). Some say that it is a rank immediately below the head, ktjtb, in
the hierarchy. V 543b; XII 323b
ghawwas (A) : a diver. XII 550a
ghayb (A) : absence; what is hidden, inaccessible to the senses and to reason; in
Qur'anic usage, with rare exceptions, ~ stands for mystery. I 406b ff.; II 1025a
In mysticism, ~ means, according to context, the reality of the world beyond discur-
sive reason which gnosis experiences. II 1026a
♦ ghayba (A) : absence, occultation; and ->■ na'ib al-ghayba
In mysticism, ~ is also used for the condition of anyone who has been withdrawn by
God from the eyes of men and whose life during that period may have been miracu-
lously prolonged. II 1026a; III 51b
Among the Twelvers, ~ became a major historical period, divided into two parts: the
lesser ~ (from 260/874 to c. 329/941) and the greater ~ (from the death of the fourth
imam onwards). II 1026a; IV 277b
In law, ~ is the state of being not present at the place where one should be. II 995b
♦ ghayba munkati'a (A) : in law, an absence not interrupted by information on a
person's existence; the continuous absence of a plaintiff. II 995b
ghaydak (A) : lit. soft or tender; a term applied to a youth or young man; when applied
to a boy, ~ signifies that he has not attained to puberty. VIII 822a
ghayhab -»■ salka'
ghaylam ->■ sulahfa
ghaym (A) : in mineralogy, cloudiness, a defect or impurity in a gem. XI 263a
ghayn (A) : the nineteenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed gh, with the numer-
ical value 1,000. It is defined as a voiced postvelar fricative. II 1026b
ghayta (< Fr guetter), or ghd'ita, ghayta : in music, a reed-pipe of two kinds, popular
in Muslim Spain and North Africa. One is a cylindrical tube blown with a single reed,
and the other is a conical tube blown with a double reed. The cylindrical tube instru-
ment is known in Egypt as the ghlta. II 1027b; VII 207b
ghaza-name ->■ menakib-name
ghazal (A, T ghazel) : lit. flirtation; in prosody, an elegy of love; the erotic-elegiac
genre. It has the rhyme scheme aa xa xa xa, etc. I 586a; II 1028a; X 719b; XII 323b
♦ ghazel-i miilemma' (T) : in Ottoman poetry, a variant of the ghazal, which is
written in alternating Turkish and Persian and/or Arabic hemistichs. X 917a; and -»■
mulamma'at
♦ ghazel-i musammat (T) : in Ottoman poetry, a ghazal the verses of which, with
the exception of the matla', have 'inner rhyme' in that the middle and end of their first
hemistich rhymes with the middle of their second hemistich. X 719a
ghazi (A, pi. ghuzai) : a fighter for the faith, a person who took part in a razzia, or raid
against the infidels, ghazw; later, a title of honour, becoming part of the title of cer-
tain Muslim princes, such as the amIrs of Anatolia and more particularly the first
250 GHAZI — GHUBBAN
Ottoman sultans; soldiers of fortune, who in times of peace became a danger to the
government which employed them. I 322b; II 1043b; VIII 497a
♦ ghuzat al-bahr (A) : pirates. II 526a
♦ ghaziya (A, pi. ghawdzl) : an Egyptian dancing-girl who sang and danced primar-
ily in the streets, making a speciality of lascivious dances and often becoming a pros-
titute. Today both the dancing-girl and the singer are called 'alma in the cities but in
the rural areas the dancer is still known as ~. I 404a; II 1048a; in the past, the term
for belly-dancer, today usually called rakkdsa. XII 778a
ghazw (A, pi. ghizwdn) : an expedition, raid, usually of limited scope, conducted with
the aim of gaining plunder. I 892a; II 509b; II 1055a
♦ ghazwa (A, pi. ghazawdt) : a term used in particular of the Prophet's expeditions
against the infidels. II 1055a; VIII 497a
ghidha' (A, pi. aghdhiya) : feeding; food. II 1057a
ghidjak : one of a type of viol used in Central Asia to accompany the bard, the others
being kil kobuz, in Kazakhstan, and the kiak. X 733b
ghifara (A, pi. ghafd'ir) : in clothing, in early times a red cloth with which women pro-
tected their veil from the oil on the hair. In Muslim Spain, the name of a similar cap
for men, who usually wore not turbans but ghafd'ir of red or green wool, whilst Jews
wore a yellow one. X 612a; and ->■ mighfar
ghila (A) : a nursing woman. VIII 824a
ghilaf (A) : a sheath. IV 518b
ghilman ->■ ghulam
ghina ->■ kIna
ghina' (A) : song, singing; music in its generic sense. In Morocco, the song is divided
into folk or popular song, kariha, and the art song, ala or san'a, while in Algeria ~ is
grouped under kaldm al-hazl and kaldm al-djidd. II 1072b f.
ghirara (A) : a measure of capacity for grain in central Syria and Palestine in the medi-
aeval period, of different size in every province, e.g. the ~ of Damascus contained
208.74 kg of wheat, whereas the ~ of Jerusalem, at least at the end of the Middle Ages,
weighed three times as much. IV 520a; VI 118b
ghirbal (A) : a parchment-bottom sieve, which in the pre-Islamic period sometimes took
the place of tambourines to supply rhythm. II 1073b; X 900b; and -► bandayr
ghirnik (A), and kurki : in zoology, the crane. I 1152b
ghirr (A) : an inexperienced person. X 93a
ghita -► GHAYTA
ghiyar (A) : the compulsory distinctive mark in the garb of dhimm! subjects under
Muslim rule, described as a piece of cloth placed over the shoulder; the garment which
bears the ~. II 1075b; V 744b
ghizak -> KAMANDJA
ghlala (Mor) : a sleeveless outer robe for women in Morocco. V 746a
ghubar (A) : dust; in mathematics, ~ was the name for the immediate parents of the
modern European numerals, while what are now called 'Arabic' numerals were known
as 'Indian'. Sometimes the names were reversed, however, or both forms were called
Indian or both called ~. Ill 1 140a; and -»■ hisab al-ghubar
In calligraphy, ~ or ghubdri is a name given to every type of very small script difficult
to read with the naked eye, but often found in the naskh script. IV 1124a
ghubba (A, pi. ghabib) : a term in the Persian Gulf for an area of deep water, of 15
fathoms or more. I 535b
ghubban (A) : in zoology, the green scarus, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Scarus
ghobban). VIII 1021b
GHUDFA — GHURRA 251
ghudfa (A) : a large head shawl for women, worn in the Hebron area. V 741a
ghudwa (A), or bukra : in lexicography, a term used to denote the time which elapses
between the morning twilight prayer, fadjr, and the sunrise. V 709b
ghufran (A) : the verbal noun of 'to forgive', - refers to the two divine names, al-ghafur
and al-ghaffdr 'the All-Pardoning One whose power to pardon is endless'. A frequent
synonym is 'afw. II 1078b; IV 1107a
ghul (A, pi. 0ldn, aghwal) : a fabulous being believed by the ancient Arabs to inhabit
desert places and, assuming different forms, to lead travellers astray, to fall upon them
unawares and devour them. Generally, a ~ is considered a male as well as a female
being in the early sources. II 1078b
ghulam (A, pi. ghilmdn; P pi. ghuldmdn) : a young man or boy; by extension, either a
servant, sometimes elderly and very often, but not necessarily, a slave servant; or a
bodyguard, slave or freedman, bound to his master by personal ties; or sometimes an
artisan working in the workshop of a master whose name he used along with his own
in his signature. Rulers owned an often impressive number of slave boys who served
as attendants or guards and could rise to fairly high office in the hierarchy of the palace
service, as well as others who formed a component of varying importance in the armed
forces. I 24b; II 1079b; VIII 821b
In falconry, a technical term for the hawker's assistant, who kept the aviary well pro-
vided with pigeons and other game-birds and was responsible for the nourishment and
training of the hawks. I 1 152b
♦ al-ghUman al-khassa (A) : the personal guard of certain 'Abbasid caliphs. II
1080a
♦ ghulaman-i khassa-yi sharifa (P) : 'slaves of the royal household', a cavalry reg-
iment formed from the ranks of the Georgians and Circassians under the Safawids. II
1083b; IV 36a; VIII 769a
ghulaman -»■ ghulam
ghulat (A, s. ghdli) : 'extremists', those individuals accused of exaggeration, ghulu, in
religion; in practice, ~ has covered all early speculative shi'is except those later
accepted by the Twelver tradition, as well as all later shi'i groups except Zaydis, ortho-
dox Twelvers, and sometimes Isma c ilis. II 1093b
ghuluw (A) : in literary criticism, overblown hyperbole. XII 655b
ghumud (A) : in literary criticism, the 'obscurity' of poetry, in contrast to the 'clarity',
wuduh, of prose. XII 655b
ghunca (P) : in botany, the rosebud, a recurring image in eastern Islamic literature. II
1133a
ghunna (A) : in Qur'anic recitation, the nasal sound of certain letters in excess of ordi-
nary speech. X 73b
ghura -»■ turshI
ghurab (A, < L corvus) : in zoology, the crow. II 1096b
In navigation, a large type of mediaeval Muslim galley (< Sp caraba), frequently men-
tioned in accounts of the naval warfare between the Muslims and the Franks during
Crusading and Mamluk times. In archaic Anglo-Indian usage, it yielded the term grab,
a type of ship often mentioned, in the Indian Ocean context, from the arrival of the
Portuguese to the 18th century. VIII 810a
ghuraba' (A, T gturebd) : an Ottoman term for the two lowest of the six cavalry regi-
ments of the kapI kullar!. The regiment riding on the sultan's right side was known
as ghurebd'-i yemln and that riding on his left as ghurebd'-i yesdr. II 1097b
ghurfa -> agadir
ghurra (A) : the first day of the month, in historical works and correspondence. V 708a;
a term used in Bedouin society for the young girl, who must be a virgin, white and
252 GHURRA — GOURBI
free, given by the family of a murderer to a member of the injured family as compen-
sation. In turn the latter forgoes his right of vengeance. VI 479b
In law, ~ is a special indemnity to be paid for causing an abortion. I 29a; VIII 823b
ghurub -> tali'
ghuruk (? Mon) : in mediaeval Transoxania, a royal hunting ground. V 857b
ghusl (A) : general ablution, uninterrupted washing, in ritually pure water, of the whole
of the human body, including the hair. ~ applies also to the washing of the corpse of
a Muslim. For the living, the essential ~ is that which is obligatory before performing
the ritual daily prayers. II 1 104a; VIII 929a
ghusn (A) : in prosody, separate-rhyme lines in each stanza of a muwashshah. VII
809b
ghuta (A) : the name given in Syria to abundantly irrigated areas of intense cultivation
surrounded by arid land. It is produced by the co-operative activity of a rural commu-
nity settled near to one or several perennial springs, whose water is used in a system
of canalisation to irrigate several dozen or hundred acres. II 541a; II 1104b
ghuzat ->■ GHAZl
ginan (H, < San jndna) : in Nizari Isma'ilism, a poetical composition in an Indian ver-
nacular, ascribed to various pIrs who were active in preaching and propagating the
da'wa. The ~ resembles didactic and mystical poetry and is often anachronistic and
legendary in nature. VIII 126a
gireban, girivan ->■ shutik
giriz (T), or girizgdh : in Turkish prosody, ~ is the passage marking the transition from
the nasIb to the main part of the kasIda. IV 715b; and ->■ makhlas
gitun (N.Afr) : the name given to shelters in North Africa made of sackcloth or pieces
of material or of canvas produced in Europe. The name derives from the classical
kaytun 'room in a bayt'. IV 1149b
giwa : characteristic foot-gear of the Bakhtiyari tribeswomen. I 956a
gnidra (Alg) : a light, lacy chemisette for women in Algeria. V 746a
gobak (P) : among the Shahsewan in Persia, a 'navel' or descent group. IX 224a
♦ gobek adi (T) : 'navel name'; in Turkey, a name given to a new-bom child by
the midwife as she cuts the umbilical cord. IV 181a
gocmen -> muhadjir
goni (Kanuri) : one who has memorised the Qur'an, a term for saint in Chad and the
Nilotic Sudan. XI 124a
gonullii (T) : volunteer; in the Ottoman empire, ~ was used as a term (sometimes with
the pseudo-Persian pi. goniilluydn, in Arabic sources usually rendered djamulydn or
kamulyari) with the following meanings: volunteers coming to take part in the fighting;
a 10th/16th-century organised body stationed in most of the fortresses of the empire,
in Europe, Asia and Egypt; and an llth/17th-century body among the paid auxiliaries
who were recruited in the provinces to serve on a campaign. II 1120b
gorani -> poturi
goruta ->■ yodjana
gostermelik (T) : inanimate objects, without any direct connection with the shadow play,
which are shown on the screen before the actual play in order to attract the interest of
spectators and fire their imagination. IV 601b
got-tikme (T) : a type of tent possessed by the Turkmen Yomut and Goklen tribes. The
~ essentially is an 6y 'tent-house', but without the trellis walls, and regarded as infe-
rior, though more portable. IV 1 150b
gotba ->■ 'UDIYA
gourbi (Alg) : a shack, a fixed dwelling used in the Algerian sedentarisation of nomads
in the 20th century. IX 537b
GRAB — GZIDAN 253
grab -■> ghurab
gu' (Somali) : the season from April to June which is the 'season of plenty' in Somalia.
The other seasons are xagaa (July-August), dayr (September-November) and jiilaal
(December-March). IX 714b
guban (Somali) : lit. burnt; a hot, dry region. IX 714a
gudhar (P) : a restricted area of a guild in which it practised its trade. IX 645b; also
gudhar, a passage. X 488a
gul (P, T giil) : in botany, the rose, a recurring image in eastern Islamic literature. II
1133a
Among the dervishes, giil signifies a particular ornament, fashioned from wedge-shaped
pieces of cloth, on the top of a dervish cap, which distinguishes the head of a house
of the order; in various contexts ~ is the badge of different dervish orders and of dis-
tinct grades within the orders. II 1134a
♦ giilbaba (T) : a title, with the sense of head of a Muslim cloister, tekke, of the
Bektashi order. II 1133b
♦ gulbang (P) : lit. song of the nightingale; in Turkish usage, giilbdng is applied to
the call of the muezzin and to the Muslim war-cry. Under the Ottomans, ~ was used
of certain ceremonial and public prayers and acclamations, more specifically those of
the Janissary corps. II 1 1 35a; and -► terdjuman
guldasta : in architecture, a shaft-like pinnacle, introduced in Tughlukid work as a pro-
longation of the angle turret. VIII 315b
gum (N.Afr, < A kawm) : the name given in the Arab countries of North Africa to a
group of armed horsemen or fighting men from a tribe. They were given an official
existence by the Turks in the former Regencies of Algiers and Tunis, who made them
the basis of their occupation of the country, and were later used by the French to pacify
the country. II 1138b
♦ guma : a levy of gums, troops; a plundering foray; sedition, revolt. II 1138b
gunbad (P) : a domed mausoleum. XI 114a
gunbri (N.Afr, dim. gunlbrl) : in its most primitive form, with a gourd, shell, or wooden
sound-chest, a skin or leather belly, and horsehair strings wihtout tuning pegs, the ear-
liest form of the pandore, or tunbur, a long-necked lute-like instrument, known to us.
It is to be found among the rural populations of North Africa from the Atlantic to the
Nile. The North African name carries in its consonants n-b-r a trace of the old
Egyptian word nefer. X 625a
giiregen : 'royal son-in-law', a Cinggisid title that Timur Lang assumed after taking
Saray Malik as his wife. X 511a
gurizgah (T, < P) : in Turkish prosody, the device in which the real purpose of the
kasida was revealed, either by openly naming the patron who was to be the subject
of the encomium that followed immediately or by a clever allusion that rarely left any
doubt as to the identity of the patron. V 957b; and -> makhlas
guru (J) : in Malaysia and Thailand, a mystical teacher. VIII 294a; VIII 296b if.
gzidan (K) : a Kurdish dance performed at the occasion of a festival celebrating the
gathering of the mulberry harvest, which consists of sweeping the soil under the trees
before the children climb them to shake them so as to allow the women to gather the
berries. V 477b
HA' — HABSHI
ha' (A) : the twenty-sixth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed h, with numerical
value 5. It is an unvoiced glottal spirant (in Arabic: rikhwa mahmusa). Ill la
ha' (A) : the sixth letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed h, with numerical value 8.
It is an unvoiced pharyngeal spirant (in Arabic: rikhwa mahmusa). Ill 2a
hababawar ->• shakikat al-nu'man
habak ->• fudhandj
habal ->• bay' al-gharar
haballak -» nakad
habara (A) : a dark, silky enveloping outer wrap for women, worn in the Arab East. V
741a
habash (A), or habasha : a name said to be of south Arabian origin, applied in Arabic
usage to the land and peoples of Ethiopia, and at times to the adjoining areas in the
Horn of Africa. Ill 2b
♦ habashat : a term found in several Sabaean inscriptions with apparent reference
to Aksumite Abbyssinia, it has generally been assumed to apply not only to the terri-
tory and people of the Aksumite empire but also to a south Arabian tribe related to the
former and in close contact with them; incense-collectors, applicable to all the peoples
of the incense regions, that is, of the Mahra and Somali coasts and Abyssinia proper.
Ill 9a
habat -> hawta
habb (A) : grains, seeds.
♦ habb al-na'am (A) : in botany, 'ostrich berries', the red fruit of the sarsaparilla or
thorny bindweed (Smilax bona nox) of the liliaceae family. VII 830b
♦ habb al-zalim -*■ yasamin
habba (A) : lit. grain or kernel; as a unit of weight, a ~ was a fraction in the Troy
weight system of the Arabs, of undefined weight. The most probable weight of the ~
in the early days of Islam was about 70-71 milligrammes (1.1 grains). Ill 10b
habhab ->• djihh
habbar -*■ rubah
habib (A) : lit. beloved; al-Hablb is the usual Hadrami title of a sayyid. IX 115a; IX
333a
habis (A) : an anchorite, recluse. IX 574a
habiz (SpA) : assumed to have been derived from ahbas pronounced with a variation in
timbre, i.e. ahbis, a term denoting property intended for charitable use and converted
into a non-transferable right, but one that is not recognised in the Andalusi juridical
texts concerning mortmain. XI 75a
habka -»• timsah
habs -»• mawkuf; sidjn; 'urwa; wakf
♦ habsiyya (P, < A) : in Persian literature, a poem dealing with the theme of
imprisonment. The genre can also be found in Urdu poetry and in the Indian tradition
of Persian poetry. XII 333b
habshi : a term applied in India for those African communities whose ancestors origi-
nally came to the country as slaves, in most cases from the Horn of Africa, although
some doubtless sprang from the slave troops of the neighbouring Muslim countries. The
majority, at least in the earlier periods, may well have been Abyssinian (->• habash),
but the name was used indiscriminately for all Africans. In modern India, ~ is often
heard applied in a pejorative sense to an Indian of dark skin, and also frequently to a
man of Gargantuan appetite. Ill 14a
HAD — HADl 255
had (A) : in botany, comucala monacantha, which grows in dried-out basins in the
Libyan Desert and provides excellent food for camels. V 352a
hadaba (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, a plain with a mantle of gravel. I 536b
hadak (A) : the black pupil (of the oryx and addax), which in contrast to the white of
the eye was an image dear to the poets. V 1229b
hadana (A), or hiddna : in law, ~ is the right to custody of the child. I 28b; III 16b
hadath (A) : in law, minor ritual impurity, as opposed to major impurity, djanaba. A
person who is in a state of ~ is called a muhdith and he can regain ritual purity by
means of simple ablution, wupu J . Ill 19b; VIII 929a; ~ in its plural form, ahddth,
means arbitrary actions at odds with the divine Law. I 384a
hadd (A, pi. hudud) : hindrance, impediment, limit, boundary, frontier; in the Qur'an,
~ is used (always in the pi.) to denote the restrictive ordinances or statutes of God.
Ill 20b
In law, ~ has become the technical term for the punishments of certain acts which have
been forbidden or sanctioned by punishments in the Qur'an and have thereby become
crimes against religion. The punishments are the death penalty, either by stoning or by
crucifixion or with the sword; the cutting off of the hand and/or the foot; and flogging
with various numbers of lashes, their intensity depending on the severity of the crime.
Ill 20b
In theology, ~ in the meaning of limit, limitation, is an indication of finiteness, a nec-
essary attribute of all created beings but incompatible with God. Ill 20b
In scholastic theology, philosophy and metaphysics, ~ is a technical term for definition,
e.g. hadd haklkl, that which defines the essence of a thing, and hadd lafzl, that which
defines the meaning of a word. Ill 21a
In logic, ~ means the term of a syllogism. Ill 21a
In astrology, ~ denotes the term of a planet or the unequal portion, of which there are
five, each belonging to a planet, into which the degree of each sign of the zodiac is
divided. Ill 21a
Among the Druze, the main officers of the religious hierarchy are called hudud. The
five great hudud 'cosmic ranks', adopted in a modified form from Isma'Ili lore, consist
of the 'akl, the nafs al-kulliyya, the kalima, the sdbik, and the tali. II 632a; III 21a
haddad (A, pi. haddddin) : a blacksmith. IV 819a; XII 756b
hadduta ->■ uhdutha
hadhadh (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre because of the suppression of a
whole watid maajmu' (-► awtad), as in mutafa[" ilun] . I 672a
hadhaf (A) : a strain of sheep in the time of al-Djahiz, with a black fleece and almost
without a tail and ears, found in the Hidjaz and Yemen. Similar to the ~ was the kahd,
with a russet-coloured fleece. XII 318a; a teal, or wild duck. IX 98b
hadhafa (A) : a missile, recommended to throw between the legs of the galloping ani-
mal in hunting manuals in order to hamstring an animal. V 1229b
hadhdha 5 (A) : a sandal-maker, whose profession in pre-modern times had a low social
status because working with leather was regarded as unclean. XII 463b
hadhf (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre because of the suppression of a mov-
ing and a quiescent consonant, a sabab khafif (->■ sabab), e.g. mafd'l[lun] . I 672a
In rhetoric, the truncation of words. VIII 427a; ellipsis. XII 669a
hadhw (A) : in prosody, the vowel immediately before the ridf. IV 412a
hadi (A) : the name for the animal sacrificed in order to make atonement for certain
transgressions committed during the hadjdj. II 213a
hadi (A, pi. huddd') : the sporting pigeon; the sport of pigeon-flying (zadjl, zidjdl) was
very popular from the 2nd-7th/8th- 1 3th centuries, among all the Muslim peoples. Ill
109a
256 HADIA LANGGAR HADJIB
hadia langgar (Ind, < A hadiyya) : a gift for the permission to cast the anchor, one of
the tolls and taxes known in Atjeh in relation to sea trade. XII 200b
hadid (A) : in metallurgy, iron; three kinds of iron were distinguished: natural iron, al-
sdburkdn, and artificial iron, of which there were two kinds, the weak or female, i.e.
malleable or wrought iron (P narmdhan 'soft iron') and hard or male, i.e. manufactured
steel {fulddh). Ill 22b; V 971a
♦ hadid sini -> talikun
hadid -> awdj
hadira (A) : in administrative geography, 'regional capital'. IX 36b
hadith (A) : narrative, talk; al-hadith is used for Tradition, being an account of what
the Prophet said or did, or of his tacit approval of something said or done in his pres-
ence. Ill 23b; and ->■ ahl al-hadith; dar al-hadIih; khabar
♦ hadith kudsi (A), and hadith ildhi, hadith rabbanl : a class of Traditions which
give words spoken by God, as distinguished from hadith nabawl 'prophetical Tradi-
tion', which gives the words of the Prophet. Ill 28b
♦ hadith ilahi -»■ hadIih kudsi
♦ hadith nabawi -»■ hadith kudsi
♦ hadith rabbani -* hadith kuds!
♦ hadith al-thakalayn (A) : a Tradition which refers to the two sources of guidance
that Muhammad says he is leaving behind for the Muslims: the Qur'an and ahl al-
bayt. IX 331b; XI 389a
hadiyya (A) : a gift which in the Muslim East frequently implied an effort on the part
of a person on a lower level of society to get into the good graces of a recipient of a
higher social status, as opposed to hiba. In the Muslim West ~ is commonly used with
the restricted meaning of a sumptuous gift offered to a sovereign, either by another sov-
ereign or by a group of some kind, while in Morocco especially, ~ was an obligatory
gift made to the sultan by his subjects, later becoming a supplementary tax. Ill 343a;
III 346b; in Persia, ~ is a gift to an equal, and the normal expression for the exchange
of presents on diplomatic missions. Ill 347b
hadjal (A) : in zoology, the partridge. IX 98b
hadjar (A) : stone; also applied to any solid inorganic body occurring anywhere in
Nature. Ill 29b; and -► bay' al-munabadha
♦ hadjar al-matar -> yada tash
♦ hadjar al- c ukab (A) : 'eagle's stone', a stone-like substance found in the eagle's
eyrie, which, when sucked, cures stammering. X 784a; also called hadjar al-nasr 'vul-
ture's stone' and hadjar al-talk 'stone of confinement'. VII 1013b
hadjar (A, Eth hagar 'town') : the normal word for 'town' in the epigraphic dialects of
pre-Islamic South Arabia, now an element in place-names given to pre-Islamic town
ruins in South Arabia. Ill 29b
hadjdj (A) : the pilgrimage to Mecca, 'Arafat and Mina, one of the five pillars of Islam.
It is also called the Great Pilgrimage in contrast to the c umra, or Little Pilgrimage.
One who has performed the pilgrimage is called hadjdj or hddjdjl. Ill 31b; III 38b; and
-> AMlR AL-HADJDJ
♦ hadjdj al-wada' (A) : the last pilgrimage of the Prophet, in the year 10/632. Ill
37a
hadjdjam -»■ fassad
hadjib (A) : the person responsible for guarding the door of access to the ruler, hence
'chamberlain'; a title corresponding to a position in the court and to an office the exact
nature of which varied considerably in different regions and in different periods: super-
intendent of the palace, chief of the guard, chief minister, a head of government. Ill
45a; VIII 728a; XII 336b
HADJIB — HAKAM 257
Among the Buyids, ~ was known as a military rank in the army, with the meaning of
general. Ill 46b
In Persian prosody, the internal radIf, which precedes the rhyme rather than follow-
ing it. VIII 369a
♦ hadjib al-hudjdjab (A), or al-hddjib al-kabir : the equivalent of the Persian sipah-
sdldr (-> ispahsalar) or the Arabic amIr al-umara' found among dynasties like the
Samanids, Buyids, Ghaznawids and Great Saldjuks. VIII 924a
♦ al-hadjib al-kabir -> hadjib al-hudjdjab
hadjin (A), or shihri : the 'mixed breed', whose sire is better bred than the dam, one of
four classifications of a horse. II 785b
hadjira -> zahira
hadjis (A) : in Yemen, term for poetic inspiration. IX 235b
hadjm (A) : in medicine, cupping without or after the scarification, shart. II 481b
hadjr -> wisal
hadjr (A) : prevention, inhibition; in law, the interdiction, the restriction of the capac-
ity to dispose; ~ expresses both the act of imposing this restriction and the resulting
status. A person in this status is called mahdjur (mahdjur 'alayh). I 27b; HI 50a
♦ hadjra (A), or kuffa, tawlc : in astronomy, the outer rim on the front of the astro-
labe, which encloses the inner surface and into which a number of thin discs are fitted.
1723a
hadjur -> filawr
hadr -> tahkik
hadra (A) : presence; a title of respect; in mysticism, ~ is a synonym of hudur 'being
in the presence of God'. Ill 51a; a communal dhikr exercise. IV 992b
The regular Friday service of the dervishes is called ~. Ill 51; in North Africa, the
dhikr recitation session. XI 468a
hady (A) : oblation; a pre-Islamic sacrificial offering which survived in Islam under the
name dahiyya. Ill 53b
haff -> kushkush
haffara (A) : in zoology, the wrasse, whose Arabic term is found again in the Latinised
nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Chrysophrys haf-
fara). VIII 1021a
ham" (A) : a cotton material stemming from Nishapur. V 555a
hafir (A) : a horse, as used in Tradition prohibiting competitions of animals. V 109a;
'horseshoe', a crescent-shaped ruby affixed to a piece of silk and attached to the top
of the sovereign's turban, one of the caliph's insignia. VI 850a; hoof. IV 249b
hafiz (A) : a designation for one who knows the Qur'an by heart. VIII 171a; a great tra-
ditionist. IX 608a; and -> hirz
hafr (A) : a dried-up well. X 788a
hafshrusi ->■ kalb al-bahr
haft-band (P) : in literature, a variety of tardjT- or tarkIb-band, particularly common
in marthiyas, where each kasida part, khdna, comprises seven verses. X 235b
haft-rangi (P) : in art, a glazed tile technique similar to cuerda seca in which the design
is incised and/or drawn with a greasy substance to separate colours. X 520a
haguza (Mor) : the name of a festival celebrated in Morocco, especially in the country,
at the beginning of the solar year. V 1202a
ha'ik (A, pi. haka), or hayyak : weaver (syn. nassddj). XII 340b
In North Africa, ~, or hayk, tahaykt, is a large outer wrap, usually white, worn by both
sexes. V 746a
ha'ir (A) : a park or pleasure-garden, or zoological garden. Ill 71a
hakam (A) : in law, an arbitrator who settles a dispute (syn. muhakkam). HI 72a
♦ hakama ->■ sarafsar
258 HAKAWATI — HAKW
hakawati (A) : the professional storyteller of folktales. XII 775a
hakham-bashi (T) : in the Ottoman period, a chief rabbi, sent from Istanbul and having
access to the central government. V 335b
hakika (A, pi. haka'ik) : reality; essence, truth; in rhetoric and exegesis, al-haklka is
the basic meaning of a word or an expression, and is distinguished from madjaz,
metaphor, and kayfiyya, analogy. Ill 75a; XII 653a
In philosophy, ~ has an ontological and a logical meaning. The ontological meaning
(haklkat al-shay') is best translated by 'nature' or 'essential reality'; the logical mean-
ing (al-haklka al-'akliyya) is the truth which 'the exact conception of the thing' estab-
lishes in the intelligence. Ill 75a ff.; V 1262a
In mysticism, ~ is the profound reality to which only experience of union with God
opens the way. Ill 75b
♦ al-hakika al-muhammadiyya (A) : in the mystical thought of Ibn 'Arabi, the uni-
versal rational principle through which the Divine knowledge is transmitted to all
prophets and saints, also called ruh Muhammad. V 544a
♦ haka'ik (A) : the Isma'ili term for their secret philosophical doctrines. I 1255b;
III 71b
hakim -> wali
hakim (A, pi. hukamd'; T heklm) : sage; physician.
♦ al-hukama' (A) : the ninth degree in the sufi hierarchical order of saints. I 95a
♦ hekim-bashi (T) : in the Ottoman empire, the title of the chief palace physician,
who was at the same time head of the health services of the state. Ill 339b
hakk (A, pi. hukuk) : something right, true, just, real; established fact; reality. I 275a;
III 82b; and -> ahl-i hakk; din al-hakk; rasm
In law, ~ is a claim or right, as a legal obligation. Religious law distinguishes hakk
Allah, God's penal ordinances, with hakk al-ddami, the civil right or claim of a human.
Ill 82b; III 551b; hukuk, when used of things in law, signifies the accessories neces-
sarily belonging to them, such as the privy and the kitchen of a house, and servitudes
in general. Ill 551b
In mysticism, ~ al-yakln is the real certainty which comes after the acquisition of visual
certainty and intellectual certainty. Hukuk al-nafs are such things as are necessary for
the support and continuance of life, as opposed to the huzuz, things desired but not nec-
essary. Ill 82a-b; III 551b
♦ hakk 'aynl (A) : in law, a real right, as opposed to hakk shakhsl 'personal right'.
IX 495a
♦ hakk al-djahabidha ->• mal al-djahabidha
♦ hakk-i kapan ->• kapan
♦ hakk-i karar (T) : a fixed charge in the Ottoman empire on parcels of land known
as Ciftlik, which a peasant had to pay in order to obtain permission to sell or give up
his land. II 907a; VIII 486a
♦ hakk shakhsi -> hakk 'ayni
♦ hakk al-shurb -> shurb
♦ hukuk bayt al-mal (A) : assets of the Treasury; those monies or properties which
belong to the Muslim community as a whole, the purpose to which they are devoted
being dependent upon the discretion of the imam or his delegate. I 1 142a
hakma (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, the curb-chain of the bit, which is also
composed of branches, shflkima, and a mouthpiece, fa's. II 954a
hakura (A) : a type of garden. XI 89a; in Sahelian Africa, an estate granted by the sul-
tan to religious scholars or notables. XI 99b
hakw (A) : a binding for a waist wrapper, worn by both sexes on the Arabian peninsula
(syn. brim). V 741a
HAL — HALKA 259
hal (A, pi. ahwal) : state, condition; in mysticism, a spiritual state; the actualisation of
a divine 'encounter'. Ill 83b; trance; among the Hmadsha in North Africa, ~ is used
for a light, somnambulistic trance, while a deeper, wilder trance is called djedhba. XII
350b; and -»■ tarab
In medicine, ~ denotes 'the actual functional (physiological) equilibrium' of a being
endowed with nafs. HI 83b
In grammar, ~ is the state of the verb in relation to the agent, its 'subjective' state. Ill
83b; circumstantial qualifier. IX 527b
In scholastic theology, ~ is the intermediate modality between being and non-being. Ill
83b; a technical term employed by some 4th-5th/l 0th- 11th century Basran scholastic
theologians, mutakallimun, to signify certain 'attributes' that are predicated of beings.
1411a; II 570b; XII 343b
♦ c ilm-i hal (T) : a genre in Ottoman literature, forming a kind of catechism of the
basic principles of worship and of behaviour within the family and the community.
VIII 211b
hala (A, pi. huwal) : a term in the Persian Gulf for a low sandy islet which may be cov-
ered at high tide. I 535b
halak ->■ dhat al-halak
halal (A) : in law, everything that is not forbidden. Ill 660b
♦ halal al-dam (A) : in law, one who can be killed with impunity. IV 772a
halam(a) ->■ kirdan
halawi (A) : in zoology, the guitar fish, whose Arabic term is found again in the
Latinised nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Rhino-
batus halavi). VII 1021b
halazun (A) : in zoology, the general term for snail. VIII 707a
half -»• kasam; musalsal al-half
halfa' (A) : in botany, alfa-grass (Stipa tenacissima) and esparto-grass (Lygoeum spar-
turn), two similar plants found in North Africa. The former is called in Tunisia ~
rusiyya or geddlm. A field of alfa is sometimes called zemla. Ill 92a, where can also
be found dialectal terms used in the harvesting of both plants
halib (A) : fresh milk, straight from the animal. XII 318b
haliladj (P, San), or ahliladj, ihllladj : in botany, myrobalanus, the plum-like fruit of the
Terminalia chebula-tree, found in South Asia and the Malayan archipelago. The Arabs
knew five kinds of myrobalanus. XII 349a
In mathematics, ~, but especially its variant ihllladj, was used to designate an ellipse.
XII 349b
halim (A) : a boy who has attained to puberty, or virility. VIII 822a
halk -»• ISTIHDAD
halka (A) : a circle; gathering of people seated in a circle; gathering of students around
a teacher, hence 'course'. I 817a; III 95a; V 1129a
Among the Ibadi-Wahbis of the Mzab, ~ was a religious council made up of twelve
recluses, 'azzdba, presided over by a shaykh. Ill 95a
Under the Ayyubids and Mamluks, a term for a socio-military unit which, during most
of the period of Mamluk rule, was composed of non-Mamluks. Under Salah al-Din it
seems to have constituted the elite of his army. I 765b; III 99a; and -► awlad al-nas
In military science, ~ was the term used for the encirclement of the enemy in an
increasingly tightening ring, a strategy employed by the Turkish and Mongol tribes in
the field of battle. The same tactics were also very common in hunting, especially in
the early decades of Mamluk rule. Ill 1 87b
In astronomy, part of the suspensory apparatus of the astrolabe, the ~ is the ring which
passes through the handle, c urwa, moving freely. I 723a
260 HALKIYYA HAMMADA
halkiyya (A) : in grammar, a term used by al-Khalil to denote the laryngeals. Ill 598a
hall al-manzum (A) : lit. dissolving the versified; in literature, turning poetry into prose.
XII 649b
halladj (A) : cotton carder; the carder separated the fibre from the seed by beating the
cotton with a bow-like instrument called kemdn or yay. V 559a, where also can be
found many names of artisans working with cotton in the Ottoman period
hallak (A) : a barber, hairdresser (syn. muzayyin). XII 350a
hallam (A) : a mediaeval dish made from kid or calf, boiled in vinegar until cooked,
then soused overnight in a mixture of vinegar, cinnamon, galingal, thyme, celery,
quince, citron and salt, and stored in glass or earthenware vessels. X 31b
halush -> KALB AL-MAYY
ham, hama -» sada
hama ust (P) : 'All is He', in mystical thought on the subcontinent, the equivalent of
wahdat al-wudjud. The opposite, wahdat al-shuhud, was said to maintain that
'All was from Him' (hama az ust) or 'All is through Him' (hama bidust). X 318a
hamada (Alg) : silicified limestone. XII 328a
hamal (A) : lamb; in astronomy, al-~ is the term for Aries, one of the twelve zodiacal
constellations, also called al-kabsh 'the ram' because of its 'horns'. VII 83a; XII 319a
♦ hamalat al- c ilm (A), or nalcalat al- c ilm : lit. bearers of learning; among the
Ibadiyya, the ~ were teams of missionaries who were sent out after completion of their
training to spread propaganda in the various provinces of the Umayyad caliphate. Ill
650b
hamam (A, pi. hama'im, hamamat) : in zoology, any bird 'which drinks with one gulp
and coos', that is, any of the family of the Columbidae: pigeons and turtle-doves. In
the restricted sense, ~ denotes the domestic pigeons. Ill 108b, where are found many
terms, in the different countries, for the many different types of birds; for hamam
kawwdl, -» WAKWAK
hamasa (A) : bravery, valour; in literature, the title of a certain number of poetic
anthologies which generally include brief extracts chosen for their literary value. Ill
1 10b; the boasting of courage, a subject of occasional verse. I 584b; the genre of the
epic poem, although ~ has been replaced today by malhama in this sense. Ill 111b
In Persian literature, ~ has come to denote a literary genre, the heroic and martial epic.
Ill 112a
♦ hamasiyya : in Turkish literature, ~ indicates an epic poem. Ill 1 14b
hamasala (P) : allocations on the revenue of specific villages or districts, according to
which the taxpayers paid their taxes, up to the amount stipulated, to the holder of the
~ instead of to the government tax-collector. IV 1045a
hamd (A) : praise; in Urdu religious literature, specifically praise of God. V 958a
♦ hamdala (A) : the saying of the formula al-hamdu li 'Hah 'Praise belongs to
God'. Ill 122b
hamd (A) : in botany, on the Arabian peninsula, a bush and a prime source of salt
needed by camels. I 540b; IV 1 143b
♦ hamdiyyat -> narandj
hamid -» karis
hamil (A) : in astronomy, an eccentric deferent for the epicycle nested within the pare-
cliptic, one of three postulated solid rotating orbs to bring about a planet's observed
motions. XI 555a
hamla (A) : in the Ottoman empire, the term used to designate the group of people at
the rear of the Baghdad-Aleppo caravan. IV 679a; the charge of a wild animal. V 9a
hammada (N.Afr) : large areas which are the outcrops of horizontal beds of secondary
or tertiary limestone or sandstone (or calcareous or gypso-calcareous crusts of the qua-
ternary era). Ill 136b
HAMMAL — HARA 261
hammal (A) : street-porter, bearer, who transports packages, cases, furniture, etc. on his
back in towns and cities. In Istanbul, if two or more porters are required, a long pole,
called sink in Turkish, is used to carry the heavy load. In Fas, the ~ mostly carries
cereals; the Berber word for porter, of which there is a special guild, is zrzaya. Ill 139a
♦ hammalbashi (P) : in Safawid Persia, beginning in ca. 1850, the collector of a
port's customs fees. XII 717b
hammam -»■ mukayyis; wakkad; zabbal
hammara ->■ baqhqhal
hamsaya (Pash) : in Afghanistan, a client attached to and living under the protection of
a tribe. I 217a
hamula (A) : a group of people who claim descent from a common ancestor, usually
five to seven generations removed from the living. Ill 149b
hamur (A) : in the Persian Gulf, term for the grouper. I 541b
hamza (A) : the orthographical sign alif, which is the first letter of the Arabic alphabet,
with numerical value 1. It is an unvoiced glottal occlusive. Ill 150a
♦ hamzat al-wasl -»■ kat'
hanak (A), or tahnlk al-'imama : a turban which was distinctively wound under the chin.
Originally, the ~ was worn by the chief eunuchs of the Fatimid court, who were the
amIrs of the palace. The caliph al-'Aziz was the first ruler to appear in the ~. This
fashion was introduced into the East by the Fatimids from North Africa, where it still
may be seen, especially in southern Algeria and Morocco. V 738a; for tahnlk, the way
of pulling it under the chin, X 610a; X 614b; and -»■ ikti'at
In anatomy, the palate. VI 130a
hanb -»■ anba
hanbal (A) : a rug made of coarse wool. IX 764b
hanbala (A), or hunbu'a : the swaying and limping gait of the hyena, as described in
pre-Islamic poetry. XII 174a
handasa -»■ 'ilm
hanfa' ->■ atum
hanif (A, pi. hunafa') : in Islamic writings, one who follows the original and true
(monotheistic) religion. In the Qur'an, ~ is used especially of Abraham. Ill 165 a; later
Islamic usage occasionally uses ~ as the equivalent of Muslim. Ill 165b
♦ hanifiyya (A) : the religion of Abraham, or Islam, especially when used by
Christian writers. Ill 165b
hanini (A) : a headdress, borrowed (both name and object) by the ladies of France and
Spain in the 14th- 16th centuries (hen[n]in), and which is worn up to the present day
by women among the Druse of the Lebanon and in Algeria and Tunis. X 58a
hanit (A) : the child who has reached the age of reason. VIII 822a
hanith -»■ tahannuth
hannat (A) : a wheat merchant. XII 757b
hanshal (A, s. hanshull) : small parties of Bedouin on foot. II 1055a
hanshir ->■ c azIb
hantam -»■ iklIl al-malik
hanut (A) : a perfume or scented unguent used for embalming (hinata), consisting of
sweet rush or some mixture (dharlra), musk, c anbar, camphor, Indian reed and pow-
dered sandal wood. Ill 403b f.
hanut (A, < Ar) : a tent. IV 994b
hanzal (A) : in botany, colocynth {Citrullus colocynthis), also called kithtM' al-na'dm
'the ostrich's cucumber'. V 1229a; VII 830b
hara (A) : a quarter or ward of a town; in Morocco, used as a synonym of mallah, a
special quarter for Jews. II 230a; III 169b; and -»■ shari'
262 HARABA — HARFUSH
haraba (A) : a one-day battle among tribal factions; if it lasted longer than one day, it
was called a kawn. IV 835a
haraka (A) : motion; in philosophy, ~ is used for the Aristotelian notion of motion. Ill
170a
In grammar, ~ is a state of motion in which a harf 'letter' exists when not in a state
of rest, sukun. It implies the existence of a short vowel, a, i, or u, following the letter.
Ill 172a
♦ haraki (A) : in modern-day terminology, 'activist', as in tafsir ~ 'activist exege-
sis'. IX 118a
haram (A) : among the Bedouin, a sacred area around a shrine; a place where a holy
power manifests itself. I 892b; III 294b; III 1018a; the sacred territory of Mecca. I
604a; IV 322a; V 1003a
♦ al-haramayn (A) : the two holy places, usually Mecca and Medina, but occasion-
ally, in Mamluk and Ottoman usage, Jerusalem and Hebron. Ill 175a
♦ haramgah ->■ harIm
haram (A, pi. ahrdm, ahrdmdt) : pyramid, pre-eminently the pyramid of Cheops and
Chephren. Ill 173a
haram (A) : a term representing everything that is forbidden to the profane and sepa-
rated from the rest of the world. The cause of this prohibition could be either impurity
(temporary or intrinsic) or holiness, which is a permanent state of sublime purity. IV
372b
♦ haramiyya (A) : 'bastards', currently 'highway bandits', one of the numerous
terms in the mediaeval and modern periods for 'rascal, scoundrel'. XI 546a
harb (A) : war. Ill 180a
♦ harba -> c anaza
♦ harbi (A), or ahl al-harb : a non-Muslim from the dar al-harb. I 429b; II 126b;
HI 547a; VII 108b; IX 846a
hareket ordusu (T) : 'investing' or 'marching' army. I 64a; the name usually given to the
striking force sent from Salonica on 17 April 1909 to quell the counter-revolutionary
mutiny in the First Army Corps in Istanbul. Ill 204a
harf (A, pi. huruf ahruf) : letter of the alphabet; word. Ill 204b; in grammar, articula-
tion of the Arabic language, a phoneme. Ill 597a; a Qur'anic reading; dialect. HI 205b
♦ harf 'ilia (A), or mu'talla : in grammar, a 'weak' consonant, viz. the semi-vow-
els alif, wdw, yd'. Ill 1129b; VIII 836b; VIII 990b
♦ harf mutaharrik (A) : in grammar, an individual 'moving' consonant; a consonant
with a vowel, as opposed to harf sdkin; a short syllable. I 669b
♦ harf sakin ->■ harf mutaharrik
♦ harfiyya (A) : a name for the cap of the turban. X 612a
♦ huruf al-hidja 5 (A) : the letters of the alphabet. Ill 596b
♦ huruf al-mu c djam (A) : in grammar, properly, those letters with diacritical points,
but in practice ~ has become a synonym for huruf al-hiajd\ the letters of the alphabet,
but referring solely to writing. Ill 597a
♦ al-huruf al-mukatta'at -> fawatih al-suwar
♦ al-huruf al-mutbaka ->■ itbak
♦ c ilm al-huruf (A) : onomatomancy, a magical practice based on the occult prop-
erties of the letters of the alphabet and of the divine and angelic names which they
form. Ill 595b
♦ hurufiyya (A) : in art, a movement of abstract art using Arabic calligraphy. X
366a
harfush (A, pi. hardflsh, hardfisha), sometimes kharfush : vagabond, ne'er-do-well, often
used in the sense of ruffians, rascals, scamps. The term frequently appears from the
7th/13th to the 10th/16th century in chronicles and other works dealing with the
Mamluk domains of Egypt and Syria, where it denotes the lowest element in the strata
of Mamluk society. During the Ottoman period ~ was replaced by dju'aydi as a gen-
eral term for vagabond, beggar. Ill 206a; XI 546a
harid (A) : in zoology, the parrot fish, whose Arabic term is found again in the Latinised
nomenclature to specify a sub-species limited to a particular region (Scarus harid). VIII
1021b
harim -► pIr
harim (A, pi. hawarim) : a (female) camel which feeds from the harm bush. I 541a
harim (A), also haramgah, zanana : a term applied to those parts of the house to which
access is forbidden; hence more particularly to the women's quarters. Ill 209a
harir (A, Ott ipek) : silk (syn. ibrisam, kazz); ~ occurs in the Qur'an, where it is said
that the raiment of the people of Paradise will be silk, but Tradition and the schools
of law traditionally forbid the wearing of silk to men, allowing it to women. Ill 209b
♦ harira (A) : a gruel made from flour cooked with milk, eaten by pre-Islamic
Arabs. II 1059a
harir -► khurur
harisa (A) : the term for a dish of meat and bulgur, but in Egypt a sweet pastry made
of flour, melted butter and sugar. V 234b; XII 775b
harish -► karkaddan
harka -► djaysh
harkaniyya (A) : a type of black turban, which the Prophet is said to have worn on his
campaigns. The derivation of the term is uncertain: according to al-Suyuti, ~ stems
from h-r-k 'to burn'. X 610a
harmaliyyat (A) : in mineralogy, inclusion or patches looking like African rye, a defect
in a gem. XI 570a
harr -► karis
harra (A, pi. hirar) : a basalt desert in Arabia, which owes its origin to subterranean
volcanoes which have repeatedly covered the undulating desert with a bed of lava. I
535a; III 226a; III 362a; IX 817a
harraka (A) : 'fire ship'; ~ presumably denoted in origin a warship from which fire could
be hurled at the enemy, but was soon used for passenger-carrying craft in Mesopotamia
and also on the Nile. VIII 811a
harratha -► kalb al-mayy
hartani (A, < B ?; pi. hardtin) : name given in northwest Africa to a sedentary popu-
lation of the oases in the Saharan zone; ~ is not applied in dialect exclusively to human
beings, but is variously used for a horse of mixed breed, an ungrafted tree, a wilding,
or a holding of land that is not free. Ill 230b
harth (A) : crops. XI 412b
harun (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that refuses to walk forward. II
953b
harwala (A), or khabab : a more rapid pace than ramal. X 864b
harz -> 'ibra
hasab (A) : nobility, possessed by one (hasib) either with noble ancestry or acquired by
the performance of memorable deeds of prowess or the display of outstanding virtues.
Ill 238b
hasan (A) : good; in the science of Tradition, one of three kinds of Traditions, in
between sahih 'sound' and da'if 'weak' or sakim 'infirm'. ~ Traditions are not con-
sidered as strong as sahih Traditions, but are necessary for establishing points of law.
Ill 25a; a 'fair' Tradition, a genuine euphemism for mostly poorly authenticated
Traditions. VIII 983a
264 HASAN — HASIL
♦ hasani (A) : the name given in Morocco to the money minted on the orders of
Mawlay al-Hasan from 1299/1881-2 onwards. A ~, or dirham hasani, is a coin with
the value of a tenth of a douro. Ill 256a
hasat -> bay' al-munabadha
hashar : corvee labour, syn. bigar. XII 550a
hasharat (A) : in zoology, insects; and -* hawamm wa-hasharat
♦ hasharat al-ard (A), or khashdsh : in zoology, small animals which live on the
ground. Ill 307b
hashima (A) : a fracture of a bone; a determining factor in the prescription of compen-
sation following upon physical injury, diya. II 341b
hashimiyya (A) : a term commonly applied in the 2nd-3rd/8th-9th centuries to members
of the 'Abbasid house and occasionally to their followers and supporters. Ill 265a
hashish (A) : a narcotic product of Cannabis saliva, hemp. Ill 266a
♦ hashishat al-nahl -> turundjan
♦ hashishat al-sananir (A) : 'herb for cats', in botany, the labiate Balm (Melissa
officinalis). IX 653a
♦ hashishiyya (A) : the name given in mediaeval times to the followers in Syria of
the Nizari branch of the Isma'ili sect. Carried by the Crusaders from Syria to Europe,
the name appeared in a variety of forms in Western literature, and eventually found its
way in the form of 'assassin' into French and English usage with corresponding forms
in Italian, Spanish and other languages, used at first in the sense of devotee or zealot.
Ill 267b
hashiya (A, pi. hawashi) : margin; marginal note, super-commentary on the commen-
tary, sharh; gloss. I 593a; I 816b; III 268b; the entourage of a ruler. Ill 269a
hashm (A, P), or hashm-i kalb, afivddj-i kalb, kalb-i sultdni : a term used in the 7th/13th
century to denote the Dihli cavalry, or the standing army at the capital. Ill 199a; V
685a; and -> kabara
♦ hashm-i atraf : in India during the Dihli sultanate, a term denoting the cavalry
which the iKTA'-holders recruited from the regions in which they were posted, or from
the garrisons under their command. Later, it was called the hashm-i bildd-i mamalik. V
685a
hashr (A) : in eschatology, the gathering. V 236a
♦ hashr 'amm -> hashr khass
♦ hashr khass (A) : 'specific resurrection'; among the Imamis, the resurrection that
will involve believers and unbelievers only from Muhammad's community, and not
from earlier communities, in contradistinction to the Resurrection, hashr 'amm. VIII
372a
hasht bihisht (P) : lit. eight paradises; a technical term in Mughal architecture used for
a special nine-fold plan of eight rooms (four oblong [open] axial porches and four usu-
ally double-storeyed corner rooms) arranged around a central (often octagonal) domed
hall. VII 795a; IX 46b
hashw (A) : 'stuffing'; 'farce', hence 'prolix and useless discourse'. I 671b; III 269b;
and -* sila
In prosody, ~ is a collective name for the feet of a verse other than the last foot of the
first hemistich and the last foot of the second hemistich. I 671b
♦ hashwiyya (A) : lit. those that stuff; a contemptuous term with the general meaning
of 'scholars' of little worth, particularly traditionists. It is used of the ashab al-hadith
(-»• ahl al-hadIth) who recognise as genuine and interpret literally the crudely
anthropomorphic Traditions. I 410b; III 269b; IX 879b
hasil (A), or ba'ika : in mediaeval Islam, a warehouse. IX 788b; IX 793b; a shop. IV
1015b
In administration, revenue. IV 1055b; X 503b
HASUR — HAWI 265
hasur (A) : one who leads a celibate life. X 12a
hatar (A), or hitr, hutra : a band placed vertically around the awning of an Arab tent,
in order to fill the space which separates it from the ground. IV 1 147b; and -> tarIka
hatif (A) : an invisible being whose cry rends the night, transmitting a message; a
prophetic voice which announces in an oracular style a future happening. Ill 273a; in
modern Arabic, a telephone. Ill 273b
hatim (A) : a semi-circular wall of white marble, opposite the north-west wall of the
Ka'ba. The semi-circular space between the ~ and the Ka'ba, which for a time
belonged to the Ka'ba, is not entered during the perambulation. IV 318a
hawa'iyya ->■ hawI
hawala (A) : lit. draft, bill; ~ is the cession, i.e. the payment of a debt through the trans-
fer of a claim. Ill 283a; IV 405b; IX 770a
In finance, ~ is an assignation on a mukataa, tax payment, effected by order of the
ruler in favour of a third party. The term is used both for the mandate and for the sum
paid. Ill 283b
In Ottoman Turkish, ~ has the sense of a tower placed at a vantage-point; these tow-
ers were sometimes built for blockading purposes near castles which were likely to put
up a long resistance. Ill 285a
hawamim (A), or hawamimdt : a name for the suras that begin with the initials ha-mim:
xl-xlvi. IX 887b
hawamm wa-hasharat (A) : in biology, crawling and swarming creatures, usually also
including mice, rats, hedgehogs, lizards and snakes. X 378b
hawanti (A) : in Muslim Spain, a shopkeeper in the suk, as opposed to the major trader,
tadjir. IX 789a
hawari (A, < Eth) : apostle; a bird in Sumatra, 'smaller than a pigeon, with a white belly,
black wings, red claws and a yellow beak', mentioned by al-Kazwini. IX 699b f.
♦ hawariyyun (A) : a collective term denoting twelve persons who at the time of
the 'second 'Akaba' are said to have been named by Muhammad (or those present) as
leaders of the inhabitants of Mecca. Ill 285a
haway : a bird, which 'speaks better than a parrot', recorded in Mozambique by al-
Kazwini in the 13th century. Presumably a mynah bird is meant. IX 699b
hawbar ->■ awbar; rubah
hawd (A, pi. ahwdd, hiyad) : a cistern or artificial tank for storing water; drinking
trough, wash-basin. Ill 286b; V 888a
In eschatology, the ~ is the basin at which on the day of the resurrection Muhammad
will meet his community. Ill 286a
♦ hawd al-sabll ->■ sabIl
♦ hawd-i sultani (IndP), or hawd-i shamsi : the first lake built outside the capital
city of Dihli, in the 7th/13th century, as a reservoir constructed for supplying drinking
water to the city, but used for irrigation also. V 883b
hawda : a term used in India to designate the litter on working and processional ele-
phants, either a long platform from which the passengers' legs hang over each side, or
a more elaborate boxed-in structure with flat cushions which afforded more protection
during tiger and lion hunts. The seat on the back of processional elephants has the ~
covered by a canopy, often jewelled, and is known as 'amdri. VII 932b
hawdal ->■ rubah
hawdjam ->■ ward
hawfi (A) : a type of popular poetry peculiar to Algeria, consisting of short poems of
between two and eight verses which are sung by girls or young women. The genre is
more commonly called tahwlf, which means the act of singing the ~. Ill 289b; IX 234a
hawi (A, pi. hdwiyyun, huwa) : a snake-charmer or itinerant mountebank. Ill 291a
266 HAWI HAYK
hawi (A) : 'pertaining to air'; in grammar, an attribute of the letter alif which accord-
ing to Sibawayh 'has some [exhaled] air'. For al-Khalil. the alif, wdw, and yd' were
hawd'iyya, that is to say fi 'l-hawd' 'in the air [exhaled]', which could be said to be
slightly different. Ill 291a
hawidjar-bashi (P) : in Safawid times, an official in charge of supervising the poultry
yard and scullery of the royal kitchen. XII 609b
hawin (A) : the traditional mortar used for grinding coffee and spices (syn. djurn). XII
776b
hawir (A) : in botany, the indigo tree, whose dye is called nil. I 540b
hawkal (A) : a jealous, impotent old man. V 552a
hawl (A) : in law, a one-year holding period, a condition that applies in the obligation
of zakat. XI 408a; XI 414a; and -> tarab
♦ hawli (A) : a foal between one and two years of age. II 785a
♦ hawliyya (A) : a term used in the Sudan and the horn of Africa to denote a feast
held in honour of a saint. VI 896b;
♦ hawliyyat (A) : in literature, the genre of annals. X 298b
hawma : a district. IX 473a
hawra' (A, pi. hur) : white, applied in particular to the very large eye of the gazelle or
oryx; by extension, ~ signifies a woman whose big black eyes are in contrast to their
'whites' and to the whiteness of the skin. Ill 581b
In eschatology, the plural hur 'houris' is used in the Qur'an for the virgins of Paradise
promised to the believers. II 447b; III 581b
hawsh (A) : an unroofed burial enclosure, typically Cairene. IV 429b; in mediaeval
Islam, an enclosed area, urban or suburban, of rural aspect, a yard of beaten earth,
where cattle or poor immigrants could be accommodated. IX 788b
hawshab -> khuzaz
hawt (A) : in southern Arabia, a red and black twisted cord which a woman wears round
her hips to protect her from the evil eye. Ill 294a
♦ hawta (A), or habat : enclave, enclosure; in southern Arabia the name given to
a territory placed under the protection of a saint and thus considered sacred. Ill 294a
hawun (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a mortar to crush e.g. spices. A similar larger
mortar (ajdwiln) was used for pounding meat and vegetables. VI 808b; X 114b
hawz (A, > Sp alfoz 'district'; pi. ahwdz) : in North Africa, particularly Morocco, the
territory, suburb, environs of a large town; in Tunisia, ~ had a fiscal sense. With al-,
~ denotes exclusively the region of Marrakesh, the Haouz, a wide embanked plain
drained by two wadis. Ill 300b
hay'a (A) : shape, form, state, quality; configuration; in philosophy, predisposition, dis-
position. Ill 301a
♦ c ilm al-hay'a (A) : in astronomy, (a branch of) astronomy, dealing with the geo-
metrical structure of the heavens. Ill 302a; III 1135a; VIII 105b; VIII 785b
hay'ala (A) : the shi'i formula of the call to prayer. XI 479b
hayat (A) : life. Ill 302a
hayawan (A) : the animal kingdom; an animal or animals in general, including man,
who is more precisely called al-hayawdn al-ndtik. Ill 304b
hayd (A) : menstruation; menstrual blood. A discharge which exceeds the legal duration
fixed for the menses is called istihdda. Ill 315b; VIII 1023a
haydar (A) : 'lion'; by-name given to 'Ali b. Abi Talib. Ill 315b
hayderi (T) : a short dervishes' garment without sleeves, stopping at the waist. V 752a
haydura -> farw
hayk -> ha'ik
haykal (A, pi. haydkil) : in mysticism, the physical world as a whole as well as the plan-
ets. II 555a; as a Qur'anic term, an entity in the story of the Creation that encloses the
seas which surround the heavens and the earth and is itself enveloped by the kursI.
IV 984a
hayladj (A), or mutakaddim : 'significator', in astronomy, the 'advancing' planet or
place. Along with the promissor, the succeeding or second (al-thanl) planet or place, it
is used to calculate the tasyir arc. X 366b
haylala (A) : the formula la ildha ilia 'Hah. X 465b
hayr (A, pi. hayardt) : the name for the Great Pearl Banks, which stretch along nearly
the entire length of the Arabian side of the Persian Gulf. I 535b
hayra -> tahayyur
hays (A) : a mixture of dates, butter and milk, associated with the tribal tradition of the
Kuraysh and said to be among the favourite dishes of the Prophet. II 1059a; X 901a;
XII 366b
hays -> silb
haytham (A) : in zoology, the young eaglet, male and female (syn. darim, tuladj and
tulad). X 783b
haythuthiyya -> kayfufiyya
hayula (A, < Gk) : substance, primary matter; ~ is sometimes substituted for mddda and
sometimes distinguished from it, but frequently the two terms are considered virtually
synonymous. II 554a; III 328a; X 530a
hayy (A) : clan, i.e. the primary grouping in nomadic life. I 306a; III 330a; in certain
modern dialects, a quarter in a town or settlement, in particular that inhabited by the
same ethnic or tribal element. Ill 330b
hayya (A) : in zoology, snake, a generic name of the ophidians, embracing all kinds of
reptiles from the most poisonous to the most harmless. Ill 334b
hayyak -> ha'ik
hazadj (A) : in prosody, the name of the sixth Arabic metre. I 670a; a metre of quanti-
tative rhythm composed of a foot of one short and three longs repeated three times,
hence four equal feet. VIII 579a
hazar-baf (P) : lit. thousand-weave; in architecture, a glazing tile technique, also known
as bannd'l 'mason-like', simulating the pattern of masonry, consisting of glazed bricks
or ends of bricks, set into a matrix of unglazed bricks to form geometric and epigraphic
patterns to cover large surfaces. X 520a
hazarat : millenary cycles, a theory of Indian astronomy. I 139b
hazawwar (A) : said of a boy who has become strong, and has served, or one who has
nearly attained the age of puberty. VIII 822a
hazi (A, < Ar) : an observer of omens; a generic term covering different divinatory and
magical practices. IV 421b; one who divines from the shape of the limbs or moles on
the face. I 659b
hazir (A) : sour milk, despised by pre-Islamic Arabs. II 1057b
hazira : in architecture, a funerary enclosure. X 520b
hazliyya (A) : in prosody, a satirical, slanderous and obscene poem. XI 238b
hazm -> djabal
hazzab (A) : a person attached to certain mosques in Algeria, who had to recite a
defined portion of the Qur'an, hizb, twice a day so as to achieve a complete recitation
of the Qur'an in one month. Ill 513b
hazzura (A, pi. hazzurat, hazdzlr) : a riddle, which with story-telling and jokes, nukat
(s. nukta), are the most common and basic forms of entertainment among the Bedouin
and the inhabitants of rural areas around the Middle East. XII 775a
268 HEDJE HIDJRAN
hedje (T) : in Turkish prosody, syllabic metre, usually of 1 1 syllables divided 6-5 with
no caesura. VIII 2b
heello ->■ belwo
hees -> maanso
hekim -> hakIm
hel (A) : cardamom, frequently used to flavor coffee. XII 775b
herbed (P) : a Zoroastrian who knows the Avesta and has been initiated as a priest. VII
215b
hiba (A) : a gift, especially that from a more highly placed person to one on a lower
level of society, in contrast to hadiyya. Ill 342b
In law, ~ is a gift inter vivos, a transfer of the ownership of a thing during the life-
time of the donor, and with no consideration payable by the donee. Ill 350a
♦ hiba bi-shart al-'iwad (A) : a gift with consideration, whereby the donee under-
takes to compensate the donor. Ill 351a
hibala (A, pi. habdyil), or uhbula : in hunting, a snare with a draw-net. IX 98b
hibara (A) : in early Islam, a striped garment similar to the burda and said to be the
favourite garment of the Prophet; also, a fabric. V 734a
hibn ->■ rubah
hibr -► midad
hida' (A) : in zoology, the kite. I 1152b
hidd (A, pi. hudud) : a term in the Persian Gulf for a sand bank. I 535b
hidja° (A) : a curse; an invective diatribe or insult in verse, an insulting poem; an epi-
gram; a satire in prose or verse. Ill 352b; a trivial mocking verse of an erotic and
obscene content. VIII 376b; and -» hurOf al-hidja'
hidjab (A) : the veil. I 306b; III 359a; the curtain behind which caliphs and rulers con-
cealed themselves from the sight of their household, also known as sitara, sitr. Ill
360a; an amulet which renders its wearer invulnerable and ensures success for his
enterprises. Ill 361a
In medicine, ~ is a membrane which separates certain parts of the organism, e.g. hidjab
al-bukuriyya 'hymen', al-hiajdb al-hdajiz or hidjab al-djawf 'diaphragm', al-hidjdb al-
mustabtin 'pleura'. Ill 359a
In mysticism, ~ represents everything that veils the true end, all that makes man insen-
sitive to the Divine Reality. Ill 361a
hidjama -»■ fassad
hidjar -» hidjra
hidjazi -»■ 'udhrI
hidjr -> hisan
hidjra (A) : the emigration of Muhammad from Mecca to Medina in September 622;
the era of the ~, distinguished by the initials A.H., beginning on the first day of the
lunar year in which that event took place, which is reckoned to coincide with 16 July
622. Ill 366a; ~ implies not only change of residence but also the ending of ties of
kinship and the replacement of these by new relationships. VII 356a
In the context of Saudi Arabia, ~ (pi. hidjar) is a Bedouin settlement, many of which
were established by c Abd al- c Aziz b. 'Abd al-Rahman Al Su'ud to promote the seden-
tarisation of the Bedouin of Saudi Arabia during the first quarter of the 20th century.
Ill 361b; III 1064b; IX 904b
In Yemen, an inviolable sanctuary recognized by the tribes that are linked to it, often
by a formal agreement, and used by them as neutral territory. XI 276b
In law, emigration to the dar al-islam, by Muslims residing in the dar al-harb. XII
368a
hidjran ->■ wisal
HIDJRIS — HIMAYA 269
hidjris -> rubah; tha'lab
hidjwiyya (T, < A) : in Turkish literature, a satirical kasida attacking an enemy or
someone of whom the poet disapproves. IV 715b
hikava (A) : 'imitation', hence tale, narrative, story, legend. Ill 367a; in the Fihrist, ~
is used in the sense of a textual copy as well as an account of the facts, equivalent to
riwaya. Ill 368b; and -> khabar
In the science of Tradition, ~ implies a literal quotation, a verbatim reproduction, as in
the expression hakaytu 'anhu 'l-hadith a hikayaf". Ill 368b
In grammar, ~ means the use in a narrative of the verbal form which would have been
used at the time when the event narrated took place. Ill 368b
♦ hikayat i'rab (A) : in grammar, the exact repetition of a word used by a speaker
with a vowel of declension no longer appropriate to its function in the new context. Ill
368b
♦ hikayat sawt (A) : onomatopoeia. Ill 368b
hikka (A) : a female camel in its fourth year. XI 412a
hikma (A) : wisdom; science and philosophy. Ill 377b; IX 879b; and -> dar al-hikma
In the Qur'an, ~ is used in several Medinan passages for the revelation or part of it.
V 402b
hikr (A) : in law, one of the various forms of long-term lease of wakf property, com-
mon in Egypt and Syria. Similar forms were called djalsa, enzel, gedik, idjaratayn,
khuluww al-intifa' and nasba. XI 67b; XII 368b
hilal (A) : the new moon, the crescent. Ill 379a; and -> tahlIl
hilf (A) : a covenant, compact, especially that between quite separate tribes, conducing
to the amalgamation of these tribes; friendship, and, by extension, oath. Ill 388b
In pre-Islamic Arabia, the ~ was an institution which merged with that of wala', the
admission of an individual to a clan; a second type of ~ consisted of the agreement
between the clans within one tribe through which they settled on a common line of
conduct; a third type of ~ could also be arranged between opposing clans within one
group, or between different groups, for the accomplishment of a particular object. Ill
388b
hill (A) : in law, freedom of action in sexual matters. I 27a; the unconsecrated area out-
side of the haram of Mecca. X 864b
hilla (A, pi. hilal) : in Saudi Arabia, a shanty town that grew up around the main urban
centres. X 944a
hilm (A) ; justice and moderation, forbearance and leniency, self-mastery and dignity of
bearing, as contrasted with djahl, the fundamental characteristic of the djahiliyya, and
safah or safaha. Ill 390b; V 435a; discretion. IX 332b
hiltit (A) : 'devil's dirt'; the latex of the asafoetida (andjudhan) which, when exposed to
the air, hardens into a dirty-yellow gum resin. VIII 1042b
hima (A) : lit. protected, forbidden place; in Arabia, an expanse of ground, with some
vegetation, access to and use of which are declared forbidden by the man or men who
have arrogated possession of it to themselves. II 1005b; III 294b; III 393a; IV 1 143b;
VIII 495a; IX 817a
himala -> hirz
himar (A) : in zoology, the donkey (fern, atan, himara). Ill 393b
♦ himar hindi (A) : 'white donkey', a term used by al-Djahiz for the rhinoceros,
translated from the Greek. IV 647b
♦ himar al-wahsh (A) : in zoology, the onager. V 1228a
himava (A) : 'protection', from the pre-Islamic period given, in return for financial com-
pensation, by a nomadic tribe to the settled inhabitants (syn. khafara), or the protec-
tion by a superior of the property of the inferior, from whose point of view it is called
270 HIMAYA HISAB
taldjia. The institution of ~ is almost unrecognised by Islamic law, but was in fact
important in classical Islamic society. Ill 394a
In the context of mediaeval Islamic taxation, a supplementary tax levied by the police
for their services. I 1144a; II 143b; III 394b
In politics, ~ refers to various bilateral treaty agreements, particularly those contracted
between Great Britain and the sheikhly rulers of states on the western seaboard of the
Persian Gulf. Ill 395a
In North Africa, ~ has been used officially of the protection exercised by a foreign
Christian power over certain individuals, then over states. Ill 395a
himl (A) : lit. load, a measure of capacity used in mediaeval Egypt for great quantities
of various commodities. The ~ was reckoned at 600 Egyptian ratls, i.e. 266 kg, but
as far as spices were concerned it consisted of 500 rath only, i.e. 222.45 kg. VI 119b
hinad (A) : horses thinned down for horse-racing by being covered with blankets so that
excessive weight was sweated off. II 953a
hinata -»■ hanut
hind (A) : in geography, ~ denoted regions east of the Indus as well as practically all
the countries of Southeast Asia; only when used together with sind, which referred to
Sind, Makran, Baluchistan, portions of the Panjab and the North-West Frontier
Province, was the whole of mediaeval India meant. Ill 404b
hindiba' (A) : in botany, cultivated endive {Cichorium endivia), particularly widespread
in the Muslim West and known there under its Mozarabic name sharrdliya or its ara-
bicised form sarrdkh; in Morocco, the Berber term tifdf is mainly used. XII 370b;
chicory, one of the Prophet's preferred vegetables. II 1058a
hindu (A) : name given to the largest religious community of India. HI 458b
hing -»■ ANGUZA
hinn (A) : an inferior species of QJINN, belief in which is accepted by the Druze. XII
371a
hinna' (A) : in botany, henna (Lawsonia alba), the whitish flower of which was called
fdgtiya or faghw. Ill 461a
hinta -»■ kamh
hinth (A) : in law, perjury. IV 687b; X 99a
hirba' (A) : in zoology, the chameleon. The female is most often called umm hubayn,
while the male is referred to by a number of kunyas, the most frequent in Muslim
Spain being abu bardkish. The idea of 'chameleonism', i.e. the ability to become invis-
ible by turning the same colour as that of any object on which it happens to be, is
termed talawwun. II 1059b; III 463a
hirfa -»■ sinf
hirkul (A), or mandra : in zoology, the finback. VIII 1022b
hirmis -»■ karkaddan
hirr -> sinnawr
hirz (A) : a talismanic charm (pi. ahrdz), pronounced hurz in the Maghrib today. Other
words for 'amulet' are hidjdb in Egypt, himdla, hdfiz, 'udha, mi'w adha amongst the
Arabs of the Mashrik, yafta, nuskha and himdla amongst the Turks, and tilism amongst
the Persians. X 500b
In law, safe keeping, either by the guarding by a watchman or by the nature of the
place, e.g. a private house. IX 62b
hisab (A) : computation; in the Qur'an, the 'reckoning' which God will require on the
Day of Judgement, yawm al-hisab. Ill 465a
♦ hisab al-'akd (A), or hisab al-'ukad or al-'ukud, hisab al-yad, and hisab al-kabda
bi 'l-yad : dactylonomy, digital computation, the art of expressing numbers by the posi-
tion of the fingers. Ill 466a
HISAB — HIZB 271
♦ hisab al-djummal (A) : a method of recording dates by chronogram, consisting
of grouping together, in a word or a short phrase, a group of letters whose numerical
equivalents, added together, provide the date of a past or future event. Ill 468a
♦ hisab al-ghubar (A) : calculation by means of dust, a Persian method which
owes its name to the use of a small board on which the calculator spread a fine layer
of dust in which he drew ghubar numerals. Ill 468b
♦ hisab hawa'i -»■ hisab maftuh
♦ hisab al-hind (A) : calculation by means of the Indian numerals. Ill 466b
♦ hisab maftuh (A), or hisab hawa'i : mental calculation. Ill 469a
♦ hisab al-nim (A) : a divinatory procedure based upon the process of adding the
numerical value of all the letters forming a word (in this case a proper name), by
which it can be predicted which of the two rulers at war will be the victor and which
the vanquished. Ill 468b
♦ 'ilm al-hisab (A) : arithmetic. Ill 1138a
hisan (A) : a term used to distinguish the pure-bred stallion from the pedigree brood-
mare, which is called hidjr, since the word for horse, faras, is not specific. II 785a;
IV 1143b
hisar (A) : in military science, siege. Ill 469a
In Turkish use, a castle, fortress, citadel, stronghold, a common component of place-
names in Turkey. Ill 483a
♦ hisar-eri (T) : in the Ottoman empire, guards in the fortresses. X 503a
hisba (A) : the duty of every Muslim to 'promote good and forbid evil'; the function of
the person, muhtasib, who is effectively entrusted in a town with the application of this
rule in the supervision of moral behaviour and more particularly of the markets. Ill
485b; VIII 402b; religious magistrature, judgeship. I 27b
For the Ottoman empire, -+ ihtisab
hisn (A) : fortress, a fairly common element in place-names. Ill 498a
hiss (A) : in philosophy, sense-perception, sometimes used with the meaning of (individ-
ual) sense. Ill 509a
hitr -»■ HATAR
hiyal (A, s. hila) : artifices, devices, expedients, stratagems; the means of evading a
thing, or of effecting an object; mechanical artifices, automata; tricks of beggars and
conjurors, etc. Ill 510b; XII 371b
In law, circumventions of the law. I 28a; legal devices; the use of legal means for
extra-legal ends. I 123b; III 159b; III 511a
In military science, ~ (with synonyms maka'id and dddb) is a technical term for
strategems of war. Ill 510b
hiyasa (A) : a cloth belt with a silver plaque in the centre, worn by men in the Arab
East. V 741a; a bridal girdle. X 904a
hiyaza -*■ kabd
hizam (A) : a belt or sash worn about the waist by both sexes in the Arab East. V 741a
hizb (A, pi. ahzab) : a group, faction, a group of supporters; part, portion. Ill 5 1 3a; in
modern Arabic, a political party. Ill 514a
In Qur'anic studies, ~ indicates a definite portion of the Qur'an which a believer binds
himself to recite. In certain countries, e.g. Egypt and those of North Africa, the Qur'an
is divided into 60 hizbs, which are half the length of the 30 Djuz's attested from a
very early period. Ill 513b
In mysticism, ~ or wird (pi. awrdd) denotes the recitation of Qur'anic verses and
prayers composed by the founder of the order at the beginning of the dhikr session.
II 224a; X 245a; in Egypt, ~ denotes a religious fraternity, as well as the 'office' of
each fraternity, consisting of the above-mentioned recital during the Friday service.
272 HIZB — HUDUTH
From this meaning, ~ has come to mean formulae of 'supererogatory liturgy'. Ill 513b;
ejaculatory prayer. XI 113a
hoca -> KHA W DJA
hoi (Mai) : a term used in Malaysia to denote a feast held in honour of a saint. VI 896b
horde (Eng, < T ordu) : name given to the administrative centre of great nomad
empires, particularly also to the highly adorned tent of the ruler; then to such nomad
confederacies themselves, insofar as they formed a tenuous association linked to no
particular place, substantially different in their way of life and government from the
settled population, and inflicting considerable damage on this population by their
marauding attacks. Ill 536a
hoz ->■ TIRA
hubara (A), or hubara : in zoology, the bustard. I 541b; II 1058b; IX 98b
hubus ->■ WAKF
hubut -> tali'
huda' (A), or hida' : the camel driver's song. II 1073a
hudabari (P) : in the time of the TImurids, term used in conjunction with soyurghal if
the latter was on a permanent basis and not renewed annually. IX 732a
hudhud (A) : in zoology, the hoopoe. Ill 541b
hudjariyya (A, < hudjra 'room') : a term used in Egypt for the slaves who were lodged
in barracks near to the royal residence. Under the Fatimids, they were organised into
a sort of military bodyguard. II 507a; II 1080a; III 545b
hudjdja (A) : a Qur'anic term meaning both proof and the presentation of proof, ~ is
applied to a conclusive argument attempting to prove what is false as well as what is
true; dialectical proof. Ill 543 b
In shi'i theology, the ~ refers to that person through whom the inaccessible God
becomes accessible, and sometimes to any figure in a religious hierarchy through whom
an inaccessible higher figure became accessible to those below. In its more specialised
meaning, ~ referred to a particular function within the process of revelation, sometimes
identified with the role of Salman as witness to 'All's status as imam. Ill 544b
Among the Isma'iliyya, ~ is a rank in the hierarchy, coming under the bab. The ~ con-
ducted the da'wa, and was one of the greater da'Is, of whom there were twelve, or
occasionally twenty-four. Each seems to have been in charge of a district. In some
works, the ~ is also called the lahik. I 832b; II 97b; III 544b
Among the Nizaris, ~ was used for Hasan-i Sabbah as visible head of the movement
when the imam was hidden; later, it developed into one ~ who alone, by divine inspi-
ration, could fully perceive the reality of the imam; eventually the - became simply the
imam's heir-apparent. Ill 544b
hudjra (A) : room, apartment; with al-, especially the room of 'A'isha where the
Prophet, Abu Bakr and 'Umar were buried, now one of the holiest places of Islam. Ill
545b
hudna (A) : peace agreement; truce. I 24a; III 546b
In law, ~ is equivalent to 'international treaty', whose object is to suspend the legal
effects of hostilities and to provide the prerequisite conditions of peace between
Muslims and non-Muslims, without the latter's territory becoming part of the dar al-
islam. Ill 547a
hudud ->■ HADD
hudur ->■ hadra
huduth (A) : the verbal noun of hadatha, which means 'to appear, to arise, to take
place'. Ill 548a
♦ huduth al-'alam (A) : in philosophy, both the existence of a thing, after its non-
existence, in a temporal extension; and contingency, i.e. the fact of a being's existing
HUDUTH — HULM 273
after not having existed, but in an ontological or essential extension, which does not
necessarily involve time. Ill 548a
hufra -" wak'a
huhu > WAKWAK
hukama' ->■ hakIm
hukk -»■ MAGHNATlS
♦ hukka -»■ ibra; nardjila
hukm (A, pi. ahkam) : decision, judgement. I 257a; effect. I 318b; injunction. VIII 667a;
and -" FARMAN
For ~ in law, ->■ ahkam
In philosophy, ~ means the judgement or act by which the mind affirms or denies one
thing with regard to another, and thus unites or separates them. Ill 549a; also, sensory
intuition, where assent of the mind immediately follows perception. Ill 549b
In grammar, ~ means the specific activity of a word, the proper function which the
word performs at its basic position, martaba, in which it is placed. Ill 550a
In Ottoman Turkish, ~ is also used in the sense of a special type of order, the docu-
ments of which were to be dealt with separately by the administration and which, at
present, are registered in the Turkish archives as a separate archival item, ahkam
defterleri. I 1170b
♦ hukm-i hasil : the sharing of the harvest; one of three methods of collecting land
revenue under the Dihli sultanate. II 273a
♦ hukm-i misahat : the measurement of the area under cultivation and assessment
according to a standard rate of demand per unit area according to the crop sown; one
of three methods of collecting land revenue under the Dihli sultanate. II 273a
♦ hukm-i mushahada : the estimating of the probable yield of the harvest; one of
three methods of collecting land revenue under the Dihli sultanate. II 273a
hukna (A) : in hunting, the covered-over pit-trap, also called ughwiyya, mughawwdt,
wadjra and dafina. V 9a; IX 98b
hukr (A) : a tax on the lands used for pasture, paid by shepherds in Morocco during the
Marinid period. VI 573b
hukra ->■ shawi
hukuk -»■ HAKK
hukuma (A) : the act or office of adjudication by a sovereign, a judge or an arbitrator.
I 384a; III 551b
Under the Saldjuks, and in the Ottoman period, ~ denoted the office or function of gov-
ernorship, usually provincial or local. Ill 552a
In the Kurdish lands, the term hukumet stood for a number of regions listed among the
components of certain Ottoman eyalets. Ill 552a
In modern Arabic, ~ means government, which sense seems to have been first used in
19th-century Turkey. In Persia, hukumat still has the more general sense of political
authority. Ill 552a
♦ hukumat, hukumet ->■ hukuma
hukumdar (T, A) : a governor-general. IV 686b
hula (A) : ornaments, personal jewellery. Ill 568b
hulalliyya : a large dark wrap wound around the body with the upper parts pulled down
over the shoulders and secured with pins, worn in Egypt. V 741a
hulla (A) : a word which in the mediaeval period used to refer to a suit consisting of
two or more garments. Today, it means 'a western suit of clothes'. V 737a
hullan (A), or hulldm : the lamb or kid born of a Caesarian section. XII 319a
hulm -> ru'ya
274 HULUL HOT
hulul (A) : the act of loosing, unfastening, untying; resolving a difficulty; in scholastic
theology and mysticism, an infusion of substance, the incarnation of God in a creature.
In the thought of al-Halladj, ~ means an intentional complete union (in love), in which
the intelligence and the will of the subject are acted upon by divine grace. Ill 102b;
III 571a,b; IV 283a
In grammar, ~ denotes the occurrence of the accident of inflection, i'rab. Ill 571b
In law, ~ denotes the application of a prescription. Ill 571b
In philosophy, ~ denotes both the inhesion of an accident in an object and the substan-
tial union of soul and body. Ill 571b
hulwan (A) : a succession tax paid by those heirs of the tax farmers (-> multezim) who
desired to inherit tax farms. It was one of the taxes which formed an additional source
of revenue for the Egyptian government in the years immediately preceding the
Napoleonic invasion of 1798. II 148b; 'douceur', 'donative'. Ill 572a
huma (P) : in zoology, the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), the largest of the birds
of prey in the Old World. Ill 572a
humayun (P) ; 'fortunate, glorious, royal'; used as an epithet of the ruler, but has in
recent years become obsolete. Ill 574a
hummus (A) : in botany, chick peas, one of the winter crops in mediaeval Egypt. V
863a
humra (A) : in medicine, erysipelas. IX 9b
hums (A) : in pre-Islamic times, the holy families serving the local sanctuaries. II
1059a; people observing rigorous religious taboos, especially Kuraysh. and certain
neighbouring tribes. Although ~ is the plural of ahmas 'hard, strong (in fighting or in
religion)', one of the ~ is called ahmasi, fern, ahmasiyya. The observance of the taboos
was called tahammus. Ill 577b
hunbu c a ->• hanbala
huntuz (A) : in Morocco, a headdress worn by women, triangular in shape, made of
linen, three inches long and broad and a span high, with silk and silver, the whole
thing looking like a camel's hump. X 612a
hur -> hawra'
hurda (A) : the archer in a game of maysir. VI 924a
hurmizd -> mushtari
hurras (A) : a guard. XII 549b
hurriyya (A, T hurriyyet) : an abstract formation derived from hurr 'free'. In a legal
sense, ~ denotes freedom as opposed to slavery; through mysticism, where ~ appears
as one of the guide-posts on the mystical path, and denotes basically the freedom of
the mystic from everything except God and the devotion to Him, ~ came to occupy a
significant position in Muslim metaphysical speculation. Ill 589a
huruf, hurufiyya -* harf
huruk ->• tali 1
hurz ->■ hirz
husayniyya ->■ takiya
hush (A) : the country of the DJiNN, into which no human ventures; a fabulous kind of
camels, which are the issue of a cross between ordinary camels and dj.inn stallions. Ill
637b
♦ hushi ->• gharib; wahshi
husn (A) : loveliness, excellence; and -► bayan; takhallus
hut (A, pi. ahwdt, hltan, in dialect, hiyuta) : a term often used to designate fish in gen-
eral, but applied primarily to very large fish and cetaceans. VIII 1020b; and -> samak
In astronomy, al- ~ is the term for Pisces, one of the twelve zodiacal constellations.
VII 84a
HUT — IBAHA 275
♦ hut al-hayd -*■ fatus
♦ hut musa (A), or hut musa wa-yusha' : lit. the fish of Moses [and of Joshua], in
zoology, a name for the common sole (Solea vulgaris). VIII 1020b
♦ hut sidna sulayman (A) : lit. the fish of our master Solomon, in zoology, a name
for the common sole (Solea vulgaris). VIII 1021a
♦ hut sulayman (A) : lit. the fish of Solomon, in zoology, a name for the salmon.
VIII 1023a
♦ hut Yunus (A) : lit. the fish of Jonah, in zoology, a name for the whale. VIII
1022b
♦ hutiyyat (A) : in zoology, the marine mammals or cetaceans. VIII 1022b
hurra -»■ hatar
huwa huwa (A) : lit. he is he, or it is it; in logic, ~ means what is represented as
entirely identical; modern logicians express this equation with =. Ill 642b
In mysticism, ~ is the state of the saint whose perfect personal unity testifies to divine
unity in the world. Ill 642b
huwarat (A) : in mysticism, female attendants who received the donations of the female
devotees. X 249b
huwayriyya -»■ wardjiyya
huwiyya (A) : ipseity, an abstract term formed to translate the Plotinian category of
identity, xavr6xn<;, and the Aristotelian 6v 'being', although for the latter ~ is used inter-
changeably with anniyya and wudjud. I 514a; III 644a
In modern Arabic, ~ means 'identity'. Ill 644a
huwiyya (A) : the most characteristic part of the ritual surrounding the yearly occasion
of retreat of the Demirdashiyya order, in which the head of the order, a number of
leaders and some members form a circle turning anti-clockwise while calling hu, hu.
XII 208b
huwwara (A) : the whitest flour, for baking bread. V 41b
huzuz -» HAKK
ibadat (A, s. 'ibada) : submissive obedience to a master, and therefore religious prac-
tice, corresponding, in law, approximately to the ritual of Muslim law. Ill 647a; 'the
religious acts which bring the creature into contact with his creator', while its counter-
part, mu'amalat, signifies relations between individuals. VI 467a; acts of worship. IX
323b
♦ ibadat-khana (IndP) : a house of worship built by the Mughal emperor Akbar
(1542-1605) where learned men of all religions assembled to discuss theological prob-
lems. I 317a; XII 378a
c ibadi (A) : Christian. I 196a
ib'adiyya -» ab'adiyya
ibaha (A) : originally, 'making a thing apparent or manifest', hence 'making a thing
allowable or free to him who desires it'; in law, ~ was first used with regard to those
things which every one is permitted to use or appropriate (and -»■ mubah); in a nar-
rower sense, ~ denotes the authorisation, given by the owner, to consume (part of) the
produce of his property. Ill 660b
In theology, ~ is a term that is commonly applied to antinomian teachings (or actions)
of certain sjii'i and sufi groups, as in the accusation ibahat al-maharim 'allowing the
forbidden'. II 136b; III 662a; VIII 146a
♦ ibahiyya -» shuyO'iyya
276 'IBARA IBTIDA'
'ibara (A) : in mysticism, the 'literal language', which is unsuitable for exoteric topics,
in contrast to the coded language of ishara. XII 753a
ibda c (A) : absolute creation; primordial innovation; the bringing into existence with
nothing preceding, as opposed to khalk, the bringing into existence from an existing
thing. Ill 663b
ibdal (A) : replacement, mutation; in grammar, a term indicating both morphological
features involving a mutation of a phonetic character, and doublets, e.g. madaha and
madaha, which have the same meaning but differ from each other by a single conso-
nant. Ill 665a; VIII 836b
ibham (A) : in literary theory, amphibology. X 395b
ibil (A) : in zoology, the collective noun for the dromedary (camelus dromedarius) and
the camel proper (camelus bactrianus). Ill 665b; and -> ba'Ir; djamal
ibn (A, pi. abna') : son. Ill 669b; descendant. VIII 163a
♦ ibn adimayn -> dalw
♦ ibn awbar (A) : in botany, the sand truffle. Ill 670a
♦ ibn c irs (A) : in zoology, the ferret (Mustela putorius furo). II 739b; weasel. Ill
670a; X 224a
♦ ibn al-khiyaratayn (A) : 'the son of the elect', a designation by shi'is to the fourth
imam of the Twelver shi'a since, according to a tradition of the Prophet, the Kuraysh
are the elect of the Arabs and the Persians are the elect of the non- Arabs. XI 482a
♦ ibn ya'kub (A) : lit. the son of Jacob; in zoology, a name for the common sargo
{Diplodus sargus). VIII 1021a
ibra (A) : a term used in navigation denoting the needle of a compass, hukka. The rose
of the compass was known as bayt al-ibra and consisted of a circle divided into thirty-
two rhumbs {akhndn) which were named after prominent stars whose risings and set-
tings were approximately on these rhumbs. VII 51b
♦ ibrat al-ra'i, or ibrat al-rahib -> shawka
ibra' -*■ sulh al-ibra'
'ibra (A) : the assessed value of the revenue on an estate. Ill 1088b; IV 557a; ~ may
have originated simply as an extension of masaha and mukasama, the average annual
value of the crop over a number of years, usually three, assessed by whatever method,
being taken as the basis on which the tax was calculated. The term ~ is not met with
after the early centuries and appears to have been replaced by harz, which, in the later
centuries, seems usually to have meant not an average calculation made on the basis
of three or more years, but an arbitrary valuation arrived at by the tax-collector, some-
times, but not always, after an inspection of the crop during growth or harvest time.
IV 1031b; IV 10388a
ibrik (A) : in art, a term used for any kind of ewer, irrespective of function or mater-
ial, but generally a vessel for pouring water or wine. Other terms for specific kinds of
ewers are bulbula or kubra. V 989a; XII 406a
In music, the neck (syn. 'unk) of the 'ud. X 769b
ibrisam -*■ harir
ibriz (A) : in numismatics, purified gold. Other laudatory terms for coins are djayyid
'good, excellent', khalis, khdss, safi, surah 'pure (unmixed) metal', and sahh, the
paraph or official mark on an 'Othmanli gold coin testifying to its authenticity. X409b
ibrizim (P) : a type of silk from Khurasan. V 329a
ibtida' (A) : introduction, prologue; in rhetoric, the ~ is one of the three sections of the
poem or composition which should receive particular attention and should conform to
certain criteria of style and content. The other two sections are takhallus 'transition',
and the intiha' 'conclusion'. Ill 1006a; III 1246a
In law, ~ is used as a technical term in the expression ibtidd""', meaning 'per se'. I
339a; and -> isti'naf
IC OGHLANl — IDJAR 277
ic oghlani (T), or ic agha : lit. lad of the interior; the name given to the 'adjami oghlan
after he was appointed to the sultan's household. I 206b; Ottoman term for those boys
and youths, at first slaves, recruits and occasionally hostages, later free-born Muslims,
who were selected for training in the palaces in Edirne and Istanbul in order to occupy
the higher executive offices of the state. I 394a; III 1006b
icazetname -»■ idjaza
'id (A, < Ar) : festival. Ill 1007a
♦ c id al-adha (A), and 'id al-kurbdn, 'id al-nahr : the 'sacrificial festival' during the
yearly pilgrimage on 10 Dh u '1-Hidjdja. This festival is also known as al-'ld al-kabir
'the major festival' as opposed to al-'ld al-saghir 'the minor festival, another name for
'Id al-fitr. Ill 1007b; XII 317a; and -»■ lebaran
♦ 'id al-fitr (A) : the 'festival of breaking the fast' of Ramadan on 1 Shawwal. Ill
1008a; and -»■ 'Id al-adha; lebaran
♦ c id al-kurban -»■ 'Id al-adha
♦ 'id al-nahr -»■ 'Id al-adha
Ida' -»■ tadmin; wadI'a
i'dadi (T) : 'military preparatory' schools, founded by the Ottoman sultan 'Abd al-
Madjid I in 1845. I 75a
idafa (A, P ezdfe, T izdfet) : in grammar, the uniting of one term with another, the deter-
minative complement or 'construct state', by which possession, material, etc. is
expressed. The first term is called al-muddf, the second al-muddf ilayhi. Ill 1008a; for
Persian ezdfe, XII 441a
idara (A) : common name in the modern Islamic languages for administration, acquir-
ing its technical significance during the period of European influence. Ill 1010b
idbar -»■ ikbal
'idda (A) : in law, the duration of widowhood, or the legal period of abstention from
sexual relations imposed on widows or divorced women, or women whose marriages
have been annulled, providing the marriage was consummated, before remarriage. I
28a; I 172b; III 1010b; VIII 28a; VIII 836a
iddigham -»■ idgham
'idgah -»■ namazgah
idgham (A), or iddigham : in grammar, the contraction of two similar consonants in a
geminate. Ill 1013a; assimilation. VIII 121a; VIII 344a; VIII 836b; X 73b
idjja' -»■ shatm
idha'a (A) : broadcasting (mudhi' 'broadcaster', midhyd' 'microphone'), inaugurated in
the Islamic world in Turkey in 1925. Ill 1014a
idhar -»■ lidjam
'idhar (A), or khatt : the down of a young man. IX 313b
idhkhir (A) : in botany, a fragrant plant used to decorate houses and tombs, but also
used by blacksmiths. IV 819b; and -»■ khamIl
idhn (A) : authorisation, in particular, in law, the authorisation necessary to enable cer-
tain types of incapable persons to conclude isolated legal transactions, and the general
authorisation to carry out commercial transactions in a normal way. Ill 1016a
In religious law, a safe conduct given by non-Muslims to a Muslim in their territory.
For its opposite, -»■ aman. I 429b
idjab -»■ bay'
idjaba (A) : 'answer-poem', a genre of Arabic poetry. VIII 805a
idjar (A), and idjdra : in law, a contract to hire, in particular the hiring out of a ser-
vice and of movable objects, with the exception of ships and beasts which are used for
transportation. Ill 1017a; V 126b; XII 691b
278 [DJARA — IDJTIMA'
idjara (A) : the granting of protection to a stranger according to ancient Arab practice;
to ask for protection is istadjdra, and the djdr (pi. djirdn) is mostly the person pro-
tected, but may also be the protector. Ill 1017b; and -»■ Idjar; idjaza
♦ idjaratayn (A, T idjdreteyn) : a form of long-term leasing of wakf property, com-
mon in Anatolia and all countries formerly part of the Ottoman empire since the 16th
or 17th century. ~ contracts involved immediate payment of a lump sum as well as
yearly, variable, rather low rents. XII 368b; a 'double rent' agreement, whereby a rel-
atively high entry fine was paid, in exchange for which the tenant was allowed a lease
which his heirs might inherit. IX 542a
i'djaz (A) : lit. the rendering incapable, powerless; since the second half of the 3rd/9th
century, the technical term for the inimitability or uniqueness of the Qur'an in content
and form. Ill 1018a; V 426b; IX 887a
idjaz (A) : in rhetoric, terseness. VIII 614b; X 79a
idjaza (A) : authorisation, licence; and -»■ rika'
In the science of Tradition, ~ means, in the strict sense, one of the methods of receiv-
ing the transmission of a Tradition, whereby an authorised guarantor of a text or of a
whole book gives a person the authorisation to transmit it in his turn so that the per-
son authorised can avail himself of this transmission. Ill 27a; III 1020b
In law, the qualification, upon culmination of one's legal education, to teach the law
(~ // 'l-tadrls), issue a fatwa (~ // 'l-fatwa), or both. X 80b
In modern Persian and in Ottoman Turkish, as icazetname, the term has come into
modern use to mean 'certificate of fitness' (to teach). Ill 1021a
In prosody, ~ (or idjara) is used for the substitution of an unrelated letter for the rawi,
the rhyme letter. IV 412b
In rhetoric, ~ is used both when a poet builds some lines or even a whole poem on a
single line or hemistich suggested by somebody else, often a ruler, and when two poets
compose alternately a hemistich or one or more lines of the same poem. When this is
done in the form of a contest, the term tamlit (mumdlata, imldt) is found. Ill 1022a
idjdhab -> tahayyur
idjhab (A) : abortion, which is prohibited after quickening (nafkh al-ruh), usually at the
end of the fourth month. X 199a
idjma' (A) : in law, the third, and in practice the most important, of the sources of legal
knowledge, being the unanimous agreement of the community on a regulation imposed
by God. Technically, ~ is the unanimous doctrine and opinion of the recognised reli-
gious authorities at any given time. I 259b; II 182b; II 887b; III 1023a; V 239a; IX
324b
idjmal (A) : a summary register. IX 123b f.
idjtihad (A) : lit. effort; in law, the use of individual reasoning; exerting oneself to form
an opinion in a case or as to a rule of law, achieved by applying analogy to the Qur'an
and the custom of the Prophet. The opposite is called taklTd, the unquestioning accep-
tance of the doctrines of established schools and authorities. I 259b; III 1026a; IX 324b
♦ idjtihad fi '1-madhhab (A) : the creative development of the law within the broad
structures of the madhhab. X 138a
♦ idjtihad mutlak (A) : in law, the creative act of idjtihad through which the found-
ing imams derived from the revealed sources a systematic structure of law. X 137b
idjtima' (A) : in astronomy, the conjunction (mean or 'true') of the sun and moon. In
astrology, ~ is sometimes employed to refer to the conjunction of the planets, although
kiran is preferred. IV 259a
In human psychology, ~ is the intermediary between the faculty of desire and the active
power, the decision which follows after a hesitation between action and no-action, as
a result of which one of the two prevails. According to others, ~ is the desire to act
at its maximum intensity. V 577b
IDJTIZA' -
idjtiza 5 (A) : in metrics, the shortening of vowels. XI 374a
idma 5 * shi'ar
idmar (A) : concealing; in grammar, ~ is used in the sense of 'imply'; it is used by
grammarians when speaking about an unexpressed grammatical element, supposedly
existent and active (ant. izhdr). With Sibawayh, ~ refers to the personal pronoun, which
later became ^Z-mudmar, which was preferred over al-makni, the Kufan term. HI
1027b
In prosody, ~ has taken on a technical meaning, denoting 'the quiescence of the ta' of
mutafa'ilun in the KamiV . I 672a; III 1028a; a case of zihaf where the second vow-
elled letter of the foot is rendered vowelless. XI 508b
idradj (A) : in prosody, ignoring the caesura between hemistichs (syn. tadwlr). X 79a
idrak (A, P dar-yaftan) : sensory perception; comprehension (syn. fahm); in philosophy,
~ implies an adaequatio rei et intellectus. The whole philosophical problem of ~ is to
find out what this adequation is, and how and where it is achieved. Ill 1028a
idrar (A) : pension. XI 84b
idtirab -»■ tarab
idtirar (A) : compulsion, coercion, as opposed to ikhtiyar, freedom of choice.
In theology, human actions carried out under compulsion were distinguished from those
carried out of free choice; the latter were voluntary and the results of an acquisition,
iktisdb (-»■ kasb). With al-Ash'ari, the opposite correlatives became no longer idtirdr-
ikhtiydr, but idtirdr-iktisdb. In later Ash'arite theology, ~ is reserved for an action that,
of itself, cannot take place. Ill 1037b; and -► darura
ifada (A) : a term used for the running of the pilgrims from 'Arafat on the evening of
the 9th of Dhu '1-Hidjdja after sunset in which they trace the road by which they had
come from Mecca. Ill 36a; along with fayd 'course made in an enthusiastic manner',
~ is used for the other courses than sa'y. IX 97b; and -»■ tawaf al-ifada
iflas (A) : in law, bankruptcy. V 717b
iflat ■-► ITLAK
c ifr -»■ KHANZUWAN
ifrad (A) : in the context of the pilgrimage, one of three methods of performing it, con-
sisting of making the hadjdj alone, at the prescribed time, the c umra being performed
outside the month of the pilgrimage or simply neglected. Ill 35a; III 53b; X 865b
ifrandj (A), or firandj : the Franks. The name was originally used of the inhabitants of
the empire of Charlemagne, and later extended to Europeans in general. In mediaeval
times, ~ was not normally applied to the Spanish Christians, the Slavs or the Vikings,
but otherwise it was used fairly broadly of continental Europe and the British Isles.
Between the 16th and the 19th centuries, - came to designate European Catholics and
Protestants. Ill 1044a
ifrat (A) : among the shi c is, exaggeration in religion. IX 163b
ifrikiya (A, < L) : the eastern part of the Maghrib, whence the name adopted by some
modern historians for Eastern Barbary. It was sometimes confused with the whole of
the Maghrib and sometimes considered as a geographically separate region. HI 1047a
c ifrit (A, pi. c afdrit) : an epithet expressing power, cunning and insubordination, ~ occurs
only once in the Qur'an, in the sense of rebellious. Later, in its substantive form, it
came to mean a class of particularly powerful chthonian forces, formidable and cun-
ning. In the popular tales, the ~ is a djinn of enormous size, formed basically of
smoke; it has wings, haunts ruins and lives under the ground. ~ may be used of
humans and even animals, and then expresses cunning, ingenuity and strength. In
Egyptian Arabic, ~ also has the meaning of the ghost or spirit of a person deceased.
Ill 1050a; IX 406b
ifsintin -> afsantin
ifta' -»■ FUTYA
280 IFTITAH IHTIYAj
iftitah (A) : in the science of diplomatic, the introduction or introductory protocol of
documents, whose individual parts (fawatih), according to al-Kalkashandi, are the bas-
mala, hamdala, tashahhud, salwala (tasliya), saldm, and ba'diyya (arnmd ba'du). II
302a; and -»■ tiraz
ighal (A) : in rhetoric, epiphrasis. V 898a; and -> mubalagha
ighar (A) : in classical Muslim administration, both an exemption or a privilege with
respect to taxes, and the land which was covered by this privilege. The term became
absorbed in that of ikta' in later centuries. Ill 1051a
♦ ighara (A) : lit. raiding; in literature, the rather archaic procedure of a famous
poet forcing a less famous one to give up a flawless line, because the more famous
poet has a greater right to it. XII 647a; XII 707b
igherm -»■ agadir
ighrab -»■ istiqhrab
ighrikiyya -> yunan
ightala -»■ tadabbaba
igretileme -> isti'ara
ihale (T) : one of three principal ways in which mining activity was organised in the
Ottoman empire, the others being emaneten and iltizamen. ~ meant the long-term
concessionary leasing of state lands for purposes of mining exploration to licensed indi-
viduals or mining companies. V 974b
iham (P) : in prosody, double entendre. IX 90b; X 395a; and -»■ tawriya
ihata (A) : in law and theology, integral truth. V 239b
ihaza -> ustan
ihdath (A) : an innovation in time; the act of bringing into existence a thing that is pre-
ceded by a time. Ill 1051a
ihfa' (A), or djazz : moustache. The verb used in cutting the ~ is kass. IX 312a f.
ihliladj -»■ haliladj
ihram (A) : the state of temporary consecration of someone who is performing the pil-
grimage, HADjDj or c umra. The entering into this holy state is accomplished by the
statement of intention, accompanied by certain rites, and for men, by the donning of
the ritual garment. A person in this state is called muhrim. Ill 1052b
ihranshafa (A) : to prepare to fight (said of a cock); to begin to pay a forfeit (said of a
man). XI 546a
ihsa' (A) : 'enumeration'; among the Nuktawiyya sect, ~ is used to designate the process
of how, when a being rises or descends from one level of existence to another, the
traces of his former existence are still visible and can be discerned by the insightful.
VIII 115a; population census. X 307b
ihsan (A) : in Mauritania, a contract for the loan of a lactiferous animal, the hiring of
a young camel for the purpose of following a she-camel so that she continues to give
milk. VI 313a; and -»■ ikhlas
ihsan -»■ muhsan
ihtida' (A) : orientation, e.g. as given by the stars (in nightly travel). VIII 97b
ihtikar (A) : the holding up of or speculation in foodstuffs, condemmed by Tradition. X
467b
ihtisab (A, T) : an official term in the administration of the Ottoman empire, its basic
meaning being the levying of dues and taxes, both on traders and artisans and also on
certain imports, but it came to denote the whole aggregate of functions that had
devolved upon the muhtasib (-> hisba). Ill 489a; licenses, providing part of the rev-
enue of the tax system of the Ottoman period. V 334a
ihtiyat (A) : in Turkish military usage, reserve of the regular army, to be contrasted with
the redlf (-»■ radif) 'reserve army' or militia, created in 1834. VIII 370a
In law, prudence in legal matters, characteristic of the Shafi'i school. IX 812b
IHYA' — IKHWAN 281
ihya' -»■ mawat
ika' (A) : a term denoting musical metrics or rhythm in the sense of measuring the
quantity of notes. The early Islamic ~ can be considered as a forerunner of mediaeval
European mensura. XII 408b
ikab (A) : penetration from sexual intercourse. XI 510a
ikala (A) : in law, mutuus dissensus, a mutual agreement between the parties to put an
end to a contract. I 319b; III 1056b
ikama (A) : the second call to the salat, pronounced by the muezzin in the mosque
before each of the five prescribed daily saldts and that of the Friday service. I 188b;
III 1057a; VIII 927b; XI 269b
ikbal (A) : in astronomy, in the expression al-ikbal wa 'l-idbdr, trepidation, the pre-
sumed oscillation of the equinoxes. XI 504a
'ikbir (A) : the bee-glue (syn. khatm, dundj), which with wax (sham') and honey ( c asal)
is produced by the workers ('assdldt) among the bees. VII 907a
ikdada (A) : a white kafiyya worn in summer in the Arab East. V 741a
ikerzi (B) : a Berber turban consisting of a white cloth wound about the head leaving
the crown uncovered. V 746a
ikfa' (A) : in prosody, the substitution of a cognate letter for the rhyme letter, rawi, e.g.
nun for mint. IV 412b
ikhawa -> khawa
ikhlas (A) : 'dedicating, devoting or consecrating oneself to something; ~ is pre-emi-
nently an interior virtue of the faithful Muslim, whose perfection of adherence, and wit-
ness, to his faith is gauged by ~ and ihsan 'uprightness in good'. The opposites of ~
are nifdk 'hypocrisy' and shirk 'associating others, or other things, with God'. Ill
1059b; VIII 547a
ikhshid (P) : a title given to local Iranian rulers of Soghdia and Farghana in the pre-
Islamic and early Islamic periods. Ill 1060b
ikhtiladj (A) : spontaneous pulsations, tremblings or convulsions of the body, particu-
larly the limbs, eyelids and eyebrows, which provide omens the interpretation of which
is known as 'Urn al-ikhtilddj 'palmoscopy'. Ill 1061a; V 100b
ikhtilaf (A) : 'difference, inconsistency'; in law, the differences of opinion among the
authorities of law, both between schools and within each of them. Ill 1061b
ikhtira' (A) : in literary criticism, 'original invention', as differing from crude plagiarism.
XII 656b
ikhtiyar (A) : choice; and -»■ idtirar
In philosophy, ~ means free preference or choice, option, whence power of choice, free
will. Ill 1037a; III 1062a
In law, ~ has the meaning of opinion freely stated. Ill 1062a
In treatises on the imama, where ~ has the meaning of choice or election, it is custom-
ary to contrast the ahl al-ikttiydr with the ahl al-nass, the supporters of free election
with the supporters of textual determination. Ill 1063a
In astrology, the auspicious days. X 366b
♦ ikhtiyarat (A) : 'hemerologies and menologies' (L. electiones); in divination, hemerol-
ogy, an astrological procedure whose aim is to ascertain the auspicious or inauspicious
character of the future, dealing with years, months, days and hours. Ill 1063b; VIII
107b
In literature, ~ is a synonym of mukhtarat 'anthologies'. Ill 1064a; VII 528b
♦ ikhtiyariyya (T, < A) : the elite or veterans of an Ottoman guild or army unit.
XII 409b
ikhwan (A) : brethren; the term most commonly used for darwish in Morocco and
Algeria. II 164a; a religious and military movement of Arab tribesmen which had its
heyday from 1912-1930 in Arabia. Ill 1064a
282 IKHWAN ILA'
♦ ikhwaniyya (A) : in prosody, a versified letter, in which protestations of friend-
ship are found integrated with the theme of youth and of old age. IV 1005a; IX 387a
ikindi diwani (Ott) : in the Ottoman empire, the afternoon dIwan, held in the Grand
Vizier's own residence to take care of lesser affairs. XI 196b
ikla (A), or akila : in medicine, either gangrene or cancer. X 911b
iklab (A) : in Qur'anic recitation, the 'alteration' of a letter's sound. X 73b
♦ iklaba (A) : in modern Mecca, the ceremony held to celebrate when a boy has
read through the whole of the Qur'an (the ceremony after the half or one-third is called
isrdfa). IV 1113a
iklil al-malik (A) : in botany, the melilot (Melilotus officinalis) (infrequent syn. nafal,
hantam, shadjarat al-hubb). In Muslim Spain, ~ was known under the Romance name
kurunllla. XII 410a
iklim (A, < Gk) : in geography, clime, climate; region. I 658a; III 1079b; V 398a
In administrative geography, ~ was used for province or canton, the equivalent or a
subdivision of a kura. This usage is peculiar to Syria and Upper Mesopotamia. Ill
1077b; V 398a; zone. IX 36b
In al-Mas'udi, ~ is used for the Persian keshwar, which refers to the seven great king-
doms of the world. Ill 1077b
ikrah (A) : in law, duress, of which there are two kinds: unlawful (ikrdh ghayr mashru')
and lawful (ikrdh bi-hakk). Only the former is recognised by the Qur'an and has legal
effects. I 319a; XII 410b
ikrar (A) : in law, affirmation, acknowledgement; recognition of rights. The declarant is
called al-mukirr, the beneficiary al-makarr lahu, and the object of the recognition al-
mukarr bihi. I 28b; III 511b; III 1078a; IX 845b
Among the Bektashis, the ceremony of initiation. IX 168a
iksir (A, < Gk; pi. akdsir) : originally the term for externally applied dry-powder or
sprinkling-powder used in medicine, ~ came to be used for the elixir, the substance
with which the alchemists believed it possible to effect the transformation of base met-
als into precious ones. Ill 1087b
♦ iksirin (A) : in medicine, an eye-powder. Ill 1087b
ikta' (A) : in fiscal administration, a form of grant, often (wrongly) translated as 'fief;
the delegation of the fiscal rights of the state over lands to the military. I 1353a; II
508a; III 1088a; IV 975a; IV 1043b
ikti'at (A), or i'tidjdr : the opposite of tahnlk (-* hanak), or the way the turban-cloth is
brought under the chin. X 614b
iktibas (A) : 'to take a live coal (kabas) or a light from another's fire', hence to seek
knowledge; in rhetoric, ~ means to quote specific words from the Qur'an or from
Traditions without indicating these as quoted, found both in poetry and prose. Ill
1091b; XII 664a
iktiran (A) : in astronomy, conjunction. VIII 105a
iktisab -> kasb
ikwa' (A) : in prosody, faulty rhyme. II 1073b; the change of the vowel madjra, e.g. u
with /'. IV 412b
il (A, T /'/; pi. Ilat) : in Turkish, empire; district over which authority is exercised, ter-
ritory; people; peace. Ill 1092a; in the Republican period, /'/ was introduced to replace
vilayet for province. Ill 1092b; VIII 189a
In Persian, ~ was used of 'tribesfolk' (syn. ulus), and by the 7th/13th century had
become current with the meaning 'submissive, obedient'. Ill 1092b
ila' (A) : in law, an 'oath of continence', the husband swearing in the name of God not
to have sexual relations with his wife for at least four months. When this time had
passed without a resumption of conjugal relations, the marriage was not automatically
broken up except in Hanafi law, the other schools allowing the wife to judge the occa-
sion for the severance, which would take place by a repudiation that the husband would
pronounce, or that the kadi would formulate in his place. IV 689a; VI 478a; VIII 28a
ilaf (A) : a Qur'anic term which probably refers to economic relations entered into by
the Kurayshis well before the advent of Islam; the lexicographers define ~ as 'pact
guaranteeing safety, safe conduct, undertaking to protect'. Ill 1093a
ilah (A, pi. dliha) : deity; in pre-Islamic poetry, al- ~ was an impersonal divine name
although for Christians and monotheists, it denoted God; by frequency of usage, al- ~
became Allah. Ill 1093b
♦ ilahi (A) : in Turkish literature, a genre of popular poetry of religious inspiration,
consisting of poems sung, without instrumental accompaniment, in chorus or solo dur-
ing certain ceremonies, and distinguished from other types of popular religious poetry
by its melody and use in ritual. Ill 1094a; 'divine [hymn]'. VIII 2b; and -->■ ta'rIkh-i
ilahI
♦ ilahiyyat (A) : in philosophy, ~ gained currency as denoting the whole mass of
questions concerning God. I 415a
c ilal (A, s. 'ilia 'cause') : diseases, defects; in poetry, one of two groups of metrical devi-
ations (the other being zihaf), ~ appear only in the last feet of the two halves of the
lines, where they alter the rhythmic end of the line considerably, and are thus clearly
distinct from the hashw feet. As rhythmically determined deviations, ~ do not just
appear occasionally but have to appear regularly, always in the same form, and in the
same position in all the lines of the poem. I 671b
In the science of hadIth, ~, usually rendered 'hidden defects', is a main approach of
isnad criticism; it highlights links between certain pairs of transmitters which are sub-
ject to dispute. VIII 515a
Hat (P) : nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes, term first used in Ilkhanid times. Early
Islamic geographers and historians refer to these tribes by the generic term al-akrdd,
by which they mean not necessarily people of Kurdish race but non-Arab and non-
Turkish tent dwellers and herdsmen. Ill 1095b f.
c ilb -»• SIDR
ilce (T) : district. VIII 189a
ildja' -> taldji'a
ilhad -> mulhid
ilham (A) : lit. to cause to swallow or gulp down; a Qur'anic term denoting God's rev-
elation to men individually, as opposed to His revelation to men generally by messages
sent through the prophets, wahy. Ill 1119b
illdja (T) : 'hot spring'; a bath served by a hot spring. Other synonyms are kaplidja,
used primarily of the baths served by thermal springs in Bursa, and bana. II20b
ilka ->■ kishsha
ilka' -»• tarh
'ilia (A, pi. 'Hal) : cause. Ill 1127b; in law, explanatory principle, the raison d'etre of
the law. V 239a ff.; and ->■ harf 'illa; sabab
'illiyyun (A, < Heb 'elyon) : a Qur'anic term meaning both the 'place in the book where
the deeds of the pious are listed' and 'an inscribed book'. Ill 1132b
'ilm (A) : knowledge; the result of laborious study. Ill 1133a; and ->■ hamalat al-'ilm
♦ 'ilm al-aktaf -> katif
♦ c ilm al-asarir (A) : in divination, chiromancy. V 100a
♦ 'ilm 'amali (A) : in philosophy, practical knowledge, which comprises, according
to al-Kh w arazmi, ethics, domestic economy and politics. I 427b; in theology, the knowl-
edge of religious obligations, complete only when these obligations are fulfilled, as opposed
to 'ilm nazari 'the knowledge of things'. Ill 1133b
♦ 'ilm al-'aza'im (A) : the talismanic art, consisting of calling upon djinns and
angels for the performance of some project. IV 264b; V 100b
♦ 'ilm al-djamal (A) : aesthetics. Ill 1134a
♦ 'ilm al-handasa (A) : in mathematics, geometry. XII 411b
♦ 'ilm al-kafiya (A) : rhyme theory. VIII 894a
♦ 'ilm nazari -> c ilm amalI
♦ c ilm shar'i (A) : revealed knowledge. I 427b
For other expressions with 'ilm, -»■ the final component.
♦ 'ilmiyye (T) : the body of the higher Muslim religious functionaries in the
Ottoman empire, especially those administering justice and teaching in the religious
colleges. Ill 1152a; X 805a
iltibas -> sabab
iltifat (A) : in rhetoric, apostrophe, a stylistic device. V 898a
iltizam (A) : a form of tax-farm used in the Ottoman empire. HI 1154a; and ->
MULTEZIM
For ~ in prosody, -> luzum ma la yalzam; tadammun
iltizamen (T) : one of three principal ways in which mining activity was organised in
the Ottoman empire, the others being emaneten and ihale. ~ meant the farming out
of mining revenues to investors on a short-term contract basis. The usual term for these
contracts in the mining context was six years. V 974b
Ima' -»■ ishara
'imad -> 'amId
imala (A) : in the science of phonetics, ~ stands for inflection, a palatalisation, produced
by a rising movement of the tongue towards the prepalatal region. Ill 1162a; the incli-
nation of the vowel a towards i. VIII 343b
imam (A) : leader of the official prayer rituals, the salat. From the earliest days of
Islam, the ruler was ~ as leader in war, head of the government and leader of the com-
mon saldt. Later, as the ruler's representatives, the governors of the provinces became
leaders of the saldt, just as they were heads of the kharadj. They had to conduct rit-
ual prayer, especially the Friday saldt, on which occasion they also delivered the ser-
mon, khutba. Starting from 'Abbasid times, the office devaluated; the ~ no longer
represented a political office, but came to belong to the personnel of the mosque. Each
mosque regularly had one. He had to maintain order and was in general in charge of
the divine services in the mosque. VI 674b; VIII 927b
In religious practice, the ~ is the transveral bead of a larger size on a rosary that sep-
arates the groups of beads. IX 741b
In the science of the Qur'an, al-imdm is the Median standard codex. V 408a
In mathematics, the number with which the numerator of a fraction is in relationship
(syn. makdm, mukhradj). IV 725b
♦ imam al-difa' (A) : among the Ibadiyya, an imam invested by the people living
in a state of secrecy, ahl al-kitmdn, to defend them in misfortune. Ill 658a
♦ imam-bara (U) : lit. enclosure of the imams; a term used in Muslim India for the
buildings where the s_hi'is assemble during Muharram and recite elegies on the martyr-
dom of Hasan and Husayn. ni 1163a
♦ imama (A) : the imamate, 'supreme leadership' of the Muslim community. Ill
1163b
♦ imaman (A) : in mysticism, the two assistants of the kutb, the second category
in the hierarchy of the saints. I 95a
♦ imamzada (P) : the designation for both the descendant of a shl'I imam and the
shrine of such a person. Ill 1169b
'IMAMA 'INAN 285
'imama (A, pi. 'amd'im) : in Arab dress, the cloth wound round the cap, which term
came to be used also for the whole headdress. In Algiers, it was pronounced 'amatna
and was there an unwound turban, often given as a present to the wali of the woman
one wished to marry. X 608b; X 611b; X 612b
iman (A) : in theology, faith (in God). Ill 1170b; IV 171b ff.
'imara -»■ dhikr
♦ 'imaret (T, < A 'imam 'foundation') : soup kitchen, erected as a public conve-
nience in Ottoman times. IV 1152a; V 333b; XI 88b; an oven. X 533a
imazighan (B, s. amazigh) : 'proud ones' or 'proud ones of the West', the term the
Berbers use to call themselves. X 644a; and ->■ imghad
imda (T), or tewki'-i kadi : in Turkish diplomatic, the legal formula which was usually
placed on the right side close to the first lines of the text of a copy stating (usually in
Arabic) the conformity of the copy with the original. II 315b; and ->■ penCe
imghad (Touareg) : in the Touareg strongly-classed society, vassals who have had to
accept the supremacy of the nobles, imazhdghan, who are the uppermost class. Between
the nobles and the vassals, although almost equal to the latter, are the maraboutic tribes
who by virtue of their religious status do not participate in warfare and depend on the
nobles for their defence. In the fourth place come the artisans, traditionally called
blacksmiths (inadan) and the lowest-ranking of all are the negro slaves (eklan), owned
by all four of the above-mentioned castes. X 379a
imlat ->■ idjaza
'imma (A) : properly, the style or form of winding the turban, then the turban itself. X
612b
immar, immara ->■ sakhla
imsak (A) : in religious law, abstinence, e.g. from things which break the fast. IX 94b;
and -»• IMSAKIYYA
♦ imsakiyya (A) : modern religious time tables distributed for the whole month of
Ramadan. They indicate in addition to the times of prayer, the time of the early morn-
ing meal, suhur, and the time before daybreak (called the imsak) when the fast should
begin. VII 30b
imtilakh, -»• iojisa 5
imtiyazat (A) : commercial privileges, (Ottoman) capitulations granted to non-Muslims
living outside the dar al-islam. Ill 1178b
imzad (B) : hair, fur; ~ denotes a musical instrument once in use among the Touareg
noblewomen, generally compared to a violin, but held by the player on her thighs as
she sat low down, just above the ground, with her legs tucked back. Ill 1195b
in sha 5 allah ->■ istiihna'
'ina ->■ bay' al-'Ina
inadan -»• imghad
inak (T) : a title which existed in various Turkic and Mongol states, belonging to the
close retinue of the ruler. XII 419a
in'am (A) : lit. favour, beneficence; applied more specifically to donatives, largesse,
given to troops. Ill 1200b; VIII 398b
In Persia, ~ was a present, usually of money, given from superiors to inferiors. Ill 347b
'inan (A) : in law, ~ is best rendered as a limited investment partnership in which rela-
tions between the partners are based on mutual agency alone and not mutual surety-
ship; one of the two classes of commercial partnership among the Hanafis, the other
being mufawada. VII 310a; sharikat 'inan means partnership in traffic, contracted
when each party contributes capital. IX 348b; and ->■ lidjam
♦ dhu'l-'inan (A) : in astronomy, the constellation of the Waggoner, also known as
mumsik al-a'inna. XI 458a
286 I'NAT — INTADAT (AL-SINN)
i'nat -»■ luzum ma la yalzam
'inaya (A) : providence. Ill 1203a
In c Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani's mystical thought, ~ covers kada' and kadar both, just
as they contain everything that is actual; it is the divine knowledge, embracing every-
thing as it is, universally and absolutely. I 90a
In mysticism, ~ is used with the more precise meaning of divine 'benefaction' or of a
'gift granted' by God. Ill 1203a
in'az ->■ intishar
indjil (A, < Gk) : gospel; in the Qur'an, ~ is used to refer to the Revelation transmitted
by Jesus as well as the scripture possessed and read by the Christian contemporaries
of Muhammad, i.e. the four Gospels; in current usage extended to mean the whole of
the New Testament. Ill 1205a
indju (Mon) : under the Mongols, royal estates granted as apanages to the Great Khan's
relatives. Gradually the concept of ~ land became assimilated to existing concepts of
crown lands and came to signify land over which the ruler had full rights of disposal
and which he granted on a heriditary title to his family and others. Whether the
grantees then had full rights of disposal themselves is not clear. Ill 1208a; IV 975b
infaha (A) : rennet used to make cheese. XII 318b
infak (A) : a type of olive oil made from green unripe olives. XI 486a
infisakh -> faskh
infitah (A) : lit. opening, in particular the 'Opening' of Egypt under Sadat to Western
investment and expertise, to oil country investment, and to the previously-marginalised
private sector of the country. XII 626a
inhiraf (A) : in the moral sense, deviation. XI 567b; and -> samt
inhisar (T, < A), and hasir : monopolies and restrictive practices of Ottoman guilds, the
full term being inhisdr-i bey'i ve shird. These monopolies included restrictions concern-
ing the number or kind of people allowed to perform a trade or profession, as well as
limitations imposed on production or on commerce. XII 421a
ini lit. younger brother (pi. iniyydt), term for the younger mamluk. X 7b
inkar (A) : in law, denial, as when a person who is summoned by law to acknowledge
a debt denies that he owes it. The transaction which puts an end to the legal conflict
is called sulh 'aid inkar. Ill 1236b; IX 845b; and -»■ nahy
inkilab, inkilap -> shaghaba; thawra
insaf (A) : equity; in poetry, a genre, or at least a theme, also called ash'dr al-nasaf or
ash'dr munsifa, indicating verses in which the poets praise the fervour and the valour
in war of the rival clan and acknowledge that victory has been hard-won. Ill 1236b
In ethics, ~ came to mean impartiality, objectivity, integrity, in short a complete ethi-
cal code for the activity of the man of learning; also, a method of argument in which,
instead of immediately asserting the inferiority or error of that which is being attacked
in comparison with that being defended, both are placed on a fictitious equal footing
although it is granted that one or the other is inferior or wrong. Ill 1237a
insan (A) : man. Ill 1237a
♦ al-insan al-kamil (A) : in mysticism, the concept of the Perfect Man. I 117b; III
1239a
insha' (A) : the composition of letters, documents or state papers; later, a form of liter-
ature in which were included style-books for chancery scribes, copy-books and letter
manuals. II 306b; III 1241b; VIII 749b; and -> munsh!
insi (A) : the part of the point of the nib of a reed-pen to the left of the incision, called
thus, 'human', because it is turned towards the writer. IV 471a
intidab -»■ mandates
intadat (al-sinn) -»■ itothaghara
intiha' ->■ ibtida'
intihal (A) : in literary criticism, the ascription of others' verses to oneself. XII 707b
intihar (A) : suicide. In Tradition literature, ~ is used to designate suicide by piercing
or cutting one's throat. Ill 1246b
intikal ->■ tanasukh
intikal-i 'adi (T) : in the Ottoman empire before the llth/16th century, tapu land that
was passed to sons and brothers. X 209b
intishar (A) : in medicine, the erection of the penis (syn. in'dz), functional problems of
which are generally known by the term istirkhd' al-kadib, paralysis or slackening of
the penis. XII 641a
inzal ->■ enzel; sahib al-inzal
'ir ->■ KARWAN
i'rab (A) : a technical term in grammar, sometimes translated as inflexion; however,
there is no adequate term directly to translate ~. By ~ Arab grammarians denoted the
use of the three short vowels at the end of the singular noun. I 569b; III 1248b
irad-i djedid ->■ nizam-i djedid
irada (A) : 'willingness'; in mysticism, a choice of affiliation with an order, whereby the
aspirant (murid) puts himself under total obedience to a master who takes charge of
his spiritual education. X 245b
♦ irade (T) : lit. will; a term adopted in Ottoman official usage from 1832 to des-
ignate decrees and orders issued in the name of the sultan. Later, under the constitu-
tion, the sultan's function was limited to giving his assent to the decisions of the government
and ~ remained in use for this assent. Ill 1250a
'irafa (A) : in divination, the knowledge of things unseen or of things to come, on the
basis of things visible or present. IV 421b; V 100b
In administrative terminology, a unit headed by an 'arIf. I 629a; a small group of
tribesmen massed together for the purpose of the distribution of the stipends. XI 520b
'irak ->■ shashmakom
♦ 'irak 'adjami (A) : from the late mediaeval period on, ~ indicated Iranian Media
(called al-djibal by the ancient geographers), to distinguish it from 'irak 'arabl, 'Irak
proper. I 206b
♦ 'irakiyya (A), or 'irakya : a kind of reed-pipe which may have been the forerun-
ner of the European rackett. It has a cylindrical pipe and is played with a double reed.
VII 208a
iram (A) : in geography, a pile of stones erected as a way-mark. Ill 1270a
'irar (A) : the cry of the male ostrich, which has a different tone than that of the female,
zimar. VII 829a
c ird (A, pi. a' rod) : a term corresponding approximately to the idea of honour, but some-
what ambiguous and imprecise; a strong army; a valley covered with palm trees. At
the present day, ~ has become restricted to the woman and her virtue. IV 77a; VI 475a;
among the Bedouin, a man's ~ is pledged when he extends his protection, e.g. to a
guest, a protege or when he acts as a travelling companion. In this context, ~ or the
protection to which the protector pledges his ~ is often referred to in North Africa as
wadjh. X 890a
In Tradition literature and poetry, ~ also has the meaning of the body of animals, or
even of men; the parts of the body which sweat; the smell of a man or a woman. IV
77a
irdabb (A) : a measure of capacity for grain. Originally a Persian measure, the ~ was
used in Egypt for a long time under the Ptolemies and the Byzantines, and is still in
use today. The actual weight of the ~ varied depending on time and place. VI 1 19a
288 IRDAF — ISBAHSALAR
irdaf (A) : in rhetoric, a term denoting implication, e.g. tawll al-nidjdd 'with long cross-
belt', meaning 'tall in stature', because the one cannot go without the other. V 117a
'irk (A, pi. 'uruk) : vein; root; race, stock. IV 78b
In Tradition literature, ~ is found with the indiscriminate sense of artery and vein,
blood; certain anomalies of birth. IV 78b
In geography, ~ is used to describe the form masses of sand can take in Saudi Arabia.
I 537a; in sub-Saharan Africa, ~ (Eng erg) designates great stretches of dunes, clothed
with a herbaceous vegetation which stabilises the sands. VIII 837a
♦ 'irk al-hayya (A) : 'serpent's root', a root of the melilot introduced from Syria
into the Arab West and used there as an antidote against poisonous snakebites. XII
410a
♦ 'irk ('uruk) al-lu'lu' (A) : 'the veins of the pearl', designation for the mother-of-
pearl. VIII 707a
irsad (A) : in law, the use of public funds, excluding a private involvement in the trans-
action, to sustain public or philanthropic services. XI 64b; XII 826a
irsal (A) : the legislative function of prophecy. IX 812b; and -»• kabd
♦ irsaliyye (T), or mdl-i irsdliyye : an Ottoman financial term applied to the annual
'remittances' of cash and kind sent to the personal treasury of the sultan in Istanbul by
the holders of the non-feudal sandjaks as well as by the governors of the non-feudal
Arab provinces. The latter consisted of the balance left in each provincial treasury after
the provincial expenditures and governor's salary were paid. IV 79b
irti'ash (A) : in medicine, trembling. V 89b
irtidad -»■ murtadd
irtidja' -»■ radj'iyya
irtidjal (A) : in pre- and early Islam, the improvising, extemporising of a poem or a
speech. A synonym is badiha, with the slight difference being that in the case of
badlha, the poet allows himself a few moments of thought. IV 80b
iryala -»• riyala
'isab -»• lidjam
♦ 'isaba (A, pi. 'asd'ib), also c asb[a] : a headband worn by women in the Arab
East. V 741a; among the Mamluks, the double camel hump-like erection on the turtur
worn by men or women. X 611b; the cross or long bar in the Mamluk coat of arms.
X 611a; under the Ayyubids and Mamluks in Egypt, the 'asd'ib sultdniyya were the
flags of the sultan in the public processions, for the flags enveloped the head of the
lance like a turban. X 612b; and -»• saff
'isawiyya (A) : in Morocco, a simple, wide tunic consisting of a hole in the centre for
the head and one at each side for the arms, made of striped wool and worn by men;
also, a very ample blouse of strong cotton worn over other clothing. V 746a
isba' (A), or asba' : in anatomy, the finger; as a measurement of length, ~ is the breadth
of the middle joint of the middle finger, conventionally 1/24 of the cubit, dhira'. IV
96b; a fingerbreadth and subdivision of the kabda, which is made up of four ~. II 232a
In Arab navigational texts, ~ is the unit of measurement of star altitude. It was con-
sidered to be the angle subtended by the width of a finger held at arm's length against
the horizon. IV 96b
In astronomy, ~ or isba' al-kusuf refers to the twelve equal parts, called fingers, which
divided the diameter of the sun or of the moon in order to obtain a standard for mea-
suring the amount of an eclipse. In the West one spoke of 'digits'. V 537a
In music, ~ denotes the tonal mode; the rhythmic mode is called darb. II 1074a
isbahbadh -»• ispahbadh
isbahsalar -»• ispahsalar
ISBITARIYYA — ISHTIKAK 289
isbitariyya ->• dawiyya
isfadruh ->• safr
isfahsalar -> ispahsalar
isfanakhiyya a spinach and meat dish. X 31b
isfidruy ->• safr
isfirni (A, < Gk Sphyraena), or safarna, safarndya : in zoology, the spet or barracuda.
VIII 1021a
'isha' (A) : evening or beginning of the night; a variant name given to the saldt al-
maghrib. VII 26b
♦ salat al-'isha 5 (A) : the evening prayer which is to be performed, according to the
law books, from the last term mentioned for the saldt al-maghrib (-*• maghrib) till
when a third, or half of the night has passed, or till daybreak. VII 27b; VIII 928b
ishan (P) : in mysticism, ~ was formerly used in Central Asia in the sense of shaykh
or murshid, teacher or guide, in contrast to murid, disciple or pupil. Since the very
existence of ishdns was strongly disapproved of by the Soviet and Chinese authorities,
the term is now obsolescent, if not obsolete. IV 113a
ish'ar (A) : in pre-Islamic times, the custom of making an incision in the side of the
hump of the camel marked for the sacrifice during the pilgrimage and letting blood
flow from it. Ill 32b
ishara (A) : gesture, sign, indication; in rhetoric, ~ acquired the technical meaning of
allusion. IV 113b
In mysticism, ~ is the esoteric language of the inexpressible mystical experience. IV
114b; XII 752b; symbolic expression. VIII 139b; a silent gesture or sign (syn. lmd\
rami). VIII 428b
For ~ in grammar, -> ism al-ishara
isjiba' (A) : in metrics, one of the six vowels of the rhyme, to wit, the vowel of the
dakhIl. IV 412a; the lengthening of vowels. XI 374a
In poetry, the lengthening of short syllables, and the shortening of long syllables, espe-
cially in end position. VII 811a
In mineralogy, uniform, intense and deeply saturated colour (of a gem). XI 263a
ishdad (A) : a woven, woollen belt, worn by both sexes in the Arab East. V 741a
ishik-akasi (P) : a Safawid administrative term meaning 'usher'. The ~ was a minor
court official who operated in two different branches of the administrative system,
namely, the dIwan and the haram. IV 118b
'ishk (A) : love, passion; the irresistable desire to obtain possession of a loved object or
being. Ill 103a; IV 118b; X 776a
ishkil (A) : in botany, the sea onion, a plant whose leaves are wide and thick, bent back,
covered with a sticky liquid and whose ends are thorny. VIII 687b
ishraf ->• tali'
ishrak (A) : illumination; the name given to illuminative Wisdom, advocated by Shihab
al-Din Suhrawardi. IV 119b
♦ ishrakiyyun (A) : adepts of Shihab al-Din Suhrawardi's illuminative Wisdom,
ishrak, used first, however, in a text by Ibn Wahshiyya in the 4th/10th century to
denote followers of a hermetic tradition who had received some illumination which had
placed their works above those of the Peripatetics, masha'iyya. The term can be applied
without hesitation, however, to all of Suhrawardi's followers, who still exist in Iran
today. IV 120b
ishtikak (A) : in grammar, translated approximately as etymology or derivation by
means of analogy, kiyas. In its general sense, ~ signifies 'taking one word from
another', under certain denned conditions. IV 122a; IX 528a
290 ISHTIRAKIYYA <ISMA
ishtirakiyya (A) : socialism. The word seems to have been first used in this sense in
19th-century Turkish, but fell into disuse, and was replaced by sosyalist. Adopted in
Arabic, it soon gained universal currency in the Arab lands. IV 123b
ishuruni -> lashon
iskaf (A, pi. asakifa), or iskafi : a shoemaker, who like other artisans who worked with
leather, had a low social status in pre-modern times because his work was regarded as
unclean. XII 463a
iskan (A) : lit. coming into a peaceful state, settlement, the allocation of living quarters
as space; in modern usage, 'sedentarisation' as a stage after a migratory or nomadic
existence. XII 463b
iskat (A) : in law, relinquishment, specifically of a right, divided into true relinquish-
ment (~ mahd) and quasi-relinquishment (~ ghayr mahd). XII 466a
iskemle (T) : stool.
♦ iskemle aghasi (T), or iskemledjiler bashi : in Ottoman court life, an officer cho-
sen from among the oldest grooms, whose duty was to carry a stool plated with silver
which the sultan used in mounting his horse, when he did not prefer the assistance of
a mute who went on his hands and knees on the ground. VIII 530b
iskumri (A, < Gk Scomber) : in zoology, the mackerel. VIII 1021a
islah (A) : reform, reformism; in modern Arabic, ~ is used for 'reform' in the general
sense; in contemporary Islamic literature it denotes more specifically orthodox
reformism of the type that emerges in the doctrinal teachings of Muhammad 'Abduh,
in the writings of Rashid Rida, and in the numerous Muslim authors who are
influenced by these two and, like them, consider themselves disciples of the Salafiyya.
IV 141a
islam (A) : submission, total surrender (to God). IV 171b
In European languages, it has become customary to speak of Islam to denote the whole
body of Muslim peoples, countries, and states, in their socio-cultural or political as well
as their religious sphere. Modern Arabic often uses al-islam in a similar sense. IV 173b
♦ islami ->• aslamI; Muslim
ism (A, pi. asmd'), also c alam, ism 'alam : name; in Arabic-Islamic usage the full name
of a person is usually made up of the following elements: the kunya, usually a name
compound with abu 'father of, or umm 'mother of; the ~ ; the nasab, or pedigree, a
list of ancestors, each being introduced by the word ibn 'son of (the second name of
the series is preceded by bint 'daughter of, if the first name is that of a woman); and
the nisba, an adjective ending in i, formed originally from the name of the individual's
tribe or clan, then from his place of birth, origin or residence, sometimes from a school
of law or sect, and occasionally from a trade or profession. A certain number of per-
sons are also known by a nickname, lakab, or a pejorative sobriquet, nabaz, which
when the name is stated in full, comes after the nisba. IV 179a
In grammar, ~ is the technical term used to signify the noun. IV 181b
♦ ism c ayn (A) : in grammar, the term used for a word denoting a concrete individ-
ual, as opposed to an ism ajins, a generic word. I 785a
♦ ism djins -> ism c ayn
♦ ism al-fi'l (A) : in grammar, the nominal verb. IX 528a
♦ ism al-ishara (A), or al-ism al-mubham : in grammar, the demonstrative noun. IX
527b
♦ ism mawsul (A) : in grammar, a relative noun. IX 528a
♦ al-asma' al-husna (A) : lit. the most beautiful names, being the 99 names of
God. I 714a
'isma (A) : in theology, a term meaning immunity from error and sin, attributed by
sunnis to the prophets and by shi'is also to the imams. IV 182b; IX 423a; ~ denotes
'ISMA — ISTPANA 291
also infallibility, in sunnism in respect of the community and in shPism in respect of
the imams. IV 184a; VIII 95a
ismakiyya (A) : systematic ichthyology. VIII 1020b
isnad (A) : in the science of Tradition, the chain of authorities (syn. sanad) going back
to the source of the Tradition, an essential part of the transmission of a Tradition. Ill
24a; IV 207a; VIII 514b
In grammar, ~ denotes the relationship between the musnad 'that which is supported
by (the subject)', and the musnad ilayhi 'that which supports (the subject)', the rela-
tionship of attribution or predication. IV 895b; VII 705a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ means the decisive words an yu'hada ilayhi, etc. in let-
ters of appointment. II 302a
♦ isnad c ali (A) : lit. a high isnad, when there are very few links between the trans-
mitter and the Prophet, or between him and a certain authority. Such a Tradition, the
quality of which is known as 'uluww, is considered a valuable type on the ground that
the fewer the links, the fewer the possible chances of error. Ill 26a; IX 607b
♦ isnad nazil (A) : lit. a low isnad, when there are many links between the trans-
mitter and the Prophet, or between him and a certain authority. The quality of such
Traditions is called nuzul. Ill 26a
ispahbadh (P, A isbahbadh) : army chief; the Islamic form of a military title used in
the pre-Islamic Persian empires and surviving in the Caspian provinces of Persia down
to the Mongol invasions. IV 207a
ispahsalar (P, A isbahsalar, isfahsalar), and sipahsalar : army commander; the title
given to commanders-in-chief and general officers in the armies of many states of the
central and eastern mediaeval Islamic world. II 210b; IV 208a; VIII 769b; VIII 924a;
in Muslim India, governor or viceroy. IX 738b
ispendje (T, < SI yupanitsa), or ispenie : the Ottoman name of a poll tax levied on adult
non-Muslim subjects and amounting usually to 25 akCes a year. Originally, ~ was a
feudal peasant household tax in the pre-Ottoman Balkans; it extended into eastern
Anatolia from 1540 onwards. II 146b; IV 211a; VIII 487a
isra' -»• mPradj
israfa -»• iklaba
isra'iliyyat (A) : a term covering three kinds of narratives: those regarded as historical,
which served to complement the often summary information provided by the Qur'an in
respect of the personages in the Bible, particularly the prophets; edifying narratives
placed within the chronological (but entirely undefined) framework of 'the period of
the (ancient) Israelites'; and fables belonging to folklore, allegedly (but sometimes
actually) borrowed from Jewish sources. IV 211b
ist (A) : in anatomy, the arm. XII 830b
istabl (A, < Gk; pi. istabldt, rarely asdbil) : stable, i.e. the building in which mounts
and baggage animals are kept tethered; the actual stock of such animals belonging to
one single owner. IV 213b
istakhr (P) : a small cistern, used to irrigate the land in mediaeval Persia. V 869b
istam (A) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a utensil used for stirring. Another utensil for the
same purpose was the kasba fdrisiyya. VI 808b
istar (A) : a weight in the apothecary's or troy system, taken over from the Greeks and
usually estimated according to two different scales. On the one hand are the equations:
1 istar - 6 dirham and 2 ddnak - 4 miihkal (an apothecary's stater); on the other,
1 istar = 6 ] / 2 dirham = 4 ] / 2 mithkdl (commercial - in the East). IV 248b
istPadha (A) : the practice for protecting oneself from the evil influence of Satan, by
pronouncing a'udhu bi 'lldhi min al-shaytdn al-radjim. IX 408b
istPana -»• tadmIn
292 ISTTARA ISTIHKAK
istiara (A, T igretileme) : in rhetoric, the term commonly used in the sense of
metaphor. In the early period, ~ is used occasionally in the sense of 'borrowing of a
theme by one author from another'. IV 248b; XII 650a; in Turkish literature, ~ is a
class of trope in which the comparative elements of the relationship between objects
are stressed in various degrees. V 1028a
♦ isti'ara-i makniyya (Ott, mod.T kapah igretileme) ; in Turkish literature, an
implicit metaphor, in which the comparison is achieved by reference to an attribute of
an object without mentioning the object itself, 'a cool stream sang lullabies' . V 1028a
♦ isti'ara-i musarraha (Ott, mod.T ag ik igretileme) : in Turkish literature, an explicit
metaphor, in which the comparison is achieved by direct reference to an object, 'our
lions are off to the battlefield'. V 1028a
♦ isti'ara takhyiliyya (A) : in rhetoric, a specific type of metaphor, characterised by
the lack of a substratum, as in 'the claws of Death', where the metaphor 'claws' is not
tied by an underlying simile to a part of death since death does not have any part that
could be likened to claws. X 129b
istibda' (A) : a form of intercourse forbidden by the Prophet, consisting of a man who,
fearing that he himself could not sire a robust offspring, placed his wife in the hands
of a better progenitor. XII 133a
istibdad (A) : absolutism. I 64a; XI 569b
istibdal (A) : in law, dation in payment. XII 207b
In wakf administration, a case in which the wakf administrator is authorised to divest
the foundation of properties which are no longer useful and to acquire others in their
stead. IX 542a; XI 62b ff.
istibra' (A) : confirmation of emptiness; in law, ~ is a) the temporary abstention from
sexual relations with an unmarried female slave, in order to verify that she is not preg-
nant, on the occasion of her transfer to a new master or a change in her circumstances;
and b) an action of the left hand designed to empty completely the urethra, before the
cleaning of the orifices which must follow satisfaction of the natural needs. I 28a; I
1027a; IV 252b
istidlal (A) : in logic, proof by circumstantial evidence. VII 1051a
In law, inductive reasoning. I 1326b; V 238b
In theology, inference. I 410b
In linguistic analysis, argumentation. VIII 894a
In rhetoric, demonstration. V 898a
istifa 3 (A) : in law, taking possession of goods (syn. kabd). X 467a
istifham (A) : in grammar, interrogation, indicated simply by the intonation of the sen-
tence or by two interrogative particles. IV 255a
istighlal -+ QHARUKA
istighrab (A) : in rhetoric, with ighrdb, the concept of 'evoking wonder', related to
'feigned amazement' or tXadjdJUB. X 4a
istishab al-hal (A) : in law, a presumption of continuity, a source of law that was
accepted by al-Ghazali. X 932a
istihada -* hayd
istihdad (A) : shaving the pubis, 'ana. The syn. halk is used for shaving the buttocks
(halkat al-dubur). IX 312b
istihdar (A) : the invocation of djinns and angels and making them perceptible to the
senses; spiritism. IV 264b; V 100b; and -* istikhdam
istihkak (A) : in eschatology, 'merit' which, in Mu'tazili thinking, is attached to human
deeds, bringing reward. Ill 465b
In literary criticism, 'greater claim', one of the three ways a poet can avoid the charge
of plagiarism. XII 708b
ISTIHSAN — ISTIMJAR 293
istihsan (A) : in law, arbitrary personal opinion. I 730a; a method of finding the law
which for any reason is contradictory to the usual kiyas, reasoning by analogy. Ill
1237a; IV 255b; juristic preference. IX 324b
istikama -> tali'
istikbal (A) : in astronomy, the opposition of sun and moon, that is, the situation
wherein their elongation from each other amounts to 180 degrees. IV 259a
In astrology, ~ is sometimes employed to refer to the diametric aspect of the planets,
although in general mukabala is preferred. IV 259a
istikhara (A) : the concept which consists of entrusting God with the choice between
two or more possible options, either through piety and submission to His will, or else
through inability to decide oneself, on account of not knowing which choice is the most
advantageous one. The divine voice expresses itself either by means of a dream or by
rhapsodomancy, kur'a. IV 259b
In literary texts, ~ is merely a pious formula for a request to God for aid and advice,
with no ritual character. IV 260a
istikhbar -> taksim
istikhdam (A) : making a spirit do a certain thing, one of three procedures of spiritism.
The other two are istinzdl 'making a spirit descend in the form of a phantom' and
istihddr 'making a spirit descend into a body'. IX 570b; and -»■ tawriya
istikhfaf (A) : in law, blasphemy. VII 248a
istikjjradj (A) : in classical Muslim administration, the amount actually received, as
opposed to the estimate, asl. II 78b; extracting money by force or violence. VII 724a
istiklal (A) : separate, detached, unrestricted, not shared, or sometimes even arbitrary; in
Ottoman official usage, ~ acquired the meaning of unlimited powers, e.g. in the terms
of appointment of a provincial governor or military commander. In both Turkish and
Arabic in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, ~ is commonly used in the sense of
the independence of the holder of power from the restraints by either subjects or
suzerain. IV 260b
During the same period, under the influence of European political thought and practice,
~ began to acquire the modern meaning of political sovereignty for a country or nation
and, in Arabic, became primarily associated with the national independence movements
among the Arabs. IV 260b
istikrar (A) : in classical Muslim administration, an inventory of the army supplies
remaining in hand after issues and payments have been made. II 79a
istiksam (A) : in divination, belomancy, consultation of the throw of darts, three types
of which were practised by the ancient Arabs. IV 263b; V 101a
istil (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a vagabond who pretends to be blind for begging purposes.
VII 494a
isti'laf (A) : (gracious) remission. XI 75b
istilah (A, pi. istildhdt) : in the works of early grammarians, in the discussion on lan-
guage, ~ was used in the sense of a social institution tacitly accepted by its users; when
opposed to asl al-lugha 'language', ~ denoted metalanguage. V 805b; Arabic words or
caiques from the Greek which have assumed a technical meaning. II 765b; IV 696b
istilhak (A), also di'wa : in law, the affiliation of an illegitimate child, as occurred in
44/665 when Ziyad b. Abihi was officially recognised as the son of Abu Sufyan. XI
520a; XII 475a
istimalet (T, < A) : conciliation; an Ottoman policy in the conquered lands. X 505a
isti'mar (A) : colonisation. XII 722b
istimna' (A) : masturbation. IX 566a
istimtar -> istiska'
294 ISTPNAF — ITAWA
istinaf (A) : lit. recommencement, renewal; in law, in modern Arabic, appeal; in clas-
sical law, ~ is used with its sense of recommencement with regard to the c ibadat, the
religious duties, especially prayer, i.e. when the entire prayer, which has been inter-
rupted by the occurrence of a ritual impurity, has to be begun again. In Maliki law, ~
is called ibtidd'. IV 264a
istinbat (A) : in law, deduction (syn. istikhrddi al-hakk). V 238b
istindja' (A) : in law, the purification incumbent upon the Muslim after the fulfilment
of his natural needs. IV 264b
istinshak (A) : in law, the inhaling of water through the nostrils at the time of the ablu-
tions, wupu' and ghusl. IV 264b
istinzal (A) : in divination, hydromancy. IV 264b; V 860a; and -> istikhdam
In metallurgy, the smelting of ores to obtain metals. V 973a
istirad (A) : the mustering, passing in review and inspecting of troops, also known as
c ard, the official charged with this duty being known as the 'arid. IV 265a
Among the Kharidjites, ~ is a technical term meaning the interrogation to which the
enemies of these sectarians were subjected on falling into their hands; used, in a gen-
eral sense, of religious murder, the putting to death of Muslims and pagans who
objected to their still rudimentary doctrine. IV 269a; IV 1076b
istirkha' -> intishar
istishab (A) : in law, the principle by which a given judicial situation that had existed
previously was held to continue to exist as long as it could not be proved that it had
ceased to exist or had been modified. I 276a; IV 269b; IX 324b
istishrak (A) : orientalism. XII 722b
istiska' (A), or istimtdr : a supplication for rain during periods of great droughts, a roga-
tory rite still practised at the present day (notably in Jordan and Morocco) and dating
back to the earliest Arab times. I 109a; IV 269b; VIII 931a
istislah (A) : in law, like istihsan, a method by which the otherwise usual method of
deduction, analogy, is to be excluded in the preparation of legal decisions. IV 256b
istisna' (A) : in finance, a manufacturing or 'made-to-order' contract, which, like mudaraba,
musharaka, idj.dra (-> idjar), and murabaha, was designed by shari'a advisors to
newly-created Islamic finance institutions as part of the profit and loss sharing of mod-
ern-day banking. XII 691b
istitaa (A) : in theology and scholastic theology, the term for the 'capacity' to act cre-
ated by God in the human subject. I 413b; III 1063a; IV 271a
istitala -> sifat al-huruf
istitar -» mukashafa
istithna' (A) : in a religious context, ~ refers to the saying of the formula 'if God wills',
in shd' Allah. Ill 1 196a; VII 607a
In grammar, ~ signifies 'exception', i.e. that one or more beings are excepted from the
functions exercised in a complete sentence, as in 'everyone came except Zayd'. IV
272b
istiwa' {khatt al-) (A) : the line of equality, of equilibrium, that is to say, the equator,
which divides the earth into two hemispheres, the northern and the southern, and joins
together all those points of the globe where day and night are equal. IV 273a
Ita' (A) : in prosody, a defect of the rhyme occurring when the same word in the same
meaning is repeated in the rhymes of lines belonging to the same poem. It is permiss-
able under certain circumstances. IV 413a
Itar (A) : in archery, the act of stringing or bracing the bow. IV 800a
itawa (A, < atd) : lit. gift; a general term met with, especially in pre- and proto-Islamic
times, meaning a vague tribute or lump payment made, for example, to or by a tribe
or other group; later, the word describes, sometimes in a denigrating way, a tip or
bribe. IV 276a
ITB — ITLAK 295
itb (A) : a loose gown worn by women on the Arabian peninsula. V 741a
itba' (A) : a particular form of paronomasia, constituted by the repetition of a qualify-
ing term to which there is added a metaplasm, i.e. the deliberate alternation of a rad-
ical consonant, usually the first, but never the third, e.g. hasan basan 'wonderfully
attractive'. The first element is called matbit' or mutba\ and the second tdbi'. VII 823a
itbak (A) : in grammar, velarisation; the huruf al-mutbaka are 'the emphatic consonants',
that is, sad, id', to 1 and dad. Ill 598b; X 83a
ithbat (A) : to witness, to show, to point to, to demonstrate, to prove, to establish, to
verify and to establish the truth, to establish (the existence of something); in mysticism,
~ is the opposite of mahw, the effacement of the 'qualities of habit', and denotes the
fact of performing one's religious obligations. IV 277a; and ->• tashbIh
ithm (A) : in theology, sin (-»• dhanb). XII 475a
ithmid -»• kuhl
ithnayn (A) : (of the) two; and -»• ihanawiyya
♦ ithnayniyya (A) : in religion, duality. X 441a
iththaghara (A) : a verb which means '[a boy] bred his central milk teeth or front teeth,
or he bred his teeth after the former ones had fallen out' (Lane). Several terms refer
to different stages of this process: shakka, tala'a, nadjama, nasa'a, intadat (al-sinn), adrama
(al-sabiyy), ahfara, abda'a. VIII 822a
i'tibar (A) : in the science of Tradition, the consideration of whether a transmitter who
is alone in transmitting a Tradition is well known, or whether, if the Tradition is soli-
tary by one authority, someone in the chain has another authority, or whether another
Companion transmits it. Ill 26b
i'tidal -»• TATARRUF
i'tidjar -»• ikti'at
i'tikad (A) : the act of adhering firmly to something, hence a firmly established act of
faith. In its technical sense, the term denotes firm adherence to the Word of God. It
may be translated in European languages by the words 'croyance', 'belief, 'Glauben',
with the proviso that this 'belief is not a simple opinion or thought, but is the result
of deep conviction. IV 279a
i'tikaf (A) : a period of retreat in a mosque, a particularly commended pious practice
which can be undertaken at any time. IV 280a
i'timad (A) : in archery, the holding firmly in the left hand the grip or handle of the bow
while the right-hand fingers make a good locking of the string, the two hands exerting
equal force. IV 800b
♦ i'timad al-dawla (A) : lit. trusty support of the state, a title of Persian viziers dur-
ing the Safawid period and subsequently. IV 281b
'ilk (A) : emancipation (of slave). The freedman is called 'atlk or mu'tak. I 29b; the spe-
cial ceremony of release from servitude of a mamluk, who then became a member of
the Mamluk household of the Sultan at the Cairo citadel. X 7b
♦ c itk al-sa'iba (A) : in Maliki and Hanbali law, an ancient type of enfranchisement
of the slave without patronage, which term refers to the pre-Islamic custom of turning
loose in complete freedom one particular she-camel of the herd, protected by taboos.
I 30b
♦ Mtkname (T), 'itlkndme, 'hdkndme : an Ottoman term for a certificate of manu-
mission, given to a liberated slave. IV 282b
itlak (A) : in archery, the loose, loosing, the last and most important phase of shooting.
There are three basic kinds of loosing: the mukhtalas, sakin and mafrOk. IV 800b
♦ itlakat (A) : in the science of diplomatic, the name given to documents reaffirming
decisions of former rulers; sometimes, however, they were simply called tawki'. II
303b; II 306b
296 ITLAK IZAR
♦ iflakiyya (A) : one of two main headings in the monthly and yearly accounting
registers of the Ilkhanids, under which fell payments by provincial tax-farmers made to
members of the court, palace servants, and the military. Ill 284a; and -»■ mukarrariyya
'itr ->■ afawIh
c itra -»■ AHL AL-BAYT
ittiba 1 (A) : 'active fidelity' to the Traditions of both the Prophet and the salaf, a term
preferred by reformists to taklld, which denoted the servile dependence on traditional
doctrinal authorities that they rejected. IV 152a
ittihad (A) : unity, association, joining together; in theology, the Christian incarnation
of the Word in the person of Jesus, which concept is rejected by Muslims as being con-
tradictory. IV 283a
In mysticism, the mystic union of the soul with God. IV 283a
ittisal (A), or wisal : in mysticism, a union of man and God which excludes the idea of
an identity of the soul and God. IV 283a; the act of forming an amorous relationship,
the equivalent of wusla. XI 210b; and ->■ tali 1
ityan al-mayta (A) : necrophilia. IX 566a
'iwad (A) : exchange value, compensation, that which is given in exchange for something;
in law, ~ is used in a very broad sense to denote the counterpart of the obligation of
each of the contracting parties in onerous contracts which are called 'commutative', that
is, contracts which necessarily give rise to obligations incumbent on both parties. Thus
in a sale, the price and the thing sold are each the ~ of the other. IV 286a
In unilateral contracts, ~ (badal and thawdb are also used) is employed in a more
restricted sense: it is applied to the compensation offered by one of the two parties who
is not absolutely obliged to give any. IV 286a
iwan (P, T eyvdn) : in architecture, a chamber or a hall which is open to the outside at
one end, either directly or through a portico; an estrade or a raised part of a floor; a
palace or at least some sort of very formal and official building; any one of the halls
in a religious building, madrasa or mosque, which opens onto a courtyard. Art histo-
rians and archaeologists have given ~ a technically precise meaning, that of a single
large vaulted hall walled on three sides and opening directly to the outside on the
fourth. IV 287a; a room enclosed by three walls, opening out in the whole width of
the fourth side, like an enormous gaping flat-based ledge, and generally roofed by a
cradle vault (semi-cylindrical). Although not without similarity to the Greek prostas,
the ~ does seem to be a genuinely Iranian creation. It became a characteristic theme
of Sasanid architecture. II 114a; and -»■ lIwan
In the terminology of horse-riding, a light bit. Two other types of bit were used: the
fakk, a snaffle bit, and the ndzikl, seemingly the equivalent of the modern bit used by
the Spahis. II 954a
iwazz (A) : in zoology, wild geese. IX 98b
iyad -»■ nu'y
c iyafa (A) : animal omens (zoomancy) and, in the strict sense, ornithomancy, that is to
say, the art of divining omens in the names of birds, their cries, their flight and their
posture. IV 290b
iyala ->■ eyalet
'iyan (A) : observation (bi '/— 'first-hand'). Ill 736a; XII 801a
In the vocabulary of mediaeval agriculture, a strap of iron that attached the plough-
share to the crossbeam. VII 22a
izar (A), azr, mi'zar, izdr : a large sheet-like wrap worn both as a mantle and as a long
loin cloth or waist cloth by pre-Islamic Arabs. Ill 1053a; V 732b; a large, enveloping
body wrap for women in the Arab East or for both sexes in North Africa. V 741a; V
746a; a fringed shawl worn by Jewish women in Morocco. V 746a; and -»■ rida 5
izhar -> idmar
izli -> ASEFRU
'izlim -> nIl
izran (B) : in Tarifiyt, the genre of short songs, a part of the traditional oral literature.
X 242a
jawi -> PEGON
jiilaal -* gu'
juru kunci (J) : 'key bearers'; in Java, the custodians of a holy tomb, who guard the
proper rituals performed during a pilgrimage to the tomb. XI 537a
ka c (A) : in topography, a depression on the fringes of the volcanic fields south of Syria,
free of stones, with a diameter of several hundreds of metres. Such depressions prob-
ably originated from volcanic eruptions of gas. V 593a
ka'a (A) : in modern dwellings in Egypt, the principal room in the harIm, with a cen-
tral space and lateral extensions. The walls surrounding the central space rise to the
level of the terraces and carry a lantern which lights the interior. II 1 14b; an elongated
hall with two axial Iwans and a sunken central area, usually square, known as the
durka'a. IV 428b; VIII 545b
♦ ka'a mu'allaka (A) : in architecture, a raised hall, a living unit located on the sec-
ond floor. VIII 545b
ka'ada (A) : 'those who sit down', term for the designation of the quietists in early Islam
who abstained from overt rebellion and warfare against the ruling authority. I 207a; V
572a; XII 505a
ka'an -► khakan
ka'b (A) : in mathematics, ~, or muka"ab, denotes the third power of the unknown quan-
tity. II 362a; the cube root. Ill 1139b
In anatomy, a knucklebone (pi. ki'db), used in very early Islam as dice. V 616b
♦ ka c b ka'b (A) : in mathematics, the term for the sixth power. Ill 1 140b
ka c ba (A) : the most famous sanctuary of Islam, called the temple or house of God, and
situated in the centre of the great mosque in Mecca. The name ~ is connected with the
cube-like appearance of the building. In former times the word also used to designate
other similarly shaped sanctuaries. IV 317a
kaba zurna -► zurna
kaba -► kaba 1
kaba' (A, < Sp capo or capa), or kaba : a cloak or cape worn by soldiers. Ill 100a; V
739b; V 743b; a luxurious, sleeved robe, slit in front, with buttons, made of fabrics
such as brocade. V 733b; V 748a ff.
kaba'ir (A, s. kabira) : the 'grave sins', mentioned in the Qur'an, the exact definition of
which remained variable. The ~ are distinguished from the saghd'ir 'lesser sins'. IV
1107b
kabak (A, < T 'gourd'), or kabak : in archery, a small target. II 954a; in Mamluk ter-
minology, a 'gourd' game (ramy al-kabak), one of the branches of horse-riding. II
955a; IV 801a
298 KABALA — KABD
kabala (A) : in law, a guarantee, used mainly in connection with fiscal practice. It con-
cerns the levying of the land-tax, kharadj, and that of special taxes, mukus (->■ maks).
Local communities were held jointly responsible by the Treasury for the payment at
the required time of the full amount of land-tax demanded. When individuals had
difficulty in finding the necessary ready money immediately, an application was made
to a notable to advance the sum required. The matter having generally been agreed in
advance, this notable acted as a guarantor for the debt of the locality in question. This
procedure constitutes the contract of ~, the offer being called takbll and the person
named mutakabbil. I 1 144a; IV 323a; XI 75b
Alongside its use with regard to taxation on land, ~, as well as daman in this con-
text, occurs in a more permanent sense to signify the farming of special revenues,
generally of mukus (-»■ maks), especially in towns, such as the sale of salt or the man-
agement of baths or even of a local customs office. IV 324a
kabar (A, < Eth kabaro) : an early term for a cylindrical drum with a single membrane.
kabara (A), or ma'tab : among the Bedouin in the Western Desert and Cyrenaica,
amends for offences against honour. They are known as hashm in 'Irak, hashm and c ayb
in Northern Yemen, manshad in parts of the Central Region (the Sinai, Jordan and
Palestine). X 890b
kabas -»■ iktibas
kabath (A) : the ripe fruit of the thorn tree arak (Capparis sedata). II 1058b
kabbada -»■ sang
kabbus -»■ mi'zaf
kabd -»■ kabid
kabd (A) : lit. seizure, grasping, contraction, abstention, etc., and used in the special
vocabulary of various disciplines.
In law, ~ signifies taking possession of, handing over. In Maliki law hiydza is more
frequently used. Tasallum is also employed to mean the act of handing over. Taking
possession is accomplished by the material transfer of the thing when movable goods
are involved; by occupation when it is a question of real estate, but also symbolically
by the handing over of the keys or title deeds of the property. Ill 350a; IV 325b
In mysticism, ~ is a technical term used to denote a spiritual state of 'contraction' as
opposed to 'expansion', bast. I 1088b; IV 326a
In prosody, ~ is the suppression of the fifth quiescent letter in the feet fa'ulun and
mafd'ilun which occurs in the metres tawll, hazadj, muddri' and mutakdrib, so that
these feet are reduced to fa'ulu and mafd'ilun respectively. A foot suffering this alter-
ation is called makbud. I 672a; IV 326b; XI 508b
In the Islamic ritual prayer, ~ is the position assumed after the saying of the words
"alldhu akbaf. The hands are placed on the base of the chest, the right hand over the
left. The Imamis and the Malikis let the arms fall at this point: the position of sadl or
irsal. VIII 929a
♦ kabd amana (A) : in law, the term used for when the trustee, in regard to con-
tracts which involve the temporary transfer of something from one contracting party to
the other, is only held responsible if he has been at fault or in transgression, ta'addi,
of the rules of the contract or of the customary dealings in such matters. IV 326a
♦ kabd daman (A) : in law, the term used for when the trustee, in regard to con-
tracts which involve the temporary transfer of something from one contracting party to
the other, is held responsible for any loss arising in respect of the object, even through
chance or circumstances over which he has no control. IV 326a
♦ kabda (A) : a measure of length, equalling a handsbreadth, or one-sixth, of the
cubit, dhira'. The ~ , in turn, consisted of four isba's. II 232a; VII 137b
In archery, the grasp, sc. the position of the left hand (for a right-handed person) on
KABD — KADA' 299
the grip or handle of the bow. In order to distinguish this technique from that of the
'akd, the authors sometimes call this more precisely al-kabda bi 'l-shamal. IV 800b
kabid (A, according to lexicographers the only correct form), or kabd, kihd : in
anatomy, the liver; through contiguity of meaning, ~ is also used to designate the parts
of the body in the vicinity of the liver. Thus, for instance, in classical Arabic ~ can
denote the surfaces of the body more or less close to the liver as well as the chest and
even the belly. In the same way ~ is also frequently used to cover the middle, centre,
interior (we would say heart) of something. IV 327a
kabid (A) : the quality of food being astringent. II 1071b
kabila (A) : in alchemy, the part known as the 'receiver' of the distilling apparatus. I
486a
kabila (A) : a large agnatic group, the members of which claim to be descended from
one common ancestor; this word is generally understood in the sense of tribe. IV 334a
♦ kabilat Su c aydiyyin (A) : a Turkmen community near Ba'labakk in Lebanon,
which speaks a Turkish idiom and preserves a narrative of its origins that relates it
vaguely to the Saldjuks and Ottomans. X 685a
♦ kabili (A, pi. kaba'il) : a tribesman; in Yemen, one of various status groups which
include the city dweller of tribal origin, 'arabi, and, at the bottom of the social order,
those with menial occupations without tribal origin, called either banu 'l-khums 'sons
of the fifth' or ahl al-taraf 'people of the extremity'. XI 277a
kabili ->■ kabila
kabir (A) : lit. large; designation for a tribal chief. IX 115b; an attorney under custom-
ary law proceedings among the Bedouin in the Central Region of the Sinai, Jordan and
Palestine. X 888b; and ->■ saqhTr
♦ kabira (A, pi. kabd'ir) : in theology, a grave sin.
kabr (A) : tomb; ~ was first applied to the pit used as a burial place for a corpse (as
was the term darlh), giving rise to its habitual use in the text of numerous epitaphs
containing the expression hddhd kabru . . . 'this is the grave of . . .'. Originally distin-
guished from the term sanduk 'cenotaph', ~ had the more general meaning of the tumu-
lus or construction covering the grave to bring it to notice, a custom current in Islamic
countries from early times. IV 352a; ~ is used almost exclusively as a term that refers
to the location of a tomb or to describe a simple grave with no architectural features
attached to it.
kabisa (A, < Ar) : intercalation, which compensates for the difference between the
lunar and solar years. The plural form kabd'is was used for 'leap years'. X 258a,b
kabsh ->■ hamal; sinnawr
kabul -> bay'; raws
kabus -> mi'zaf
kabush (A), and shalil : in the terminology of horse-riding, a cloth worn by the horse.
The terms tashdhir and djulla are confined to stable-cloths. II 954a
kackun ->■ yawa
kada' (A, T kaid') : originally meaning 'decision', ~ has in the Qur'an different mean-
ings according to the different contexts, e.g., doomsday, jurisdiction, revelation of the
truth, and predestination, determination, decree. IV 364b
In theology, ~ means God's eternal decision or decree concerning all beings, that must
be fulfilled in all circumstances, and the execution and declaration of a decree at the
appointed time; sudden death. IV 364b
In a religious context, ~ is the technical term for the neglected performance of religious
duties, e.g. repeating prayers to make up for having omitted them at the appointed time,
as opposed to ad a'. I 169b; IV 365a; IX 94b
300 KADA 5 KADI
In law, ~ stands for both the office and the sentence of a kadI 'judge'; ~ is also found
in legal terminology with the meaning 'payment of a debt'. IV 364b ff.
In 'Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani's mystical thought, ~ means the existence of the univer-
sal types of all things in the world of the Universal Reason. I 89b
In the Ottoman empire, kaiff meant not only the judgement of the kadi but also the
district which his administrative authority covered. The term ~, denoting an adminis-
trative district, has remained in use in the Turkish republic. IV 365a
♦ al-kada 5 wa 'I-kadar (A) : when combined into one expression, these two words
have the overall meaning of the Decree of God, both the eternal Decree (the most fre-
quent meaning of kada 5 ) and the Decree given existence in time (the most frequent
sense of kadar). Other translations are possible, for example, Icadd', predetermination;
kadar, decree or fate, destiny, in the sense of determined or fixed. It is also possible
to use kada' alone for decree in its broadest sense and define kadar more precisely as
existential determination. The expression combining them is in general use and has
become a kind of technical term of scholastic theology. I 413a; II 618a; IV 365a
In Persian literature, kada' u kadar is a genre of poetry devoted to stories about the
working of fate, fashionable in the 1 0th- llth/1 6th- 17th centuries. VI 834b; VIII 776a
♦ kada 5 u kadar -»■ al-kada' wa 'l-kadar
kadam (A) : in mysticism, 'priority', a principle arising in the second half of the 19th
century in Egypt that implied the exclusive right of a sufi order to proselytise and to
appear in public in an area if it could be proved that it had been the first to do so, i.e.
that it had seniority (kidam). X 324a; and -»■ athar
♦ kadamgah (A kadam 'foot', P gdh 'place') : lit. place of the [imprint of the
Prophet's] foot, syn. kadam sharif; there are many such places all over the Arab lands
and in Turkey, and they are especial objects of veneration in Muslim India, along with
pandjagdhs 'places of the [imprint of the] palm of the hand', impressions of the hands
of holy men. XII 501b
kadar (A) : measure, evaluation, fixed limit; in its technical sense, ~ designates determi-
nation, the divine decree in so far as it sets the fixed limits for each thing, or the mea-
sure of its being. Ill 1 142b; IV 365b; and -»■ al-kada 5 wa 'l- kadar
In c Abd al-Razzak al-Kashani's mystical thought, ~ is the arrival in the world of the
Universal Soul of the types of existing things; after being individualised in order to be
adapted to matter, these are joined to their causes, produced by them, and appear at
their fixed times. I 89b
kadasa (A) : holiness; beings that are pure, wholly unsullied or in touch with the divine.
IV 372a
kadb -»■ katt
♦ kadba (A) : in archery, a quiver made from the nab' wood (Grewia tenax). IV
800a
kaddad (A, pi. kawddld) : a tiller of the soil. I 233b
kaddah (A) : a flint-maker. XII 757a
kadh (A) : in medicine, the operation for cataract. II 481b; X 456a
kadhdhab -»■ salih
kadhdhaf (A) : oarsman, part of the crew of the warships in the Muslim navy. XII 120a
kadhf (A) : in law, a slanderous accusation of fornication, zina 5 , or of illegitimate
descent; in the latter case, it amounts to accusing the mother of fornication. I 29b; IV
373a
kadi (A) : in law, a judge, a representative of authority, invested with the power of
jurisdiction. In theory, the head of the community, the caliph, is the holder of all pow-
ers; like all other state officials, the ~ is therefore a direct or indirect delegate, na 5 ib,
the delegate retaining the power to do justice in person. The objective being the appli-
KADI — KAFALA 301
cation of the law, which is essentially religious, the function of the judge is a religious
one. In theory, his competence embraces both civil and penal cases, and includes the
administration of mosques and pious endowments. His competence in penal matters,
however, is restricted to the very few crimes envisaged by the law, their repression
being currently undertaken by the police. II 890b; IV 373b
♦ kadi 'askar (A) : judge of the army; an institution dating from the 2nd/8th cen-
tury. Under Saladin, this institution was called kadi leshker. The position began to lose
its importance after the middle of the 1 0th/ 1 6th century, when power passed into the
hands of the grand mufti of Istanbul. It was finally abolished under the Turkish repub-
lic. IV 375a
♦ kadi 'l-djama'a (A) : kadI of the community of Muslims; a title which c Abd al-
Rahman gave, between 138/755 and 141/758, to the kadi of the Spanish territory
already conquered, until then known as kadi 'l-djund 'kadi of the military district'.
Later, ~ became an institution similar to that of the kadi 'l-kudat. IV 374b; VI 2a
♦ kadi 'l-djund -+ kadI 'l-djama c a
♦ kadi 'l-kudat (A) : 'the judge of judges'; the highest position in the system of
judicial organization of the Islamic state, which, when combined with the institution of
the wizara (-> wazir), was the highest step under the authority of the caliph. The insti-
tution of ~ was an adaptation of the Persian mobedan-mobed. I 164b; IV 374a; VI 2a
♦ kadi leshker -> kadI 'askar
kadib (A) : rod (syn. 'asd), one of the insignia of the sovereignty of the caliph. IV 377b
In archery, a bow made of a stave all of a piece and unspliced, sc. a self-bow. IV 798a
In music, a wand which supplied rhythm. II 1073b; a percussion stick. VIII 852b; IX
10b
In anatomy, the penis. XII 641a
kadid (A) : in pre-Islamic Arabia, meat cut into thin strips and left to dry in the sun. II
1059a
kadima (A) : a quill feather. XI 517a
kadin -+ khasseki
♦ kadinlar saltanati (T) : 'the rule of the women', the period from the mid- 10th/ 16th
to the mid-1 lth/17th centuries, when royal women enjoyed a large measure of influence
in the Ottoman empire. XI 130b
kadirgha -> bashtarda
kadkhuda : a giver of years. X 367b; and -> ketkhuda
kadriya (A) : cedar-oil, extracted from cedarwood. IV 772b
kadus (A, pi. kawddis) : the bucket used in the water wheel (dulab) on the banks of
the Nile in mediaeval Egypt. V 863b
In Fas, a pipe of a water channel, taking the water to individual houses; the special
workers for the upkeep of the water channels were called kwadsiyya (< ~). V 877b
kaf (A) : the twenty-second letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed k, with the numer-
ical value 20. It is defined as occlusive, postpalatal, surd. IV 399a
kaf (A) : the twenty-first letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed k, with the numerical
value 100. It is defined as occlusive, uvulovelar, surd. IV 400a
kafa (A) : nape of the neck. IX 312b
kafa'a (A) : equality, parity and aptitude; in law, ~ denotes the equivalence of social
status, fortune and profession (those followed by the husband and by the father-in-law),
as well as parity of birth, which should exist between husband and wife, in default of
which the marriage is considered ill-matched and, in consequence, liable to break up.
I 27b; IV 404a; IV 1116b; and -> kufu
kafala (A) : in law, an institution corresponding to some extent to the surety-bond, with
the difference that the jurists distinguished two types of surety-bond: that for which the
302 KAFALA KAFIR
surety, kafil, is binding to secure only the appearance in court of the debtor, asll or
makful; known as the kafala bi 'l-nafs, it is an institution peculiar to Islamic law. And,
secondly, the kafala bi 'l-mal, by means of which the surety stands as a pledge to the
creditor, makful lahu, that the obligation of the principal debtor will be fulfilled. IV
404b
kafan (A) : shroud, a cloth or cloths woven by an akfdnl, which the deceased's body is
wrapped in, by a professional enshrouder, kaffdn, and then buried. Sometimes the
corpse was borne without a bier or it could be carried in an open wooden coffin
(sanduk, tabiit). XII 502b
kafes (T) : lit. cage; the late but popular term for the area of the harem of the Topkapi
Palace in which Ottoman princes of the blood (sheh-zadeler) were confined from the
early 17th century onwards. In a more abstract sense, ~ is applied to the system
whereby the rights of claimants to the Ottoman throne were determined. Of earlier
usage is the appellation shimshirlik or cimshirlik 'the box shrub', a reference to the lit-
tle courtyard planted with boxwood, at the northeast corner of the sultan's mother's
courtyard. XII 503b
♦ kafesi (T) : a dome-shaped kavuk 'cap', worn with a long turban forming folds
fastened towards the base with a fine thread or pin. It was worn in Ottoman Turkey
from the 17th century by the functionaries of the Defter (->■ daftar). V 751b
kaff (A) : palm, paw; in divination, 'Urn al-~ is a process which belongs to the realm
of physiognomy, designating more specifically chirognomy or the art of deducing the
character of a person according to the shape and appearance of the hands. But the use
of the term has become general. It also covers both chiromancy (the study of the lines
of the hand), dactylomancy (prognostications drawn from the observation of the finger
joints), and onychomancy (divination from the finger nails). IV 405b
In prosody, ~ is a deviation in the metre because of the suppression of the 7th conso-
nant, e.g. the nun of fd c ildtu[n]. I 672a; XI 508b
For ~ in military science, ->■ sa'id
♦ kaff al-'adhra' (A) : in botany, Anastatica hierochuntia, Cruciferae, the dried
seed-heads of which can last for years and are blown around the desert, the seeds ger-
minating when water is available. The plant, used as a birth charm, is also called kaff
Fdtima bint al-nabl or kaff Maryam. VI 631b
♦ kaff al-hirr (A) : in botany, the Corn crowfoot (Ranunculus arvensis) and the
Asiatic crowfoot (R. asiaticus). IX 653a
♦ kaff al-nasr (A) : 'vulture's foot', in botany, the Scolopender or Hart's tongue
(Scolopendrium vulgare), and also the Water milfoil (Myriophyllum verticillatum). VII
1014b
kaffal (A) : a locksmith. XII 757a
kaffara (A) : Qur'anic term for an expiatory and propitiatory act which grants remission
for faults of some gravity. IV 406b; IX 94b
kafi (Pu) : a genre of Muslim Punjabi literature, comprising a lyric consisting of rhymed
couplets or short stanzas having a refrain repeated after each verse, and normally fol-
lowing the usual Indian poetic convention whereby the poet assumes a female persona,
typically that of a young girl yearning to be united with her husband/love, allegorically
to be understood as an expression of the soul's yearning for God. VIII 256a
kafil ->■ KAFALA
kafila ->■ karwan
kafir (A) : originally, 'obliterating, covering', then, 'concealing benefits received', i.e.
ungrateful, which meaning is found even in the old Arab poetry and in the Qur'an; the
development of meaning to 'infidel, unbeliever' probably took place under the influence
of Syriac and Aramaic. IV 407b
♦ kafir ni'ma (A) : in theology, an unbeliever by ingratitude. XI 478a
♦ kafirkub (A, < kafir + P kubidan) : lit. heathen-basher, i.e. a club; the term is
testified, only in the plural kdfirkubdt, in 'Irak from the end of the 2nd/8th century,
although al-Tabari cites it when describing the incidents arising in 66/685 during the
revolt of al-Mukhtar. It seems to be a term born of a particular period and in a rela-
tively circumscribed area which swiftly became obsolete. IV 44b; IV 411a
kafiya (A, pi. kawdfin) : in prosody, rhyme. Originally, the word meant 'lampoon', then
'line of poetry', 'poem'. These earlier senses survived in Islamic times after the word
had also come to be used in the technical sense of 'rhyme'. The native lexicographers
believe that 'rhyme' is the original and that 'line of poetry', 'poem' are secondary. IV
411b; and ->■ sadj'
♦ kafiya mukayyada (A) : fettered kafiya, a rhyme in which the rhyme consonant is
not followed by a letter of prolongation. IV 412a
♦ kafiya mutlaka (A) : loose kafiya, a rhyme in which the rhyme consonant is fol-
lowed by a letter of prolongation or by a short vowel and a vowelled or quiescent ha'.
IV 412a
kafiyya (A, < It [sjcuffia; pi. kawdfi), or kufiyya : a head scarf, a rectangular piece of
cloth of linen or silk in various colors, almost a yard square, worn by both sexes in
the Arab East. The cloth is folded diagonally, the ends hang down or are tied below
the chin, and above it the Bedouin sometimes and townsmen usually wind a turban.
This form, which is known in Egypt since Mamluk times and is mentioned in the
Arabian Nights, came into prominence again as part of the dress of the Wahhabis. V
741a; X 613a
kafiz (A) : a measure of capacity used in 'Irak and caliphal Persia for weighing small
quantities of grain. Its actual weight varied. VI 119b f.
kaff (A) : in a religio-political context, the quiescent attitude of some Kharidjite groups
in early Islam (->■ ka'ada). XII 505a
kaffan ->■ kafan
kafi (P) : in Western Indian literature, a sung sufi lyric poem with a refrain repeated
after each verse, first brought to perfection by Saccal Sarmast (d. 1242/1827) of
Khayrpur in Upper Sind. V 611a
kafla ->■ c akd
kaftan -»■ khaftan
kafur (A, < H karpura, kappura, Mai kapur) or kdfur, ka(f)ur : in botany, camphor, the
white, translucent substance which is distilled together with camphor oil from the wood
of the camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora) indigenous to east Asia (China,
Formosa, Japan). IV 417b; VIII 1042b
The same word ~ (variants kufurrd, kifirrd, djufurrd etc.) also designates the integu-
ment of the palm leaf or of the grapevine. IV 418a
kaghad (A, < P), or kdghid : paper. After its introduction in Samarkand by Chinese pris-
oners in 134/751, various kinds of paper were then made and it must be supposed that
paper achieved some importance as early as the second half of the 2nd/8th century.
Names for the different kinds of paper are: fir'awni, sulaymdnl, aja'fari, tahiri, and
nuhi. IV 419b
kaghan -»■ khakan
kaghan (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a boy who acts as a male prostitute. VII 494a
♦ kaghani (A) : in mediaeval 'Irak, a vagrant who gives out that he is demoniacally
possessed or an epileptic. VII 494a
kaghid ->■ kaghad
kaghni (T) : a Byzantine wagon, used in mediaeval Turkicised Anatolia. I 205b
kahar (IndP) : in the Mughal period, a bearer of different kinds of litters, classed as
infantry. V 687a
kahba (pi. kihdb) -> baghiyy
kahd -»■ HADHAF
kahhal (A) : in medicine, an oculist. I 388a; an ophthalmist. V 357a
kahin (A) : a term of controversial origin. It appears to have been used by the 'Western
Semites' to designate the possessor of a single function with related prerogatives: the
offering of sacrifices in the name of the group, the representing of this group before
the deity, the interpretation of the will of the deity, and the anticipation and commu-
nication of his wishes. The Arab ~ combined the functions of sacrificer and guardian
of the sanctuary, and those of the mantis and the augur, hence, it is possible to render
~ by 'priest', in the sense of agent of the official cult. But the predominance of
nomadism, where it was usually the head of the family or tribe who offered sacrifices
and in which frequent migrations prevented the establishment of an official form of
worship and fixed places of worship, weakened the first role of the ~ while favouring
the development of the second, more in keeping with the expectations of most of his
fellow-tribesmen. Thus it is virtually necessary to translate ~ as 'diviner' with the dual
meaning of the Latin divinus, that is to say, 'one inspired' and 'prophet', without
excluding his strictly priestly role in places where social conditions allowed it, such as
at Mecca. IV 420b; and -»■ c arraf
kahiriyya (A) : omnipotence (of God). I 89b
kahiya -»■ ketkhuda
kahraman -»■ karim
kahruba (P), also kdhrabd' : yellow amber; today, ~ also used for electricity. IV 445b
kahur (P) : in botany, a spiny shrub, enjoyed by camels. V 669b
kahwa (A) : coffee; originally a name for wine, ~ was transferred towards the end of
the 8th/14th century to the beverage made from the berry of the coffee tree; the word
for coffee in Ethiopia, bun, has passed into Arabic in the form bunn, as a name of the
coffee tree and berry. IV 449a; XII 775b
♦ kahwaci-bashi (P) : in Safawid times, an official in the royal kitchen who headed
the department of coffee making. XII 609b
♦ kahwa-khana -»■ Cay-khana
kahya -»■ ketkhuda
ka'id (A, pi. kuwwdd) : an imprecise term, but one always used to designate a military
leader whose rank might vary from captain to general. II 507b; IV 456a; designation
for a tribal chief (referring to the chief's leadership in war). IX 115b
♦ ka'id ra'sih (A) : 'governor of himself, a powerful ka'id who was removed from
office and compelled to live at court, with the honour due to his rank. IV 456b
ka'id (A) : lit. sitter; in shi'i terminology, the 'sitting' members of the family of the
Prophet, who refused to be drawn into ventures of armed revolt, in contrast to the
ka'im. IV 456b
♦ ka'ida -»■ kawa'id
ka'id (A), and khafif : a term applied to a wild animal or bird which approaches a trav-
eller or hunter from the rear, one of the technical terms designating the directions of a
bird's flight, or an animal's steps, which play an important part in the application of
divination known as fa'l, tIra and zadjr. I 1048a; II 760a
ka'if (A, pi. kdfa) : a physiognomist. I 28b
ka'ila -»■ zahira
ka'im (A) : lit. riser, the shi'i mahdI, referring both to the member of the family of the
Prophet who was expected to rise against the illegitimate regime and restore justice on
earth, and to the eschatological Mahdi. Synonyms in shi'i terminology are: ka'im dl
Muhammad, al-kd'im bi 'l-sayf, al-kd'im bi-amr Allah, ka'im al-kiydma. IV 456b; V
1235b
KA'IM — KALAM 305
Among the Isma'iliyya, ~ is the name of the seventh 'speaking' prophet who will abro-
gate Muhammad's shari'a and restore the pure unity, tawhid, of the times before
Adam's fall. IV 203b; IV 457a; XII 206b
♦ ka'im bi-a'mal (A) : in the science of diplomacy, the term for charge d'affaires.
VIII 813a; and ->■ maslahatguzar
♦ kaim-makam (T) : the title borne by a number of different officials in the
Ottoman empire. The most important of them was the saddret kd'im-makami or kd'im-
makdmi pasha who stayed in the capital as deputy when the grand vizier had to leave
for a military campaign. The ~ enjoyed almost all the authority of the grand vizier,
issuing fermdns (-> farman) and nominating functionaries, but he was not allowed to
intervene in the area where the army was operating. IV 461b; colonel. X 872a
In 1864 the ~ became the governor of an administrative district, and under the Repub-
lican regime he continued to be administrator of such a distict. IV 461b
In Ottoman Egypt, ~ was applied to the acting viceroy before Muhammad 'All Pasha,
and under the latter to specific grades in the military and administrative hierarchies. IV
461b
kaime (T, < A) : the name formerly used for paper money in Turkey, an abbreviation
for kd'ime-i mu'tebere. Originally, the word was used of official documents written on
one large, long sheet of paper. IV 460a; debt certificate, issued in the summer of 1 840
by the Porte, that was acceptable in government offices in payment of obligations. X
203a
ka'in (A, pi. kd'inat) : in speculative theology and philosophy, the existent thing. IV
795a
ka'k (A) : in the mediaeval Middle East, a pastry, to which dough sawik was added.
IX 93b
kakum (A) : in zoology, the ermine. II 817a
kaka' (A) : a man whose foot-joints can be heard cracking as he walks; often found as
a proper name in the early days of Islam. IV 463b
kal'a (A) : castle, fortress. IV 467a; citadel. IX 411a; and ->■ agadir
kalab (A) : in medicine, rabies. IV 490a; XII 189b
kalab (A, pi. kawalib) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a mould. VI 808b
In the religious terminology of metempsychosis, one of the terms for the body in which
the spirit is incarnated. V 893b; X 182a
kalaba ->■ shaghaba
kalafat -»■ Corbadj! keCesi
kalakil (A) : a name for the suras that begin with kul 'say:': lxxii, cix and cxii-cxiv.
IX 887b
kalam (A, < Gk Kalxnioc, 'reed'; pi. aklam) : the reed-pen used for writing in Arabic
script. It is a tube of reed cut between two knots, sliced obliquely (or concave) at the
thicker end and with the point slit, in similar fashion to the European quill and later
the steel-pen. IV 471a
In Ottoman usage, ~ (pronounced kalem) was used figuratively to designate the secre-
tariat of an official department or service; it then came to be the normal term for an
administrative office. This usage has survived in modern Turkish, and is also current
in Arabic. IV 471b
♦ kalam al-tumar -> mukhtasar al-tumar
♦ kalamdan ->• daw at
♦ kalamkari (< P kalam 'pen' + kdr 'work') : the hand-painted and resist-dyed cot-
tons of India, known as chintz. IV 471b
♦ aklam-i sitta (P) : 'six [calligraphic] styles', the main Islamic scripts, viz.
muhakkak, rlhan, thuluth, naskh, tawkf, rikd'. IV 1123a
306 KALAM — KALB
kalam (A) : a word; in the Qur'an, ~ is found in the expression kalam alldh 'the Word
of God'. IV 468b; ~, or 'ilm al-kalam, is also the term for 'theology', one of the reli-
gious sciences of Islam and the discipline which brings to the service of religious
beliefs discursive arguments. Ill 1141b ff.; a rational argument, defensive apologetics,
or the science of discourse (on God). I 694a; IV 468b
For ~ in music, -> ghina'
kalan : a Mongolian tax, apparently a general term for occasional exactions of a
specifically Mongol rather than Islamic character, imposed on the sedentary population
by the Mongols and including some kind of corvee. VII 233b
kalandar (T, < P ?) : 'a vagabond of scandously offensive behaviour'; the name given
to the members of a class of wandering dervishes which existed formerly, especially in
the 7th/13th century, in the Islamic world, within the area extending from Almalik in
Turkestan in the east to Morocco in the west, practising in its extreme form the antin-
omian way of life of Malamatiyya mysticism. ~ passed into Arabic also in the form
karandal. IV 58b; IV 472b; VI 225b
♦ kalandariyyat (P) : in Persian literature, a genre of poetry, named after the
kalandar. Poems of this genre can be quatrains or may have a form intermediate
between the kasIda and the ghazal. They are characterised by the use of antinomian
motives referring to the debauchery of beggars and drunks. IV 58b; IX 4b
kalansuwa (P, A, pi. kaldnis), and kalansuwa tawlla, tawlla or danniyya : the name for
a cap worn by men either under the turban proper or alone on the head. Caps of dif-
ferent shapes were called ~; varieties of ~ are turtur, burnus, ursusa, etc. X 609a; XII
508a; a distinctive, tall, conical Persian hat, resembling a long amphora-like wine jar
known as dann, worn in the mediaeval Islamic period. Its top was pointed. IV 940a;
V 737b; X 612b; a pointed bonnet for men in Algeria and Tunisia. V 746a
♦ kalansuwa bukrat (A) : in medicine, a particular kind of head bandage. XII 508b
♦ kalansuwa nuhas (A) : the metal cap of the obelisk near Heliopolis. XII 508b
♦ kalansuwa turab (A) : in modern Arabic, a chemical sublimating vessel. XI 508b
kalantar (P) : a term used in the 8th/14th and 9th/15th centuries to mean 'leader',
occurring especially with reference to the tribal and military classes. From the late
9th/15th century onwards, ~ designates (i) an official belonging to 'civil' hierarchy in
charge of a town or district or the ward of a town, (ii) the head of a guild, and (iii)
the head of a tribe or sub-tribe. In its first sense, which is now obsolete, ~ sometimes
overlapped or was synonymous with ra'Is, darugha, and ketkhuda. IV 474a
kalawta (A), or kaluta : a kind of cap which is first mentioned in the Fatimid period. It
was to become a standard item in Ayyubid and Mamluk times. V 738a; X 612b; in
Persian, pronounced kulota, a veil worn by women or a child's cap. X 613a
kalb (A) : in zoology, the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). IV 489b; wood-eating
worms. IV 491b
In the game of backgammon, the piece played with (P muhra). VII 963a
For ~ in astronomy, IV 492a; IX 471b
♦ kalb al-bahr (A), or hafshrusl : in zoology, the white whale. VIII 1022b; the dog-
fish, also called the kawsadj or lakhm. IV 491b
♦ kalb al-ma' (A) : in zoology, the otter; in the western Islamic world, ~ is the
name for the beaver. IV 491b
♦ kalb al-mayy (A) : in zoology, the mole-cricket (gryllotalpa vulgaris), also called
hdlush or harrdtha. IV 491b
kalb (A, pi. kulub) : heart. IV 486a; (A, P, T) false, base, impure. X 409a; and -> asl,
HASHM
♦ kalpazan (< P kalb-zan) : in numismatics, a counterfeiter of coins. X 409b
KALBA — KALYM 307
kalba (P) : in Iran, a sausage, a popular food item introduced in the 20th century. XII
611b
kaldaniyyun (A) : the 'Chaldaeans', one of seven ancient nations according to al-
Mas'udi, and consisting of several smaller nations whose common kingdom, in the
Fertile Crescent and the Arabian peninsula, preceded that of the Persians and whose
common language is Syriac. VIII 1007b
kaldjiyan (T) : in Ottoman times, the worker in the mint who prepared the standard
ingots by melting the metal. II 119a
kalemiyye (T) : in the Ottoman empire, one division of the ruling elite, the men of the
pen, later referred to as miilkiyye 'bureaucrats'. XII 675b
kalewi -> kallavi
kalghay : a title best known as indicating the deputy or heir apparent of the khans of
the Crimean Khanate. Its linguistic origins are uncertain. IV 499b
kali (T) : a type of carpet (variants ghdll, kitdll) manufactured at Kalikala (now
Erzerum). Although ~ is generally considered to be Turkish in origin, it is unattested
in ancient Turkish texts. It may therefore be of Iranian origin. XII 136a
kal'i (A), or kala'l : in metallurgy, tin; the Arabic name, either after Kalah, a well
known port on the peninsula of Malacca, or kaling, the Malayan word for tin, bears
witness to the fact that tin had to be imported. IV 502a; V 964b; and ->■ rasas kal'I
~ is also used for a type of sword which is often mentioned, especially in early Arabic
poetry. This kind of sword is generally considered to be of Indian origin. IV 502b
kalib (A) : in early Islam, the common ditch, into which e.g. c Utba b. Rabi'a was thrown
when mortally wounded in the battle of Badr. X 944b
kalima (A, pi. kalimdt) : the spoken word, utterance; ~ can also be extended to mean
'discourse' and 'poem'. IV 508a; VIII 532a
In Druze hierarchy, ~ is the third of the five cosmic ranks in the organisation. II 632a
♦ kalimat al-tawhid (A) : the first article of the shahada (Id ildha ilia lldh). X 389a
♦ kalimat-i kudsiyya (P) : 'holy sayings', eight adages or rules that are the essen-
tials of Kh w adjagan doctrine and thought. XII 521b
kalis (A) : in botany, the name of a plant, which seemed to represent a human head with
a high cap. XII 508b
kalite -»■ bashtarda
kalkala -»■ sifat al-huruf
kallab (A) : in numismatics, a counterfeiter of coins. X 409b
kallabazi : the master of the hawking-pack, assisting the falconer or hawker, who sets
his greyhounds on the gazelle or the hare. I 1152b
kallavi (T), kalewi, or kal[l]ewi : a headdress reserved for dignitaries with the rank of
pasha which, from the 18th century, became official head-gear in Ottoman Turkey. It
was a kavuk with the body of a cone, worn with a white turban rolled around, draped
and bulging in four places, decorated with a gold band. V 751b;
kalpak (T) : busby, a kind of bonnet of lamb's fleece or woollen cloth decorated with
lamb's fleece, worn by men and women in Ottoman Turkey. V 751b
kaluk (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse of uncertain temper. II 954a
kaluta -> KALAWTA
kalyan -»■ nardjIla
♦ kalyandar : a water pipe carrier, employed by people of rank. X 754a
kalym : the purchase of the fiancee, a custom among the Cerkes tribes of the Caucasus
which could only be avoided by resorting to abduction in case of refusal by the par-
ents. The pretence of forcible abduction remains an essential rite in the marriage cer-
emony. II 23 a
308 KAMA KAN WA-KAN
kama -> ba c
kamakh (A, pi. kawdmikh) : a variety of relish or condiment, served, several at a time,
in small bowls into which bread or morsels of food could be dipped. X32a
kamala (A) : a renewable seasonal contract covering two seasons, either summer-autumn
or winter-spring, which engages a shepherd or goatherd. XII 319b; and -»■ fada'il
kaman (P) : bow; in music, a violin bow. VIII 346b; VIII 348a
♦ kamana : in India, a bamboo bow, used to cut marble. VIII 269a
♦ kamandja (A, < P kamdnca, dim. of kaman), or more rarely shlshak (A, < P, T
ghicak, ghidjak, etc., < San ghoshaka ?) : in music, the hemispherical viol, perhaps the
best known form of viol in the Islamic east. The body consists of a hemisphere of
wood, coconut, or a gourd, over the aperture of which a membrane is stretched. The
neck is of wood, generally cylindrical, and there is a foot of iron, although sometimes
there is no foot. In texts where both the ghidjak and the ~ are described, the former is
a larger type of the latter, having, in addition to its two ordinary strings, eight sympa-
thetic strings. In Egypt, the hemispherical viol is nowadays called rabdb misrl. VIII
348a
kamar (P) : a broad belt often red in colour, worn by men in the Arab East. V 741a;
IX 167b
kamar (A) : in astronomy, the moon; the full moon is termed badr. IV 518a
kamh (A) : in botany, wheat; in Iraq ~ is called hinta and in Arabia dhurr. IV 519b; V
863a
kamil -»■ kaml
kamil (A) : in prosody, the name of the fifth Arabic metre. I 670a
kamin (A) : the rear-guard (of a raiding group of Bedouin). II 1055b; in military sci-
ence, an ambuscade by a detachment of the army drawn up in a carefully chosen posi-
tion near the rear-guard. Ill 202b
kamls (A, < late L camisia), or kamlsa : a shirt-like dress worn by both sexes all over
the Arab world. V 733b ff.
kamish -> lule
kaml (A) : lice; some maintain that ~ applies only to females and that for males the
term is su'db (pi. si'bdn, which actually designates nits). All species of lice, including
head-lice and body-lice, fall within this term. A man more prone than others to give
rise to lice is called kamil. IV 521b
kammun (A) : in botany, cumin (Cuminum Cyminum); -was also used as a generic
term for other plants which bore aromatic or medicinal seeds: kammun armani or rumi
was in fact caraway (Carum Carvi), also called kammun barri 'wild cumin'. ~ hulw
was one of the names for aniseed, while ~ aswad was fennel-flower, properly called
shuniz. IV 522a, where can be found more variants; kammun kirmdni is wild cumin
(Lagoecia cuminoides). IX 653a
kamta (A) : a red cloth, adorned with pearls, which Egyptian women twisted around
their tarbusb. X 612b
kamulyan -»■ gonullu
kamus (A, < Gk) : dictionary; during the time of the Prophet, ~ was used for 'the bot-
tom, the very deepest part of the sea', and later, following Ptolemy, geographers
applied the term, in the form ukiydnus, to 'the mass of water surrounding the earth',
more particularly the Atlantic Ocean. Al-Firuzabadi used ~ metaphorically as the title
of his great dictionary, which name stuck, still carrying the sense of 'fullness, exhaus-
tiveness' in contrast to mu'djam 'lexicon'. IV 524a
kan wa-kan (A) : in literature, one of the seven post-classical genres of poetry. The
genre was devised by the Baghdad! poets and its name derives from the formula used
by story-tellers to open their narratives: 'there was and there was', i.e. 'once upon a
time'. A ~ poem is in monorhyme with a long vowel after the rhyme letter. IV 528a
KANA'A — KANUN 309
kana'a (A) : contentment with little, one of the components of asceticism, zuhd. XI
560a
kan'ad (A) : in the Persian Gulf, term for the king mackerel. I 541b
kanat (A, pi. kanawdt, kand, kunl, akniya) : a canal, irrigation system, water-pipe. Used
also for a baton, a lance, etc., ~ originally meant reed. IV 528b; XII 735b
In Persian, ~ is used today especially for underground water pipes, a mining installa-
tion or technique using galleries or cross-cuts to extract water from the depths of the
earth. By means of a gently sloping tunnel, which cuts through alluvial soil and passes
under the water-table into the aquifer, water is brought by gravity flow from its upper
end, where it seeps into the gallery, to a ground surface outlet and irrigation canal at
its lower end. IV 529a
kanbal -> miknab
kanbiyatur (A) : Campeador (< L campeator), a title in Castilian Spain given to el-Cid.
IX 533a
kanbus -> mi'zaf
kanbush -> kumash
kandjifa (A) : playing cards, attested since Mamluk times. V 109a
kanduri (P), or kandura : a leather or linen table-cloth; in India, ~ means also a reli-
gious feast held in honour of a venerated person like Fatima, and as such was imported
into the Indonesian archipelago, where it has become a feast given with a religious pur-
pose, or at least in conformity with religious law. IV 540a; religious meal. IX 154a
kanib (A, P kanab) : the hemp seed. Ill 266b
kanisa (A, < Ar; pi. kand'is) : synagogue, church, temple; syn. bVa, which unlike ~ is
found once in the Qur'an. IV 545a
kannad-khana (P) : a confectioner's shop. XI 307a
kannas (A) : lit. sweeper; a sanitary worker in the mediaeval Near East who swept pub-
lic squares and other places such as prisons, dungeons and latrines, and transported
garbage in boats or by other means to places outside the cities. The term is synony-
mous with kassah; other terms used for the same occupation are sammdd and zabbdl
'dung collectors'. IV 547b
kannis -> shunkub
kantara (A, pi. kandtir) : a bridge, particularly one of masonry or stone; an aqueduct
(especially in the plural), dam; high building, castle. IV 555a
kantawiyya (A) : the Kantaeans, a Mandaean sect. X 440a
kantu : a type of salt in the salt works near Bilma, in Niger, ~ is moulded into loaves
in hollowed out palm-trunks and used chiefly for the feeding of animals. I 1222a
kanun (A) : a brazier. V 42b
kanun (A, < Gk; pi. kawdnln) : a financial term belonging to the field of land-taxes; a
code of regulations, state-law (of non-Muslim origin). IV 556a
In fiscal administration, ~ refers both to the principles on which was based the assess-
ment of taxes and to the resulting sum due from the taxpayer, either in the case of a
single property or all the properties in one district taken together. In those provinces
where many lands were assessed by the procedure of ~, this word came to mean a kind
of fiscal cadaster. II 79a; IV 557a
In Mongol administration, the 'Domesday Book of the Empire', the survey and assess-
ment book. II 81b
In law, kawdnln were at first regulations issued by the guardians of public order
(especially the governors) in the fields of common law and penal law where the shari'a
was silent. Under the Ottoman sultans, ~ came to be applied mainly to acts in the
domain of administrative and financial law and of penal law. Nowadays, in all Middle
Eastern countries, ~ denotes not only those codes and laws which are directly inspired
by western legislation, such as civil and commercial law, administrative and penal law,
KANUN KAPI
but also those laws and codes which are confined to reproducing, albeit simplifying,
the provisions of the shari'a. The word ~, however, has been replaced by la'iha (pi.
lawd'ih) in Egypt and by nizam or tartib elsewhere. IV 556b
In organisations, e.g. guilds in Ottoman times, ~ was used also for the statutes, which
were drawn up by the guildsmen and registered with the kadi. IV 558b
Among the Berbers, especially in Kabylia and the Aures, ~ was adopted to mean the
customs, mainly as regards penal matters, pertaining to a particular village. IV 562a
In music, the ~ is the present-day psaltery of the Arabs and Turks, a stringed musical
instrument with a shallow, flat, trapezoidal sound-chest. It has fallen into disuse in
Spain and Persia, where it was once very popular. It is, however, still a great favourite
in North Africa, Egypt, Syria and Turkey, where it is to be found strung trichordally
with from 51 to 75 strings. VII 191a
♦ al-kanun al-asasi (A, T kdnun-i esdsl, P kanun-i asdsl) : 'basic law', the consti-
tution. II 651b; II 659b; in Turkey, kanun-i esdsl was replaced by anayasa during the
linguistic reforms in the Republic. II 640a ff.; IV 558b
♦ kanun-i djaza'i (T) : in Ottoman usage, a penal code. II 518b
♦ kanun al-hay'a (A) : 'the astronomical law', term used by al-Khudjandi for the
sine law, because of its frequent use in astronomy. V 46a
♦ kanun al-kharadj (A) : in fiscal administration, the basic survey in accordance
with which the kharadj is collected. II 78b
♦ kanunname (T) : in Ottoman usage, ~ generally referred to a decree of the sul-
tan containing legal clauses on a particular topic. In the 9th/15th century the term yasakname
had the same meaning. ~ was occasionally extended to refer to regulations which
viziers and pashas had enacted, to laws which a competent authority had formulated or
to reform projects. However, a ~ was like any normal kanun in that only a sultan's
decree could give it official authority. IV 562a; Ottoman tax register. VIII 203b
kanungo : in the Mughal empire, one of the three chief pargana officials, the others
being the amin and the shikdar (->■ shikkdar), who were responsible for the pargana
accounts, the rates of assessment, the survey of lands, and the protection of the rights
of the cultivators. VIII 271a
kapan (T, < A kabbdn 'a public balance', 'a steelyard') : an Ottoman term used to des-
ignate the central 'markets' for basic commodities, which were established in Istanbul
in order to ensure the authorities' control of the importation and distribution of the raw
materials needed by the craftsmen and of the foodstuffs to provision the people, and in
order to facilitate the collection of the tolls and taxes due to the state. IV 226b
In Ottoman fiscal administration, ~ (or hakk-i kapan, resm-i kapan) was also the name
for weighing duties levied at the public scales, paid in kind on cereals and dried veg-
etables, and in cash on other produce. II 147a; III 489b
kapanidja (T) : a sumptuous fur worn by the Ottoman sultan, with a large fur collar,
narrow or short sleeves, decorated with fur below the shoulders, with straight supple-
mentary sleeves, laced with frogs and loops in front. V 752a
kapi (T) : lit. gate; by extension the Ottoman Porte, that is, the sultan's palace; ~ is also
used for the grand vizier's palace and the seat of government. IV 568a
♦ kapi aghasi ->• kapu aghas!
♦ kapi kahyasi -> kap! kethudasi
♦ kapi kethudasi (T), or kapi kahyasi : an agent, 'close to the Porte', of a high dig-
nitary of an Ottoman subject or vassal. IV 568a
♦ kapi kullari (T) : lit. slaves of the Porte; the sultan's troops. I 35b; IV 568a
♦ kapidji (T) : the guard placed at the main gates of the Ottoman sultan's palace
in Istanbul. IV 568a
♦ kapiya cikma (T) : the appointment of 'adjam! oghlans to the palace service. I
206b
KAPLIDJA — KARAKOL 311
kaplidja (T), or illdja, kapludja, kabludja : the general term used in Turkey for a place
where a hot spring is roofed over, as in a bath house. Ill 1120b; IV 569b, where are
listed many more synonyms; and -► Ilidja
kaptan -> kapudan; kapudan pasha
kapu aghasi (T), or kapl aghast : the chief white eunuch and the senior officer in the
Ottoman sultan's palace, until the late 10th/16th century. He was the sole mediator
between the sultan and the world outside the palace, and had the authority to petition
the sultan for the appointment, promotion and transfer of palace servants, aghas and
it oghlans. II 1088a; IV 570b; IV 1093a
kapudan (T, < It capitano), or kaptan : any commander of a ship, small or large, for-
eign or Turkish. VIII 564b
♦ kapudan pasha (T), or kaptan pasha, kapudan-i derya : the title of the comman-
der-in-chief of the Ottoman navy, becoming current only ca. 975/1567. Earlier titles
were derya begi and kapudan-i derya. The squadron-commander was known as kaptan,
and the individual commander as re'is (-> ra'is). I 948a; IV 571b; VIII 564b
In the 10th/16th century, the ~ became as well the governor of an eyalet, which con-
sisted of a group of ports and islands. II 165
♦ kapudan-i derya -»■ kapudan pasha
♦ kapudana bey (T) : one of three grades of admiral, instituted when the naval hier-
archy was organised under c Abd al-Hamid I, or later under his successor Sellm III. The
other two were patrona bey 'vice-admiral' and riydla bey 'rear-admiral'. VIII 566b ff.
kar (A, T) : a form of music known in Turkey (k'ar). I 67a; and -»■ sinf
kar c -> kuththa'
♦ kar'a (A) : in alchemy, the part known as 'cucurbit' of the distilling apparatus,
the lower part of the alembic. I 486a; XII 550b
kara (A, pi. kur) : in geography, a small, isolated flat-topped hill, known as gdra in
North Africa. V 361b
kara (T) : black, dark colour; strong, powerful. The former meaning is commonly meant
when ~ is a first component of geographical names; the latter with personal names,
although it may refer to the black or dark brown colour of hair or to a dark complex-
ion. IV 572b
karaba (A) : kinship; as a technical term, ~ seems to be of post-HiDJRA usage. In the
Qur'an, and pre-Islamic poetry, the preferred term is kurba. The superlative al-akrabun
is also found, with the meaning of the closest relatives, those who have a claim to
inherit from a man. IV 595a
karabatak (T) : a performance practice associated exclusively with the Ottoman music
ensemble, mehter, consisting of the alternation of soft passages played by a partial
ensemble with thunderous tutti passages. VI 1008a
karabisi (A) : clothes-seller. IV 596a
karaghul (Ott, < Mon; mod.T karakol) : lit. black arm; in Ottoman times, a patrol dur-
ing military campaigns, sent out apart from the vanguard forces, carkhadjl, by the
Ottoman army. The maintenance of security and order in different quarters in Istanbul
was carried out by Janissary orders called kulluk. In modern Turkish, ~ became
karakol, which is the common term for police station or patrol. IV 611a
karaghulam : in the Ayyubid army under Salah al-DIn, a second grade cavalryman. I
797b; VIII 468a
karagoz (T) : lit. black eye; in literature, ~ is the principal character in the Turkish
shadow play, and also the shadow play itself, which is played with flat, two-dimen-
sional figures, manipulated by the shadow player, which represent inanimate objects,
animals, fantastic beasts and beings, and human characters. IV 601a
karakol ->■ karaghul
312 KARAKUL — KARlN
karakul : lambskin. I 506a
karam (A) : the qualities of nobility of character, magnanimity, generosity, all the
virtues making up the noble and virtuous man. XII 511b; and -»■ sharaf
karama (A, pi. karamai) : a marvel wrought by a saint, mostly consisting of miracu-
lous happenings in the corporeal world, or else of predictions of the future, or else of
interpretation of the secrets of hearts, etc. IV 615a
karan (A) : in archery, a quiver made from pieces of leather put together in such a way
that the air can circulate through interstices left so that the fletchings of the arrows do
not deteriorate. IV 800a; and ->• kiran
karandal -»■ kalandar
karanful (A) : in botany, the clove. IV 626b
kararit -»■ karrIta
karastun (P ?) : an instrument made up of a long beam which has at one of its ends a
stone as a weight. If the Armeno-Persian origin of the word is correct, the ~ must be
a kind of lever or balance, very similar to the shaduf, the contrivance used for rais-
ing water and still in use in certain eastern countries. IV 629a; the Roman balance or
steelyard. IV 629a; V 529b; VII 195b
karaz (A) : in botany, the acacia tree or fruit. VIII 1042b; XII 172a
karbansalar -»■ karwan
karbas (P) : a kind of coarse cotton weave, woven in many parts of the province of
Kirman. V 152a
karbus (A, pi. kardbis) : the pommel of a horse saddle, the cantel, or back pommel,
being called mu'akhkhara or karbus mu'akhkhar. II 954a; IX 51a; the saddle rested on
a pad, mirshaha, held in position by girths, hizam, and a breast-strap, labab. II 954a
kard (A), or salaf : in law, the loan of money or other fungible objects. I 633a; VIII
899b; the loan of consummation. I 26b
In numismatics, clipping coins with scissors. X 409b
♦ kard hasan (A) : in law, an interest-free loan. VII 671b; VIII 899b
kardus (A, pi. karadis) : in military science, a squadron, an innovation which is said to
have been introduced by Marwan II. Ill 182b; VIII 794a
karhab -»■ fazz
kari -> kira'
karP ->■ kurra'; mukri'
karib (A) : lit. near; in Persian prosody, the name of a metre, of rare occurrence, said
to have been invented by the Persians. I 677b
karif (K) : in the yazIdi tradition, an unrelated male on whose knees one has been cir-
cumcised and with whom a life-long bond exists. XI 315b
karih (A) : a foal between four and five years of age. II 785a
kariha -»■ ghina'
karim (A) : yellow amber, in Egypt (syn. kahraman); also, a fleet, especially a merchant
fleet. IV 640b
♦ karimi (A, < karim ?) : the name of a group of Muslim merchants operating
from the major centres of trade in the Ayyubid and Mamluk empires, above all in
spices. IV 640a
karin (A) : a companion; in pre-Islamic usage, and in the Qur'an, a term for a man's
spirit-companion or familiar. IV 643b; IX 407a
♦ karina (A) : in Arabic literary theory, one of the terms used to indicate sadj'
rhyme. VIII 737b; and -> kayna
In Persian literature, ~ , or karlna-yi sdrifa, was used for a clue required to express the
relationship between a madjaz 'trope', and the corresponding hakIka 'literal speech'.
Such a clue is either implied in the context or specifically added, e.g. in shir-i
KARlN — KARSHUNI 313
shamshlrzan, where the adjective points to the actual meaning of 'valiant warrior'. V
1027a
karis (A) : the quality of food being piquant, not always interchangeable with hdrr 'hot'
or hamid 'sour'. II 1071b
kariz : a term used in eastern and south-eastern Persia, Afghanistan, and Balucistan to
designate a kanat, a mining-installation or technique for extracting water from the
depths of the earth. IV 529a
♦ karizkan ->■ mukannI
karkaddan (A, < P kargaddri) : in zoology, the rhinoceros; ~ is the term for three vari-
eties: the Indian rhinoceros, also called mirmis, ziba'rd/zib'ard and sindd; the rhinoc-
eros of Java; and the rhinoceros of Sumatra (P nishdn). The African species was known
to the Arabs well before Islam: the Black rhinoceros was called harlsh or khirtlt (also
one of the many terms for the rhinoceros' horn), and Burchell's rhinoceros, hirmis, abu
karn, umm karn and 'anaza. IV 647a
♦ karkaddan al-bahr (A), or harlsh al-bahr : in zoology, the narwhal (Monodon
monocews). IV 648b; VIII 1022b
karkal (A) : in Mamluk times, the small receptacle in which water falls before flowing
over the shadirwan; the channel itself was called silsal. IX 175b
karkas (A) : in mediaeval times, a special kind of clay, appended by a cord to docu-
ments and into which a seal ring was impressed. IV 1103b
karkh (A, < Ar karka 'fortified city') : a word associated with various towns in areas
of Aramaic culture before the Islamic conquest; in Baghdad, a specific area and more
generally the whole of the west side below the Round City was called al-~. IV 652a
karkjiana (P) : a workshop. V 312a
karki (A) : in prosody, term used by Safi al-Din al-Hilli for a zadjal that contains lam-
poons. XI 373b
karkur (N.Afr, B akkur), more exactly karkur : a heap of stones, and, more especially,
a sacred heap of stones. The cult of heaps of stones seems to come from a rite of trans-
ference or expulsion of evil; the individual, picking up a stone, causes the evil of what-
ever kind that afflicts him to pass onto it and gets rid of it by throwing it or depositing
it with the stone on a place suitable for absorbing it. The accumulation of these expi-
atory pebbles forms the sacred piles of stones which rise all along the roads, at difficult
passes and at the entrances to sanctuaries. IV 655b
karm (A) : in botany, the vine, grapevine. IV 659a; in art, karma is a vine-scroll frieze.
I 611b
karmati ->■ kufI
karna : in music, a six- to eight-foot long piece of hollow bamboo with a cow's horn at
the end. X 407a
karoh ->■ krosa
karr (A) : attack.
♦ karr wa-farr (A) : in military science, the tactic of withdrawal and counter-attack.
VIII 131a; XI 542a
karram (A) : a vine-tender. IV 667a
karranay in music, an instrument of the horn and trumpet type. X 35a
karrita (Alg, < It carretta) : a cart and wagon; in the 16th century, its plural kararlt was
used to designate Portuguese wagons. I 206a
karsana ->■ kursan
karghi (anc.T and Uy) : castle. IV 671b; Mongolian term for palace. V 858b
karshuni (A, < Syr) : the name of the Syriac script used by the Christians of Syria and
Mesopotamia for writing Arabic. IV 671b
314 KARSHUNI — KASABA
In India, ~ is applied to the Syriac script used for writing Malayalam, the vernacular
language of the Malabar Christians. IV 671b
karvan-kes_h -> karwan
karwan (A, < P) : a caravan, composed of horses, mules, donkeys, and especially
camels; in India, caravans for the bulk transport of grain were pulled by oxen. In the
pre-Islamic period, the Arabs had for long used the word 'ir, and later the more usual
word kdfila, which at the beginning of the lst/7th century was current for gatherings
of traders, as the equivalent of ~ . IV 676b
In the Ottoman period, the leader responsible for organising the ~ was called kervdn-
bashl (in Persia and India, kdrvan-kesh or kdrbdnsdldr). IV 677b
♦ karwansaray (P) : caravanserai. IX 44; and -»■ kaysariyya
karwasha (A) : originally, the name of the argot of the Moroccans practising the trades
of sorcerer and treasure-seeker in Egypt, today applied to the secret language of the
Dakarna (s. Dakruni) of Sudanese origin installed in the Village of the Sudanese close
to Madamud in Upper Egypt and elsewhere. A part of the vocabulary is of Moroccan
origin, while the grammar is that of the spoken language of the region of Luxor. IV
679b
karya (A, T karye; pi. kurd) : a town, village; and -*■ nahiye
As a Qur'anic term, ~ indicates an important town. Mecca, Medina, Sodom, Nineveh,
and the coastal town are so called. IV 680a
♦ al-karyatayn (A) : a Qur'anic term for Mecca and Medina. IV 680a
♦ umm al-kura -> umm al-kura
kas -»■ SANDJ
♦ kasatan -»■ musaffahat
kas'a in music, a small shallow kettledrum. X 35b
kasab (A) : in botany, any plant with a long and hollow stem like the reed {Arundo
donax), to which the term is especially applied. IV 682a; a coloured linen cloth man-
ufactured at Tinnis, or a white one made at Damietta, or sometimes a cotton cloth
made at Kazarun, out of which women's fine veils were woven, some set with precious
stones. It can also mean a silken material, as well as a kind of brocade encrusted with
little strips of gold or silver. IV 682b; X 532a
In mineralogy, in the singular (kasaba), the best emeralds, which are extracted from
the vein as one piece. The small ones extracted from the earth by sieving are called
fass 'cabochon'. The beads cut from the latter are 'lentil-like', 'adasiyya. XI 570a f.
♦ kasab al-bardi (A), or al-bardi : the papyrus reed. IV 682a
♦ kasab al-djarira (A) : the sweet flag (or fragrant rush). IV 682a
♦ kasab hulw -> kasab al-sukkar
♦ kasab al-mass -> kasab al-sukkar
♦ kasab al-sukkar (A), also kasab al-mass or kasab hulw : in botany, the sugar
cane. IV 682b; V 863a
kasaba (A, mod. T kasaba) : originally, the essential part of a country or a town, its
heart. This usage occurs especially in the Muslim West, where it is also applied to the
most ancient part of a town (syn. al-madina); later, a fortified castle, residence of an
authority in the centre of a country or a town; principal town. Ill 498b; IV 684b; chef-
lieu. V 311b
In North Africa, ~ occurs in the sense of fortress-citadel (dialect: kasba). IV 685a
In the Turkish Republic, a kasaba is a town with from 2000 to 20,000 inhabitants. I
974b; and -> koy
As a basic measure of length, ~ equalled a number of cubits varying between five and
eight, but giving an average length of four metres. VII 137b; the ~ was predominantly
used in surveying. In 1830 the ~ was established at 3.55 metres. II 232b
KASAM — KASHKUL
kasam (A), and yamin, half : an oath. IV 687b
In the Qur'an, ~ or its verb aksama apply, in general, to the oaths pronounced by God
himself. IV 687b
In law, ~ is the extrajudicial oath by which a person binds himself to do or not to do
a certain specific physical or juridicial act, by invoking the name of God or one of the
divine attributes. IV 687b
kasama (A, < kasam) : in law, an oath by which is asserted the guilt or innocence of
an individual presumed to have killed someone, repeated fifty times, either by the
'asaba of the victim of a murder (Maliki school of law, where it is a procedure of
accusation), or by the inhabitants of the place of the crime (Hanafi school of law,
where it is a procedure for the defence of the one presumed guilty). IV 689b
kasb (A) : in economic life, gain. IV 690b
In theology, ~ means acquisition, appropriation. The verb kasaba is frequently found
in the Qur'an, mainly with the sense of acquiring those rewards or punishments which
are the fruit of moral acts. ~ has had a long history in the scholastic theology, espe-
cially in the Ash'ari school, where ~ and iktisdb were employed to define that which
reverted to man in a 'freely' accomplished and morally qualified act. Ill 1063a; IV
692a
kasba farisiyya ->• istam
kasba ->■ kasaba
kasdir ->■ rasas kal'I
kash ->• yashm
kasha'rir (A) : in medicine, the shivers. X 510a
kashf (A) : in mysticism, the act of lifting and tearing away the veil (which comes
between man and the extra-phenomenal world). IV 696b; VIII 429a; X 318b
Under the Mamluks, the term -was used to designate a mission of amIrs from Cairo
to Upper Egypt that consisted in guaranteeing security during harvests, inspecting the
condition of the canals, and, to a growing extent, controlling the Bedouin. VIII 865a
kasjii (P, T, < Kdshani) : in art, the tiles or trimmed pieces of faience serving to cover
completely or partially the main fabric of buildings in a design principally decorative
but also, at times, to protect them against humidity. IV 701a
♦ kashi-kari (P) : a process of tile-decorating, whereby the design is reproduced on
tiles of baked earth which are then painted, generally with different metal oxides, to
become polychromatic, then rebaked. IV 702a
♦ kashi-yi mu'arrak-kari (P), or simply mu'arrak-kdri : a technique of tile-decorat-
ing, which consists of cutting, according to precise forms, pieces of monochrome ~ of
different colours to compose a polychrome design. IV 701b
kashif (A) : under the Ottomans, a district prefect. VIII 235a; ~ is still in use today in
Egypt. VIII 865b
kashik : in music, a rattle instrument, made up of two wooden spoons attached to each
other, in the hollow of which are a number of small bells, used in Persia and Turkey.
IX lib
kashk (P) : a kind of whey. V 152b; a type of yoghurt. XII 608b
kashka (T) : in western Turkish, the name given to a blaze on the forehead of animals
such as horses, sheep and cattle; in Caghatay the word also means 'brilliant', 'gallant'.
It is probable that kashkdy, the name of a Turkish people living in the Fars province
of Iran, is related to one of these meanings. IV 705b
kashkul (P) : an oval bowl of metal, wood or coconut (calabash), worn suspended by a
chain from the shoulder, in which the dervishes put the alms they receive and the food
which is given them. IV 706b
316 KASHKUL — KASR
In modern Arabic, ~ is sometimes used for a kind of album or collection of press cut-
tings, as well as denoting a 'beggar's bowl'. IV 706b
kashshaba (Mor) : a long sleeveless outer gown for men, and a long-sleeved flowing
tunic with a deep slit down the breast for women, worn in Morocco. V 746a
kashshafa ->■ talI'a
kasht (A) : an erasure on a written document. X 408b
kashuth rumi ->■ afsantIn
kasib (A, pi. kawdsib) : a carnivore. II 739b
kasida (A) : in poetry, a polythematic ode which numbers at least seven verses, but gen-
erally comprises far more. It consists essentially of three parts of variable length: (1)
an amatory prologue (nasIb) in which the poet sheds some tears over what was once
the camping place of his beloved now far off; (2) the poet's narration of his journey
(rahil) to the person to whom the poem is addressed; (3) the central theme, constituted
by the panegyric of a tribe, a protector or a patron, or in satire of their enemies. The
Arabic ~ is a very conventional piece of verse, with one rhyme and in a uniform metre.
From the end of the 2nd/8th century onwards, the classical ~ gave birth to a whole
series of autonomous poetic genres. All these genres are represented in independent
pieces, to which the name of ~ continues often to be given, even though incorrectly. I
583b; I 668a; IV 713b
The Persian ~ is a lyric poem, most frequently panegyric. Quantitatively, a poem can-
not be a ~ unless the number of its distichs exceeds fifteen and does not exceed thirty.
The ~ comprises three parts: the exordium, the eulogy, and the petition. It is first and
foremost a poem composed for a princely festival, especially the spring festival and the
autumn one, and was connected with courtly life in Persia. IV 57b; IV 714a
The Turkish ~ has the same rhyme scheme and metric patterns as the ~ in Arabic and
Persian. The usual length of a Turkish ~ is between 15 and 99 couplets, but in fact,
some longer ones exist. Theoretically, a complete Turkish ~ should contain six sec-
tions: nasIb, taghazzul, girIzgah, madhiyya, fakhriyya and du'a', but invariably
do not contain all of them. Very often, one or more are left out, the most frequent
omissions being the taghazzul, fakhriyya and du'a' sections. IV 715b
In Swahili, ~ normally refers to a poem praising the Prophet. V 963a
♦ kasida bahariyya (A kasida and P bahdr) : in Urdu prosody, an ode with a pre-
lude that was a description of spring. V 958b
♦ kasida simtiyya ->■ musammat
♦ kasida zadjaliyya ->■ malhun
♦ kasida-yi madiha -»■ madIh
kasim (A) : in geography, the sandy area where the ghadd bush abounds. IV 717a
kasir (A, pi. kawdsir) : a rapacious predator, used in hawking. I 1152a; a day-hunting
raptor. X 783b
kasir (A) : in law, a person under guardianship. XI 208b
kasir (A) : in North Africa, a refugee, like the tanib, but one entitled to make use of
his prestige among his former group with which he has not severed all relations. XII
78b; among contemporary nomads like the Ruwala', ~ indicates a mutual relationship
between members of different tribes by which each grants protection against his fellow-
tribesmen. Ill 1018a
kasm (A) : a term for a land tax, in Syria and Palestine in the 10th/ 16th century, com-
ing to a fifth, sometimes as much as a third, of the produce. VII 507b
kasr (A) : in mathematics, a fraction. From the time of Ibn al-Banna' onwards, the Arab
mathematicians distinguished five kinds of fractions: mufrad (simple), muntasib (frac-
tion of relationship), mukhtalif (disjunct), muba"ad (subdivided), and mustathna (excepted).
IV 725a
KASR — KAT C 317
In medicine, a fracture. II 481b
In grammar, the sound of the vowel i. IV 731a
For ~ in Bedouin culture, ->• falIdja
kasr (A, pi. kusur) : residence of a ruler, palace, or any building on a larger scale than
a mere home, used in particular for Umayyad desert palaces and frontier forts. In the
Maghrib, pronounced tear, also a collective granary or store house. IX 44a; XII 512a;
and ->• agadir
In medicine, torticollis. X 788b
♦ kasra (A) : in anatomy, the base of the neck. X 788b
♦ kasriyya (A) : the palace guard of the Fatimids. IX 685b
kasra (A) : in grammar, ~ denotes the vowel /', more specifically the written sign itself,
kasr denoting the sound in question. Ill 172a; IV 731a
kass (A, pi. kussds) : a popular story-teller or preacher, deliverer of sermons whose
activity considerably varied over the centuries, from preaching in the mosques with a
form of Qur'anic exegesis to downright charlatanism. IV 733b; X 274b; an older, if not
the primary meaning of ~ is 'a kind of detective responsible for examining and inter-
preting tracks and marks on the ground'; thus is it found twice in the Qur'an. V 186a;
jester. IX 552b
kassab -* djazzar
♦ kassabci-bashi (P), or salldkhii-bdshl : in Safawid times, the butcher in the royal
kitchen. XII 609b
kassah -> kannas
kassam (T, < A) : in Ottoman law, the title given to the trustee who divided an estate
between the heirs of a deceased person. Ottoman law recognised two types of ~ , those
under the kadi 'asker 'judge of the army', and the others employed locally in each
kadI's court. The local ~ was called shehri or beledl. IV 735b; VI 4b
♦ kassamlik ->■ kisma
kassar (A) : a fuller; bleacher. IV 1161a; V 89b; laundryman. XII 757b; a term in the
Persian Gulf for a projecting rock. I 535b
kassas (A) : in parts of the Central Region (the Sinai, Jordan and Palestine), an expert
who determines the amount due for a particular injury, as payment for amends in place
of retaliation for homicide or bodily injury, known as mu'arrish in Yemen and nazzdr
in the Western Desert. X 890b; and -+ kissa-kh w an
kassl (A) : a striped fabric from Egypt containing silk, one of seven things forbidden by
Muhammad in a Tradition. V 735b
kast -> taksIt
kat (A) : in botany, a smooth-stemmed shrub (Catha edulis, Methyscophyllum glaucum)
that grows in East Africa and southwestern Arabia. Its leaves and young shoots
(kaldwlt, s. kilwat) contain an alkaloid, katin, which produces a euphoric, stimulating,
exciting but finally depressing effect when chewed or drunk in a decoction; it is widely
used in Ethiopia, Djibouti, East Africa and Yemen. IV 741a
kat' (A) : lit. cutting off; in the science of Qur'anic reading, ~ or wakf was the pause
in reading, based on the sense or otherwise. Later, a distinction was made between the
short pause for breath, and the other pauses, based on the sense; according to some, ~
indicated only the first; according to others only the second. IV 741b
In grammar, ~ is used in the term alif al-kaf for the disjunctive hamza which, opposed
to the hamzat al-wasl, cannot be elided. ~ further indicates the deliberate cutting, for
a special purpose, between elements of a sentence which syntactically are closely con-
nected. IV 742a; XI 172b
In prosody, ~ indicates cutting short the ending of certain metrical feet, e.g., the short-
ening of the metrical fd'ilun to fd'il. This shortened form is then called maktu'. IV 742a
318 KAT — KATIB
In mathematics, ~ is used in many terms: kaf zd'id 'hyperbola', kaf nakis 'ellipse',
kaf mukafi 'parabola', and kaf mukafi mudjassam 'paraboloid'. IV 742a
In astrology, ~ indicates scission. IV 742a
In the science of diplomatic, ~ refers to the format of paper. Al-kaf al-kdmil was an
in-folio format used for treaties, al-kaf al-'ada, a small ordinary format used for
decrees and appointments of the lowest rank. IV 742b
In logic, ~ means 'to assert something decisively or refute someone completely'. IV
743a
In medicine, the excision of soft diseased substance. II 481b
In art, san'at-i kaf was the art of cutting silhouette, brought from Persia to Turkey in
the 10th/16th century, and to the west in the llth/17th century, where at first, as in the
east, light paper on a dark gound was always used. II 755b
♦ kat' al-tarik (A), or muharaba : highway robbery or robbery with violence (syn.
al-sirka al-kubra), which in certain circumstances is punished with death. IV 770a; V
768a; IX 63a
kata (A, pi. katawdt, katayat) : in zoology, the ornithological family of Pteroclididae or
sandgrouse. The term is onomatopaeic for their cry. Three species are distinguished:
the kudrl or 'arabi (Pterocles Lichtensteini), corresponding to the Lichtenstein's or
Close-barred sandgrouse; the djuni or ghadaf ghatma' {Pterocles orientalis), the Black-
bellied sandgrouse; and the ghatat (Pterocles alchata), the Large Pintailed sandgrouse.
IV 743a
kataba '1-kitab (A) : lit. he has written the book; a fabulous marine creature mentioned
by mediaeval Arab authors. It lives in the Indian Ocean, and its juice produces an
invisible ink legible only at night. VIII 1023a
katani (A) : legumes. XI 413a
katar (P) : a type of levelling board used in central Iran for the preparation of irrigation
check banks, and operated by two men, one pulling and the other pushing. II 905b
katf (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre because of the suppression of a sabab
khafif, a moving and a quiescent consonant, and the preceding vowel, e.g. in
mufa'alfatun]. I 672a
kati' (A) : a family flock of ten to forty animals, called fizr if there are only sheep, and
subba if there are only goats. XII 319a
♦ kati'a (A, pi. kata'i') : a Muslim administrative term designating, on the one
hand, those concessions made to private individuals on state lands in the first centuries
of the hidjra, and, on the other hand, the fixed sum of a tax or tribute, in contradis-
tinction to taxation by proportional method or some variable means. Ill 1088a; IV
754b; IV 973a
In early Islam, ~ was a unit of land, often a sizable estate, allotted to prominent indi-
viduals in the garrison cities founded at the time of the conquests. V 23a
katib (A, pi. kuttdb) : a secretary, a term which was used in the Arab-Islamic world for
every person whose role or function consisted of writing or drafting official letters or
administrative documents. In the mediaeval period, ~ denoted neither a scribe in the
literary sense of the word nor a copyist, but it could be applied to private secretaries
as well as to the employees of the administrative service. It can denote merely a book-
keeper as well as the chief clerk or a Secretary of State, directly responsible to the sov-
ereign or to his vizier. IV 754b; XII 720a
In law, an author or compiler of legally-watertight formulae for use in shuriit (->
shart). IX 359a
In Western and Spanish Arabic, ~ is an alternative name for 'Utarid, the planet
Mercury. VIII 101a; XI 555a
♦ katib al-sirr (A) : in Muslim administration, the private secretary. X 392b
KATlBA — KAVUK 319
katlba (A) : in military terminology, a squadron. IV 1 144b
katif (A, pi. aktdf) : in anatomy, the shoulder. IV 763a
♦ c ilm al-katif (A), or c ilm al-aktaf : scapulomancy or omoplatoscopy, i.e. divination
by the use of the shoulder-bones. This art forms a part of the practices of physiog-
nomy. It is universal in scope, inasmuch as it provides for the foretelling of what will
happen in the different regions of the earth towards which the four sides of the scop-
ula are pointed according to the signs revealed by it. IV 763a; V 100a
katifa (P) : a fabric made in Yazd, which was renowned for its excellence. XI 304a
katih (P) : quickly prepared rice with clarified butter, eaten by the inhabitants of the
Caspian provinces and especially Gilan. XII 611a
katil al-nimr -> akunitun
katil al-ra c d (A) : lit. victim of the thunder; a name for the quail, as ancient belief held
that the quail would be inevitably struck down by stormy weather. VIII 1006b
katir (P) : in tribal Persia of the 19th century, a sum of money, which was increased or
diminished according to the prosperity or otherwise of the tribes and the power of the
government to exercise authority over them. Ill 1105b
katlrdji (T) : a muleteer. IV 766a
katiran -> katran
katkhuda -> ketkhuda
katl (A) : killing, putting to death, used in the two principal meanings of the word, sc.
the crime of murder and the punishment of execution. IV 766b
katm (A) : a black dye which masks the red of the henna. IX 383b
katma (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a device that brought water added to the main water
conduits of the state wakfs to the city at certain specified points. The sultan gave his
formal permission for this ~ water upon application and recognised ownership rights
over this water. V 882b
katra : in Muslim India, a term for a market, usually known after the commodity sold
there. IX 800b
katran (A), or kitran, katiran : tar obtained by dry distillation of organic substances; the
residuum left after the distillation of tar, i.e. liquid pitch; cedar-oil extracted from
cedarwood. The substance is obtained from several kinds of coniferous trees, especially
the Cedrus Libani, and was used as a medicine. IV 772b
katriya (Tun) : a lieutenant in the army in the Regency of Tunis. IX 657a
katt (A), and kadb, barsim : in botany, alfalfa, a common crop raised in the shade of
date palms in the Gulf. I 540a
katta'a -> djarf
kattab (A) : in the mediaeval period, a seller of saddles stuffed with straw. XII 759a
kattan (A) : both flax and linen, in the early period usually called kubati 'Coptic [stuff]'
since they were imported from Egypt. White and coloured linen, kasab and sharb, and
brocaded linen, dikk, were produced and exported to Muslim and non-Muslim countries
until the industry began to decline in the first half of the 7th/13th century, probably the
consequence of the increasing import of European fabrics. IV 774a; V 863a
katum (A), and faridj, furdj : in archery, a bow made from a single stave, hence it does
not vibrate when loosed. IV 798a
katun : in Ottoman Greece, a semi-permanent settlement of Albanian or Vlach cattle
breeders. VIII 169b
katwa -> NATTALA
kavuk (T) : a rather high, variously-shaped cap, with a headband wound round it, worn
by officers of the Janissaries; other professions had their own special ~, some with
specific names. IV 806a ff.; the ~, whose height varied, normally had the form of
a contracted or enlarged cylinder, flat or bulging; but there were also those which
320 KAVUK — KAWKAN
resembled a truncated cone or a cupola. The highest kavuks (40 to 60 cm) were kept
rigid by means of a construction of metal bars or a kind of basket. They had a smooth
or quilted surface and were trimmed with cotton to give the effect of relief or a dome
shape with the quilting. V 751a
kawabi -> djudham
kawad -*• kisas
kawa'id (A, s. ka'ida) : rules. X 929a; in law, kawa'id fikhiyya are the madhhab-inter-
nal legal principles, legal maxims, general legal rules that are applicable to a number
of particular cases in various fields of the law, whereby the legal determination
(ahkam) of these cases can be derived from these principles. XII 517a
♦ kawa'id aghlabiyya (A), also ~ akthariyya : in law, 'preponderant' rules, which
outnumber the generally valid rules (kawa'id kulliyya), and are couched not in maxims
but in questions, e.g. "Can a presumption be canceled by another presumption or not?"
XII 517a
♦ kawa'id istikra'iyya (A) : in law, legal principles that were arrived at by induc-
tion ixomfuru' (-> far') decisions. XII 517b
♦ al-kawa'id al-khams (A), also al-kawd'id al-kubra : in law, five principles that
were accepted by all schools, attested since the 8th/14th century. XII 517b, where they
can be found
♦ al-kawa'id al-kubra ->■ al-kawa'id al-khams
♦ kawa'id kulliyya ->■ kawa'id aghlabiyya
♦ kawa'id usuliyya (A) : in law, hermeneutic principles formulated by the legal the-
orists, which at times were not carefully separated from the kawa'id fikhiyya, XII
517b
kawamikh -> kamakh
kawarir -> zudjadj
kawazib -*• barma'iyyun
kawda ->■ wada'
kawl (A) : a description of a man who is strong in himself, with mukwi used when he
owns a robust mount. V 576a
kawkab (A, pi. kawdkib) : in astronomy, star; according to context, ~ can mean 'planet'
specifically. VIII 97b; and ->■ murahik
♦ kawkab al-dhanab (A), or (kawkab) dhu dhanab : in astronomy, 'star with a tail',
a comet. VIII 102b
♦ (al-kawakib) al-mutahayyira (A) : in the 'scientific' period of Arabic-Islamic
astronomy which was based on translations from Greek, the common term in astron-
omy for the five planets (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) without the Sun
and Moon. VIII 101a; XI 555a
♦ (al-kawakib) al-sayyara (A) : in the 'scientific' period of Arabic-Islamic astron-
omy which was based on translations from Greek, the common term in astronomy for
the five planets plus the Sun and Moon. VIII 101a; XI 555a
♦ al-kawakib al-sufliyya (A) : in astronomy, the lower planets (below the Sun),
Moon, Mercury and Venus. VIII 101b
♦ al-kawakib al-thabita (A) : in astronomy, the fixed stars, known as simply al-thawabit.
VIII 98a
♦ al-kawakib al-'ulwiyya (A) : in astronomy, the upper planets (beyond the Sun),
Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. VIII 101b
♦ kawkaba (A, pi. kawkabdt), or sura, pi. suwar : in astronomy, constellation. VIII
98b
kawkal -»• wakwak
kawkan (A) : in Hispano-Arabic, the usual term for snail. VIII 707a
KAWLI — KAWS 321
kawli (P) : in modern times, the general term for the gipsy in Iran, but a wide variety
of names are used locally. V 818b
kawl (A) : in music, a vocal form, at present in India a form of religious song. HI 453a
Among the Yazldis, a sacred hymn, which together form a large corpus of texts rep-
resenting the Yazidi counterpart to both the sacred and the learned traditions of other
cultures. XI 314b
♦ kawli (T, < A) : the 'word-member', one of two classes of the ordinary members
of the akhI organization, yjgit, who made a general profession only, as opposed to the
active 'sword-member', sayfi. I 323a
kawm (A, pi. akwdm, akawim, akayim) : people; in literature sometimes applied to
'men', used in opposition to nisd' 'women'. IV 780b; a term of tribal provenance used
to denote a group of people having or claiming a common ancestor, or a tribe
descended from a single ancestor. IV 781a; VIII 234a
In Atjeh, ~ has acquired a peculiar form, kawom, and is used to mean 'all those who
descend from one man in the male line'. IV 781a
In North Africa, the ~ (goum) means a contingent of cavalry levied from a tribe, a
practice continued by the French. IV 784b
Under the Circassian rule in the Mamluk period, al-kawm, meaning the People, was
applied only to the Circassians. II 24b
In India, a term for the social division among the non-Muslim population, denoting dif-
ferent groups such as the Bhatti, Tarkhan, Pindjara; it is debatable whether these should
be called castes or not. Ill 411a
♦ kawmiyya (A) : nationalism. IV 781a
♦ kawmiyyat (A) : ethnic groups, the study of whihc is differentiated from folklore,
khalkiyyat, or studies at the popular level. X 734b
kawma -► kuma
kawmani (A) : in tribal organisation, a member of an enemy faction. IV 835a
kawn (A, pi. akwari) : in philosophy, generation, especially in the phrase kawn wa-
fasad, generation and corruption, which renders Aristotle's De generatione et corrup-
tione. IV 794b
In scholastic theology, ~ is the advent in nature of the existent thing, the existentiali-
sation of all corporal beings. IV 795a
As tribal term, -► haraba
kawom -*■ kawm
kaws (A) : in meteorology, the south-west monsoon. VII 52a; the west wind (or dabiif),
which, with the east wind (kabul, also called azyab), was the most important of the
prevailing winds of the three periods in which navigation was possible during the mon-
soons. VIII 527a
kaws (A) : the bow, as used in archery. IV 795b, where are found many terms for the
names of various kinds of bows and for the components of the bow
In music, the bow of a stringed instrument. VIII 346a
In astronomy, al— is the term used for the bow of Sagittarius (cross-bow), one of the
twelve zodiacal constellations. VII 83b; VIII 842a
♦ kaws al-bunduk (A) : 'pellet- or stone-bow', the archetype of the arbalest used
solely for shooting birds and already known in the Prophet's time. The projectile used
was a ball of hardened clay (djuldhik or bunduk). IV 797b; in Mamluk terminology,
one of the branches of horse-riding. II 955a
♦ kaws hidjazi (A) : a simple, wooden bow, either short or long, used by the pre-
Islamic Arabs. IV 797b
♦ kaws al-husban (A) : a hand bow adapted to shoot short arrows; it had therefore
an arrow guide but no nut or locking mechanism. IV 798a
322 KAWS — KAYL
♦ kaws kuzah (A) : in meteorology, the rainbow (syn. kaws Allah, kaws rasitl
Allah, kaws al-samd', kaws al-ghamdm, etc.). IV 803a f.
♦ kaws al-rikab ->■ kaws al-ridjl
♦ kaws al-ridjl (wa '1-rikab) (A) : the most common name in the Mamluk period
for the cross-bow type of weapon; it seems to have been given to cross-bows of vari-
ous sizes, including those employed in sieges. The kaws al-rikab had a stirrup in which
the foot was placed. Ill 476a; IV 798a
♦ kaws wasitiyya (A) : the Arab composite bow; the adjective does not stem from
Wasit but from its proper sense of median, intermediate, probably with reference to the
components of this bow. IV 797b
♦ kaws al-ziyar (A) : the 'wheel cross-bow', which was operated like the ordinary
cross-bow to shoot a powerful arrow, but requiring several men to operate it. Ill 469b;
IV 798a
kawsadj -»■ kalb al-bahr
kawt -»■ kin a
kawthar (A) : a Qur'anic word for the name of a river in Paradise or a pond which was
shown to the Prophet at the time of his ascension to the Throne of God. IV 805b
kawuklu (T) : lit. the man with the kavuk; a character of the Turkish orta oyunu
theatre. IV 806a
kawwakh (A) : in hunting, a stalker at a hut for the capture of sandgrouse. IV 745a
kawwal -»■ zadjdjal
♦ kawwali : a type of (sung) poetry known on the subcontinent. X 320a; mystical
chants. XI 119a
kawwas (A), or occasionally kawwds : bow-maker. IV 796b; a bowman, later, muske-
teer, 'policeman-soldier', especially the one in the service of high-placed Turkish
officials and foreign ambassadors. From this term is derived the French cawas and the
German Kawasse. IV 808b
In colloquial usage, both in Turkey and in other Islamic states, ~ denotes the servants
and guards of foreign embassies. IV 808b
kayd (A) : in astronomy, al-~ is the name of a fictitious star, whose earliest mention so
far known is in Ibn Hibinta's al-Mughnl where it is listed as 'one of the stars with a
tail'. IV 809b
kayd (A) : in astrology, 'the clutch [of the ostriches]', the numerous small stars sur-
rounding the star group udhi al-na'dm 'the nesting place of the ostriches'. VII 830b
kayf (A) : state; discretion.
♦ bi-la kayf (A) : in theological writings, when referring to sifdt khabariyya, attrib-
utes of God based on the evidence of Qur'an and Tradition which should be under-
stood ~, ~ was taken to mean 'without further comment' by the Hanbalis and other
Tradition proponents close to them. Theologians, however, used ~ in the sense of
'without qualifying God in a way only to be applied to His creation', presenting it as
a middle course between a literal acceptance of the anthropological statements in
Scripture (tashbih) and the metaphorical interpretation in the Mu'tazili sense (ta'til).
X 344a
♦ kayfiyya -»■ hakIka
kayfufiyya (A) : philosophical-theological term used by the Karramiyya for 'the quality
of God'. Another one of their terms, called by al-Baghdadi 'ibdrdt sakhlfa 'ridiculous
expression', was haythutMyya 'the ubiquitousness of God'. IV 668b
kaykab (A) : a wooden saddle-bow, on which the horse's saddle was built. IV 1145a
kayl (A) : among the Sabaeans, in the pre-Islamic period, the leader of the sha'b, the
grouping in their social organisation constituted of a number of clans; the ~ came from
the dominant clan, but was himself subordinate to the king. IV 818b; a kinglet. IX
162b
KAYN — KAZAK 323
kayn (A) : an artisan, workman; current usage reserves it above all for blacksmith.
Since the men working at this trade usually belonged to the lowest stratum of the pop-
ulation, ~ became a deprecatory term applied to slaves and was used as an insult in
the desert. IV 819a
♦ kavna (A, pi. kayndt, kiydn) : female singing slave. I 32b; IV 820b; other terms
for the professional singing girl were dddjina, muddjina, musmi'a, karina, saduh (and
sddiha), and djardda. II 1073a; IV 820b
kaysar (A, < Gk) : the usual name in early Islam for the Roman and Byzantine
emperor. It is always used without the article, like a proper name. IV 839a
kaysariyya (A, < Gk; pi. kaydsir), also kaysdriyya : the name of a large system of pub-
lic buildings laid out in the form of cloisters with shops, workshops, warehouses and
frequently also living-rooms, originally distinguished from the suk 'market' probably
only by its greater extent, and by having several covered galleries around an open
court, while the suk consists only of a single gallery. At the present day, ~ is not infre-
quently quite or almost identical in meaning with the Persian word kdrwdnsardy. IV
840a; IX 796b; in mediaeval Islam, an imperial establishment for the protection of
stages on major commercial routes. IX 788b
In Algiers at the present day, ~ means barracks; after the first half of the 17th century
it was used to denote the Janissaries' barracks. IV 841a
kaysum -> shIh
kaytun -> gItun
kayy (A) : in medicine, cauterization by fire with the object of surgical incision. II 481b
kayyan (A), or mukayyin : a profession in mediaeval Islam, consisting of acquiring
young slaves fit to become kiydn 'female singing slaves', in forming them under strict
rules and in hiring out their services to private persons. IV 822b
For ~ in botany, -> yasamIn
kayyas -> mukayyis
kayyim (A, pi. kawama) : lit. he who stands upright; with bi, 'aid, li or the genitive
alone, 'he who takes something upon himself, takes care of something or someone and
hence also has authority over them'. This meaning of supervisor is found in all possi-
ble applications: administrator of a pious foundation, of baths, superintendent of a tem-
ple, caretaker of a saint's grave, etc. IV 847b; VI 677b; XI 63a; lessee of the steam
bath. Ill 140b
In eschatological literature, ~ denotes a provider, a husband, of a woman. IV 847b
As adjective, 'commanding' or 'correct, right' (al-dln al-kayyim). IV 847b
kayyum (A) : the title of the topmost saint, in the thought of Ahmad al-Sirhindl, of an
invisible hierarchy of saints. V 545b; XI 118b
kaza' -> kada 1
kazaghand (A,P) : in miitary science, a protective mail hauberk which had its own
padded lining and a decorative outer layer of cloth. XII 737b
kazak (T) : independent; vagabond. IV 848a
Under the Timurids, ~ signified the pretenders in contrast to the actual rulers, and also
their supporters, who led the life of an adventurer or a robber at the head of their men.
At the same time, ~ began also to be applied to nomad groups which separated from
their prince and kinsmen and so came into conflict with the state; later, ~ had also the
meaning of nomad, in contrast to the sedentary Sart population in Central Asia. IV
848b
The status of ~ is also regarded as a very old social institution of the nomad Turkic
peoples. The word became the name of a political unit and later an ethnic designation
by having been applied in the former meanings to those groups of the Ozbek tribal
confederacy that had abandoned the khan Abu '1-Khayr and migrated to the north-east
324 KAZAK KHABAB
steppes of Turkistan, where they formed the core of the population of the present Kazakhstan.
IV 848b
kazanlik (T) : a cauldron, as e.g. found in the mausoleum of Ahmad Yasawi, used for
preparing food for pilgrims and sufis. X 681a
kazmak -» kazu
kazu : the dredging of a canal, apparently from kazmak 'to dig'. XII 550a
kazz -»• HARIR
kebli -»• samum
kehledan (T) : in Ottoman times, the worker in the mint who made the ingots into plates
to be minted. II 119a
kelek (T, A, < Akk kalakku), or kellek, kelik : a curious raft made of bags of goat's
hair, which is already known from the sculptures of Nineveh and has hardly changed
in the course of centuries. Particularly mentioned by travellers in Mesopotamia and
Persia, ~ is said to be typical for the upper part of the Tigris. IV 870a; VIII 810b
kelle push : a small white or red cloth cap, around which the turban can be twisted. X
612b
keman (T), or yay : a bow-like instrument used by Ottoman carders to separate the cot-
ton fibre from the seed by beating with it, in order to make the cotton clean and fluffy.
V 559a
keniz (P) : a female slave. I 24b
keris (Mai) : in the East Indies, a double-edged dagger or short sword, retained from
pre-Islamic times and having an almost magical and pagan significance amongst a pop-
ulation sometimes only superficially converted to Islam. XII 736b
kervan-bash! -»■ karwan
keshif (T) : in Ottoman administration, a detailed protocol compiled after damages to
WAKF-owned buildings, e.g. a bedestan, due to fire, determining the expenses involved
in reparation. IX 542b
keshwar -»• iklim
kaskas (N.Afr) : a conical vessel made of earthenware or plaited alfalfa, used in North
Africa for the preparation of couscous. V 528a
kaswa kbira (Mor) : an elegant wedding and festivity dress of Jewish women consisting
of several parts, derived from the 15th-century Spanish dress style. V 746a
ketkhuda (P, > T k y ahya), or katkhuda : master of the house, head of the family; hus-
band, chief of a tribe, headman of a village; tithe-officer in a town. IV 8b; IV 893b;
steward. I 278a; and -> kalantar
In Ottoman administration, ~ designated someone who looked after the affairs of an
important government official or influential person, i.e. an authorised deputy official. IV
893b
In Ottoman and Persian guilds, the head of a guild, who dealt with the material and
administrative aspects of guild life. He was chosen by the guild nobles and his appoint-
ment was confirmed by the kadI. IV 894a; IX 645b
In North Africa, the form kdhiya was current in Tunisia until recent times to designate
the subordinates of the caids, governors at the head of particular administrative divi-
sions. In a more general way, kdhiya was in general use with the sense of 'assistant to
a high official, president or director'. In Algeria, the kahya was a bey's lieutenant, but
also a police superintendent and even a simple corporal in the army of amIr c Abd al-
Kadir. The use of the term for a subordinate endowed it with the pejorative meaning
of 'inferior quality'. IV 894b
kha° (A) : the seventh letter of the Arabic alphabet, transcribed kh, with the numerical
value 600. It is defined as a voiceless post-velar fricative. IV 894b
khabab -» harwala
KHABAL — KH W ADJA 325
khabal (A) : in medicine, possession, as in being possessed. XII 189b
khabar (A, pi. akhbdr, akhabir) : a report, piece of information, especially of a histor-
ical, biographical or even anecdotal nature. IV 895a; VI 350a; X 272b; from the
8th/14th century onwards, ~ is used interchangeably with hadIth and hikaya in the
sense of 'story'. Ill 369a; and -> sahib al- khabar; shi'r
In the science of Tradition, ~ refers both to Traditions that go back to Muhammad and
to Traditions that go back to the Companions or Successors. Ill 23b; IV 895a
In Arabic grammar, the constituent parts of the nominal phrase, e.g. zayd"" karlm"",
where zayd, the first term, is mubtada 3 , and karlm, the second one, is ~. IV 895b; pred-
icate. VIII 384a
♦ khabar al-wahid (A) : in the science of Tradition, a Tradition going back to a
single authority. Synonyms are khabar al-dhdd (-> ahad, and III 25b), khabar al-
infirad and khabar al-khdssa. IV 896a
khabbaz (A) : a baker. V 41b; XII 756b
khabl (A) : in prosody, a type of double deviation (zihaf), whereby there are two cases
per foot, combining khabn and tayy. XI 508b
khabn (A) : in prosody, a deviation in the metre because of the loss of the second con-
sonant of a foot, e.g. the sin in mu[s]tafilun. I 672a; XI 508b
khabra' (A, pi. khabdri) : in geography, a silt flat, as is common in the Syrian desert,
which comprises part of Syria, Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia and is mostly com-
posed of highly dissected terrain. The rainfall, which usually occurs in the form of sud-
den cloudbursts, picks up a large amount of material from the erosion remnants and
carries it inland downstream at high velocities. When such a stream reaches a gently
sloping and wide open area, the ensuing loss in the velocity of the water stream causes
the silts to be deposited. A ~ is the resulting silt flat. II 248b; IV 897b
In Arabia, a hollow with an impervious bottom holding water for a while after rain. I
538a; a small pond formed by rain. V 40a
khabut (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a horse that stamps its fore-feet. II 953b
khadam (A, pi. khuddam) : collective noun for 'free servants'; further used, often linked
in paronomasia with hasham, to denote the partisans and entourage of a great man,
above all, of a military leader or ruler. IV 899a,b
khadang : a wood, probably birch, native to Cac (now Tashkent) in Central Asia. X
348b
khadd al-'adhra' (A) : lit. virgin's cheek; the name for the anemone in mediaeval 'Irak.
IX 248b
khaddar -> bakkal
khadim (A, pi. khuddam) : a (free) servant, domestic; eunuch. I 33a; IV 899a; IV
1087a; a female slave. I 24b
In North Africa, ~ has acquired the specialised meaning of negress, while khdim is
used for a domestic servant. I 24b; IV 899a
♦ khadim al-haramayn (A) : lit. servant of the two holy places (that is, Mecca and
Medina), a title used by a number of Mamluk and Ottoman sultans. IV 899b
khadir, banu (A, s. khadiri) : a generic term in Nadjd for Arabs of dubious ancestry,
i.e. not recognised as descendants of either 'Adnan or Kahtan, not to be taken as the
name of a tribe. IV 905b
khadira (A) : in botany, a productive palm tree which has lost its dates when they were
still green. VII 923b
klTadja (P, pi. kh"dajagdn) : a title used in many different senses in Islamic lands. In
earlier times it was variously used of scholars, teachers, merchants, ministers and
eunuchs. In mediaeval Egypt it was a title for important Persian and other foreign mer-
chants. In Samanid times, with the epithet buzurg 'great', it designated the head of the
administration; later, ~ was a title frequently accorded to viziers, teachers, writers, rich
men, and merchants. In the Ottoman empire it was used of the ulema, and in the plural
form kh"dajegdn designated certain classes of civilian officials (-> kh w adjegan-i
dIwan-i humayun). In modern Turkey, pronounced hodja (modern orthography hoed)
it designates the professional men of religion, but is used as a form of address for
teachers in general. In Egypt and the Levant (pronounced khawdga or khawddja), it
was used for merchants, then more particularly for non-Muslim merchants, and then as
a more or less polite form of address for non-Muslims in general. IV 907a; IV 1092b
In India, ~ designates those Isma'ilis who follow the Agha Khan. IV 907a; as khodja.
the name of an Indian caste consisting mostly of Nizari Isma'ilis and some sunnls and
Twelver shi'is split off from the Isma'ili community; in a looser sense, khodja refers to
the Indian Nizarls in general. V 25b
♦ kh w adja-i djahan : a title of high dignitaries in various sultanates of India,
notably the sultanate of Dihli, the Bahmanids, and the sultanate of Madura. IV 907b
♦ kh w adjas, or khddjas : the designation of two lineages of spiritual and political
leaders in Eastern Turkistan, where they played a decisive role from the late 10th/16th
century to the last quarter of the 19th century. XII 522b
♦ kh w adjegan-i diwan-i humayun (Ott) : under the Ottomans, a title given to the
heads of the imperial chancery. From the mid-1 lth/17th century, ~ was also given to
various officials additional to the chief clerks of the diwan, whereby a century later,
the numbers of people holding this rank grew to several times more than the holders
of the actual office. IV 908b
khafara (A) : 'protection', used, often together with himaya, to designate certain social
practices. Orginally, it primarily denoted the protection which Arab tribes extended to
merchants, travellers and pilgrims crossing their territories, often in return for payment
or as part of an agreement. Later, the word's usage became extended to the 'protec-
tion' in return for an obligatory payment exacted by various social groups from other
groups or from richer individuals. IV 913a; and -> khuwwa
khafd (A), or khifdd : female excision, corresponding to ktatn or khitan, the circumci-
sion of boys. Under Islam, ~ has never been regarded as obligatory, but has been con-
sidered as recommended. IV 913a; VIII 824b
For ~ in grammar, -> djarr
khafif (A) : in prosody, the name of the eleventh Arabic metre. I 670a; and -► ka'Id
khafiyye (T, < A) : lit. secret (police); under the Ottoman sultan 'Abd al-Hamld II, ~
came to mean a network of espionage and informing, and included the whole range of
informers and spies from the highest social levels to the lowest. I 64a
khaftan (P), or kaftan, kuftdn : an ample, full-length robe with sleeves that buttons down
the front. This originally Persian garment became extremely popular throughout the
Arab world. V 737b
khak (P) : earth; an inconspicuous grave with no solid shelter attached to it, ~ is known
only from literary sources and plays no role in epigraphy or funerary architecture sim-
ilar to that of turba, of which it is a translation. X 674a
In Safawid administration, ~ db is the first water given to wheat, dun db the water
given to wheat when it was nearly ripe, both requiring dues to be paid by the district
to the mIrab. V 874a
♦ khak-sar (IndP) : 'humble as dust', the name of a 20th century Indian movement
for national regeneration. IV 916b
khakan (T, < Mon kaghan or khaghan) : (supreme) ruler; ~ was applied by the Turks
and the mediaeval Muslim geographers and historians to the heads of the various
Turkish confederations, but also to other non-Muslim rulers such as the Emperor of
China. IV 915a; VIII 621b; in the form ka'an it was borne by the successors of Cingiz-
Khan, the Mongol Great Khans in Karakorum and Peking. IV 915a
KHAKAN — KHALUK 327
♦ khakanl (A) : a beggar in the time of al-Djahiz, who painted over his face in
order to make it swell up; possibly a male prostitute. VII 494b
khal (A, pi. akhwat) : maternal uncle, whether a full, consanguineous or uterine one.
The paternal uncle is 'amm (pi. a' mam). IV 916a; and -> shama
khal c (A) : in political science, deposition, forced abdication; in modern Arabic khala'a
min al-'arsh or rafa'a min al-mansab is used. XII 524b
In early Islam, exclusion of a tribe-member from his tribe by his kinsmen. IX 864b; X
3a; and -> khalI'
In medicine, luxation. II 481b
khalaf -* al-salaf wa 'l-khalaf
khalandj (A) : in botany, the high-growing poplar, greatly prized for bows. IV 1085b
khali (A) : 'empty'; in the Ottoman empire, a term for uncultivated land. X 503b; and
-> kali
khali' (A, pi. khula'd') : in early Islam, one who has been disowned by his kinsmen for
fear of accepting the consequences of his crimes, acquiring soon the meaning of shatir
'a rebel who makes a conscious decision to practise evil'. IX 864a
al-khalidat (A) : the 'Fortunate Isles', the Canaries. VII 962a
khalidj (A) : a canal from a river. V 533b; IX 659a; and -* dhira'
khalifa (A, pi. khulafd', khald'if) : caliph. As a title, after the first four caliphs (al-
khulafa' al-rashidun), Abu Bakr, 'Umar, 'Uthman and c Ali, ~ passed to the Umay-
yads, then to the 'Abbasids. But it was also assumed by the Spanish Umayyad c Abd
al-Rahman III and his successors as well as by shi'i Fatimids, the Hafsids and the
Marinids. ~ was never officially transferred to the Ottoman sultans. IV 937a; ~ was
also used as a title during the Sudanese Mahdist period (1881-1898). IV 952b
In political theory, ~ is the title of the leader of the Muslim community. The full title
is khalifat rasul Allah 'successor of the messenger of God'. IV 947b
In mysticism, ~ may have any of the following meanings, all carrying the idea of vic-
arship: the kutb or perfect man, al-insan al-kdmil, around whom the spheres of being
evolve, upon whom the Muhammadan Reality, which is the hidden side of his own
reality, irradiates; the successor of the (alleged) founder of an order or of the deceased
leader of a group of mystics; a murId who, after having reached a certain stage of
mystical perfection, is granted permission by his spiritual master to initiate novices and
to guide them on the mystical path; the deputy of the head of an order in a particular
area; the pre-eminent representative and principal propagator of an order in a particu-
lar area acting independently. IV 950a; X 246a
Among the Bektashiyya, ~ refers to a rank of spiritual achievement which could be
attained only by those who had been ordained as bdbd, head of a tekke. IV 951b
Among the Sanusiyya, ~ may denote the representative of the head of the order who
has been sent on a mission to a zawiya. IV 952a
Among the Nizari Isma'ilis, a plenipotentiary of the long-hidden imam. I 353b
♦ khalifat al-balad (A) : in the Khatmiyya order, the term for the local khalIfa
(syn. khalifat al-ndhiya). X 249b
♦ al-khulafa' al-rashidun > khalIfa
khalili (A) : name of highly esteemed grapes in the region of Samarkand. IX 1 10b
khalis -> TARRAR
khalis -> ibriz
♦ khalisa (P, < A; pi. khdllsaajdt) : in Persia, crown lands, and lesser rivers,
kanats and wells belonging to the crown. IV 972b
Under the Dihli sultanate, ~ land was an area under direct revenue administration from
which the troops could be paid in cash. II 272b
khaliyya (A) : the hive of bees. VII 906b, where variants are found
khaluk (A) : a perfume that is said to have left yellow stains. X 900b
328 KHALK — KHAN
khalk (A) : creation, the act of creating (syn. bariyya); Creation. IV 980a; and -* ibda c
♦ khalkdjilik (T) : democracy. VIII 219a
♦ khalk al-insan (A) : human anatomy. IX 394b
♦ khalkiyyat -+ kawmiyyat
khalwa (A) : privacy, seclusion.
In mysticism, ~ means 'retirement, seclusion, retreat', and, more specifically, 'isolation
in a solitary place or cell', involving spiritual exercises. IV 990a; IX 300a; X 245a;
XII 522a
In law, the theory of ~ is that consummation between husband and wife is presumed
to have occurred if they have been alone together in a place where it would have been
possible for them to have had sexual intercourse. Ill 1011a
In North Africa, ~ is used for a heap of stones where women, for purposes of a mys-
tical nature, attach rags to reeds planted between the stones and where they burn ben-
zoin and styrax in potsherds. IV 381b; V 1201b
In Chad and the Nilotic Sudan, a Qur'anic school. XI 124b
khalwatiyya (A) : a variety of 'aba 5 made in Hasbaya. V 741a
khamil (A) : a silken robe with fringes, said to be part of Fatima's trousseau, along with
a water-skin, kirba, and a cushion filled with rushes, idhkhir. X 900a
khamir (A) : a leavened bread, an elided expression for khubz khamlr, as is the term for
an unleavened bread, fatlr, for khubz fatlr. V 41b
♦ khamira (A) : yeast. Ill 1087b
khamis (A) : Thursday. IV 994a; IV 1009a
In military science, the five elements into which the army is divided: the centre, right
wing, left wing, vanguard, and rear guard. Ill 182a; IV 1144b; and -+ khamsa wa-
khamis
khamisa (A) : a black garment with edging. IX 313a
khammar -»• tidjara
khamr (A, < Ar) : wine. IV 994b
♦ khamriyya (A) : in prosody, a Bacchic or wine poem. This name does not seem
to be attested in the mediaeval nomenclature of the genres. The usual expressions al-
kawl fi 'l-khamr, lahu ma'dni fi 'l-khamr, wassdf li 'l-khamr, indicate the existence of
themes, but do not include any willingness to organise them into an independent poem.
IV 998a
khamsa (A) : five; also, a piece of jewellery called 'the hand of Fatma' which is used
as an amulet. I 786a; IV 1009a; XII 775b
In Persian and Turkish literature, a set of five maihnawi poems, e.g. the five epic
poems of Nizami of Gandja. Occasionally the term sitta, a set of six poems, is used
for collections of the mathnawi poems of 'Attar and Sana'i. IV 1009b
♦ khamsa wa-khamis (A) : a formula said against the evil eye. IV 1009a
khamsih -> 'amar al-dam
khan (T, P) : in Turkish, a title first used by the T'u-chiieh apparently as a synonym of
kagban, the later khakan, with which its relationship is obscure; ~ was afterwards nor-
mally applied to subordinate rulers. The term was applied to various ranks throughout
Islamic history, surviving into modern times in much the sense of the English 'esquire'.
IV 1010b; and -+ sultan
In military science, a commander of ten thousand soldiers. IV 1019b
In India today, a common affix to the names of Muslims of all classes and is often
regarded as a surname. IV 1010b
Of Persian origin, ~ designates both a staging-post and lodging on the main communi-
cation routes, and a warehouse, later a hostelry in the more important urban centres.
IV 228a; IV 1010b; sometimes the urban ~ would be not a structure, but a group of
KHAN KHARADJ 329
several specialised markets, like the Khan al-Khalili in Cairo, a collection of shops
enclosed by two large gateways. IV 1015b
♦ khan khanan (IndP) : a high military title in mediaeval Indo-Muslim usage, the
highest title conferred on an officer of the state. IV 1019b; V 629b
♦ khanazad : under the Mughals, a noble belonging to families previously con-
nected with imperial service. VII 322a
♦ khanedan -> derebey
♦ khankah (A, < P khdnagah; pi. khawdnik, khdnkdhdt) : a building usually
reserved for Muslim mystics belonging to a dervish order. The terms ribat, tekke and
zawiya refer to establishments with similar aims. The usual translation of 'monastery'
does not convey the complexity of the institution. IV 433a; IV 1025a; VIII 494a; X
415b
khana (P) : in literature, each single kasIda part of a tardjI'-band or tarkIb-band. X
235b
khanazir -> khinzIr
khandak (A, < P) : ditch, trench, moat. Its most famous use is in the 'expedition of the
~ ', in which Muhammad foiled a Meccan attempt to storm Medina in 5/627. IV
1020b; another expedition involving a ~ was in 327/939 in Muslim Spain before
Simancas at the river of Alhandega (< al-khandak). IX 304a
khandjal -> zalzum
khandjar (A) : in military science, a heavy dagger or short stabbing sword, which
appears to have been of eastern Iranian or Turkish origin. XII 736b
khanik (A) : choking.
♦ khanik al-dhi'b -> akunItun
♦ khanik al-fuhud (A) : in botany, a variety of aconite (Doronicum pardalianches),
also called khanik al-namir (->■ akunItun); by metonymy, ~ has been extended to
mean the effects of poisoning induced by this plant. II 740b
♦ khanik al-nimr -> akunItun
khannak (A) : in mediaeval Islam, a category of thieves, the strangler or assassin, who
may have worked by suffocating his victim but may also have been a disembowler,
bd'idj, or one who pounded his victim's head with a stone, rddikh. V 769a
khansa' (A) : 'with a flat muzzle', in poetry, a description used for the oryx and addax
antelope. V 1227b
kh w ansalar (P) : the overseer of the food at the court of the Muslim sovereigns. II 15a;
VIII 954a; steward. VIII 924b
khanzuwan (A) : in zoology, the male pig, boar; the wild boar, whether under three
years old, a three-year old, a four-year old or an old boar is called ran (pi. rutut), and
'ufrl'ifr (pi. 'ifdr, a'fdr). V8a
khar clni -> talikun
khar pusht -> kunfuqh
khara (A) : human excrement, used as fuel in the public baths of San'a'. IX 2b
kharadj (A), and khasaf, naslf : a term in the vocabulary of colour meaning a mixture,
a combination of two colours sometimes regarded as opposites. V 699b
kharadj (A, < Gk) : tax, more specifically, land tax. IV 1030b; in mediaeval Persian
usage and in the Ottoman empire, ~ also meant a tribute, taken from e.g. the peace
agreements made after the victories of the Ottomans in the West. IV 1034a; IV 1055a
In Ottoman usage, ~ denoted both the land tax and the poll-tax on the state's non-
Muslim subjects. IV 1053b
In the Muslim West, ~ was the tax imposed upon prostitutes, who were called
kharddjiyydt or kharddjayrdt. XII 134a; and -> dar
For ~ in India, ->■ muwazzaf
330 KHARAZ — KHARTAWl
kharaz (A) : in Mecca, the local name for the system of man-made underground chan-
nels bringing sweet water to houses. VI 179a; and -»■ wada'
kharbag -»■ kharbga
kharbak (A) : in botany, the hellebore. IX 434b; IX 872b
kharbasha (A) : to botch something, do untidy work. XI 546a
kharbga (N.Afr) : in North Africa, a type of the game of draughts, played on a square
board made up of holes marked out in the ground or in rock and having 49 compo-
nent squares or 'houses'. According to the number of holes along each side, the game
is called either khamiisiyya (5 holes) or sabu'iyya (7 holes). A player is known as
kharbag or kharbagl. A different game called ~ uses a rectangle on which diagonals
are traced. IV 1071b
khardal (A) : a mustard sauce, containing saffron and other dried spice s. When mixed
with brown vinegar, it was used to prevent the 'transformation' of fish. XI 381b
khardj : an age group. X 7b
khardja (A) : in prosody, the last line of a stanza; as used by Safi al-Din al-Hilll, all
the lines with common rhyme. XI 373b
khardjllk (T) : in the Ottoman period, a sum (usually 50 akce per person) collected
annually by the eshkindji 'auxiliary soldier', from an assistant, yamak, to join the sul-
tan's army on an expedition. II 714b
kharfush -»■ harfOsh
khargah : a trellis tent, serving as a private chamber for the Mongol ruler. IX 45b
kharib (A, pi. khurrab) : a camel thief. V 768b; IX 864b
kharidj (A) : in mathematics, a quotient. IV 725b; and -»■ dakhil
♦ kharidji (A) : the epithet for a member of the sectarian group Kharidjites but,
equally, a rebel in general, without any religious connotation. XII 598b
kharidj (A) : in early Islam, a guessing game. V 616b
kharif (A) : in India, the harvest collected after the end of the rains. II 909a; autumn
crop. V 579b
kharir -» khurur
kharita (A, < Fr), or kharita : in modern Arabic, a map, for which several terms were
used in mediaeval Arabic, e.g. djughrafiyd, surat al-ard, rasm al-ard, etc. IV 1077b
khark (A, pi. khuruk) : in mineralogy, cavity, either filled with water, air, mud, raym, or
sometimes worms, a defect or impurity in a gem. XI 263a
In the vocabulary of Ottoman irrigation, a water-channel (syn. djadwal). V 878b
kharkhara -» khurur
kharm (A) : in prosody, the absence of the initial short syllable in the first line of a
poem. X 389b; XI 27b
kharraz (A) : a leather bag maker, whose profession in pre-modern times had a low
social status because working with leather was regarded as unclean. XII 463b
kharruba (Sic) : a small-sized stellate coin introduced in Sicily by the Fatimids, whose
weight was theoretically 0.195 gr but which in practice varied between 0.65 and 1.25
gr. IX 590a
khars (A) : assessment of taxes. X 307b
kharsini (A, < P khar clnl 'hard substance from China), also hadid sini : in metallurgy,
a hard, highly-esteemed alloy, the constituents of which have not been established with
certainty, but it is not zinc, as often assumed. According to the physcial qualities attrib-
uted to it, ~ best corresponds to hard lead, i.e. an alloy consisting of a mixture of lead,
antimony and small quantities of copper, iron and tin. IV 1084a
khartawi (T) : a high, pointed kavuk, worn with a turban rolled around, whose end was
often left free. It was worn in Turkey from the 17th century on. V 751b
kharuf -> sakhla
♦ kharuf al-bahr (A), or umm zubayba : the manatee, one of the sirenian mammals
or 'sea cows'. VIII 1022b
kharwar (P) : a donkey's load, a unit of weight which was widespread in the Persian
lands in all periods. The Buyid ruler c Adud al-Dawla fixed it at 96.35 kg, but in later
times a heavier ~ was introduced, weighing 288 kg; at present a ~ of 297 kg is wide-
spread, although others are used. VI 120b
khas -» YASHM
khasaf -> kharadj
khasf (A) : 'swallowing up', as e.g. in the apocalyptic prophecy figuring the Sufyani, an
opponent of the Mahdi, of what would happen to a Syrian army by the desert between
Mecca and Medina. XII 755a
khashab (A) : in botany, wood. IV 1085a; the word used by the 'Utub for their boats.
X956a
♦ khashaba (A, pi. khashabat; T lawh) : 'club', 'wooden beam'; a plate of wood
through which a knotted string was threaded, the only instrument for measurement used
in mediaeval Islamic navigation. The ~ was used for measuring the altitude of a star
above the horizon. It was held at fixed distances from the eye using the knots placed
on the string, and this enabled the height of the plate to measure different angular alti-
tudes. The ~ originally represented the hand of the navigator held at arm's length. VII
51a; and -> khashabiyya
In the plural, khashabat was the name given to wooden pillars which in mediaeval
times were driven into the seabed at the place where the Shatt al-'Arab empties into
the Gulf, to guide sailors in danger of being drawn into a dangerous whirlpool and also
on occasion to signal the approach of pirates. IV 1086a; and -> khishab
♦ khashabiyya (A, < khashab, s. khashaba 'club') : 'men armed with clubs', an
appellation for the mawall of Kufa who formed the main part of the followers of al-
Mukhtar and took the field under his generals. IV 1086a
khashash -> hasharat
khashkhash (A) : in botany, the oppyx, or poppy (Papaver somniferum). I 243a; IX
249a; IX 615a
khashm -> djabal
khashshab (A) : a wood-seller. XII 758b
khasi (A, pi. khisyan) : castrated man, the man or animal who has undergone the abla-
tion of the testicles; the complete eunuch, deprived of all his sexual organs, is a
maajbub (pi. madjabib). I 33a; IV 1087a
khasman (A, s. khasm, pi. khusum or khusamd') : in law, the (two) parties to a lawsuit,
whereby each party is the khasm of the other. II 171a
khasr -» al-na c l al-sharIf
khass (A) : in botany, lettuce, one of the summer crops in mediaeval Egypt. V 863a
khass (A, fem. khassa, pi. khawass) : 'personal, private, pertaining to the state or ruler',
a term used in Ottoman administration. At first used interchangeably, later, khassa
came to be used for the services and matters concerning the ruler and his palace,
while ~ was used rather for the private estates of the ruler. IV 972b; IV 1094a; and ->
MAMLAKA
In magic, khassa (pi. khawass), also khassiyya (pi. khassiyyat), in the meaning of 'sym-
pathetic quality', is a recurring theme, indicating the unaccountable, esoteric forces in
animate and inanimate Nature. It was believed that all objects were in relation to one
another through sympathy and antipathy and that diseases could be caused and cured,
good and ill fortune be brought about as a result of the relations of these tensions. IV
1097b
332 KHASS — KHATAM
Al-khdssa also denotes the elite, the notables, or the aristocracy, and is frequently men-
tioned in one breath with its counterpart al-'dmma, which signifies commonalty, the
plebs, or the masses. I 82b; I 491a; IV 1098a; IX 232a; in Isma'ili usage, the khdss
were the elite who knew the batin, and the 'dmm, the ignorant generality. I 1099a
Among the Yazidis, ~ is a holy figure (also mer; -» mIr). XI 314a
For ~ in numismatics, -> ibrIz
For ~ in Indian administration, -» dabir; khassa-niwIs
♦ khass al-khass (A) : 'specific difference' or 'the particular of the particular', a
term in logic for what constitutes the species. It is the simple universal attributed to
the species in reply to the question: what is it in its essence in relation to its genus. II
837a
♦ khassa -> khass
♦ khassa-niwis (IndP) : in the Dihli sultanate, the secretary attached to the court or
on court duty. IV 759a
♦ al-khassa wa 'l-'amma -> khass
♦ khassat al-shams (A) : in astronomy, the mean solar anomaly. IX 292a
♦ -khawass-i humayun (T) : in Ottoman administration, one of two types of khass-
tImar, viz. imperial revenues, belonging theoretically to the sultan but actually within
the public treasury. The other type, khawass-i wuzerd' and umera', was reserved for the
members of the government and provincial governors. X 503a
♦ khawass al-kur'an (A) : the art of drawing prognostications from verses of the
Qur'an to which beneficial effects are attributed. IV 1133b
♦ khawass-i wuzera' -»■ khawass-i humayun
♦ 'ilm al-khawass (A) : the knowledge of the natural properties of the letters, based
on alchemy. Ill 595b
khassadar : a tribal levy; in the 1920s paid by the government of India to replace the
Khyber Rifles, to ensure safety of the Khyber Pass. I 238b; and -> djaza'ilCI
khassaf (A) : a cobbler. XII 526b
khassakiyya (A) : under the Mamluks, the sultan's bodyguard and select retinue, con-
sidered to be the most prestigious body within the Mamluk military aristocracy. IV
1100a
khasseki (T, < P khdssagi, < A khass 'private, special, confidential') : a term applied to
persons in the personal service of Ottoman rulers, both in the palace from the 10th/16th
to the 13th/19th centuries, e.g. the sultan's concubines, whose number varied between
four and seven. The favourites were honoured by the title of kadin. Those who bore
him a child were called khasseki sultan; and in the military organisation, where the
14th, 49th, 66th, and 67th companies or ortas of the Janissary corps were called
khasseki or talari. IV 1100a; XI 130b
♦ khasseki sultan -> khassekI
khat' -> KHATA 5
khata' (A) : a mistake, which is made in thought, speech or action (ant. sawdb 'what is
correct'); hence in the field of knowledge, error; in that of action, omission, failure, all
this, of course, unintentional. IV 1100b
In logic, ~ denotes an error (ant. sawdb). IV 1101a
In law, ~ or khat' is an unintentional action, an act contrary to law, in which the inten-
tion of committing an illegal act is lacking, while the action itself may be deliberate
(ant. 'amd). IV 768b; IV 1101b
khatam (A, P muhr), or khdtim : a seal, signet, signet-ring; the impression (also khatrri)
as well as the actual seal-matrix. ~ is applied not only to seals proper, engraved in
incuse characters with retrograde inscriptions, but also to the very common seal-like
objects with regular inscriptions of a pious or auspicious character; indeed, anything
with an inscription stamped upon it may be called ~. II 306a; IV 1102b
KHATAM — KHATTARA 333
In Morocco, at the present time, ~ denotes also any kind of ring worn on the finger.
IV 1105b
♦ khatam al-wasiyyin (A) : a title among the Imamis referring to the Twelfth Imam,
but also found as an epithet of c Ali. XI 161b
khati'a (A, pi. khataya, khatVat) : in theology, a moral lapse, sin, syn. of dhanb. IV
1106b
khatib (A, pi. khutaba') : among the ancient Arabs, the name for the spokesman of the
tribe, often mentioned along with the sha'ir, the poet. The distinction between the two
is not absolutely definite, but essentially is that the shaHr uses the poetic form while
the ~ expresses himself in prose, often, however, also in saqj c 'rhymed prose'. IV
1 109b; designation for a tribal chief. IX 115b
In early Islam, with the advent of the khutba, the address from the minbar in the
mosque, the ~ was given a specifically religious character. IV 1110a; preacher of the
Friday sermon. VIII 955a
khatim ->■ djadwal; khatam
khatina (A) : a female circumciser, cutter of clitorises. Tradition attributes to the Prophet
the expression mukatti'at al-buzur (s. bazr) which has a pejorative sense, but ~ and its
syn. mubazzira do not seem to have a contemptuous connotation. IV 913a
khatm -*• akhtam; c ikbir; khatam
khatina (A, pi. ktitam), or khitma : the technical name for the recitation of the whole
of the Qur'an from the beginning to end. IV 1112b; X 74b
In classical Muslim administration, ~ is the statement of income and expenditure pre-
pared and presented monthly by the djahbadh to the dIwan. II 78b
♦ al-khatma al-djami'a (A) : in classical Muslim administration, the annual state-
ment. II 78b
khatt (A, pi. khutut) : writing, script. IV 1113a; the black or white lines on the hooves
of wild cattle or on the flanks and the backs of stags (syn. rami). IV 1128b; and -*
'IDHAR
In divination, ~ (or rami) is the line which the geomancer traces on the sand when he
is practising psammomancy. IV 1128b
♦ khatt al-idjaza -► rika c
♦ khatt al-istiwa' ->■ istiwa'
♦ khatt-i humayun (Ott), and khatt-i sherlf : in Ottoman administration, the decrees
and rescripts of the Ottoman sultans, and written by them personally. From the reign
of Murad III onwards, the decrease in the power of the Grand Viziers to act indepen-
dently in state affairs led to a system of obtaining a ~ for almost anything except triv-
ial matters. IV 1131a
♦ khatt-i mu'amma'i (P, T) : an artificial script used in both Persia and Turkey, ~
is the rearrangement of a hadith or some other important saying in a way which is
difficult to read. IV 1126b
♦ khatt-i shadjari (P, T) : 'tree-like writing', a name given by western scholars to
an artificial script, applied to thuluth and used both in Persia and Turkey for writ-
ing book titles, in which the letters bear a resemblance to the branches of a tree. IV
1126b
♦ khatt-i sherlf ->• khatt-i humayOn
♦ khatt-i sunbuli (T) : 'hyacinth script', a script invented by the Turkish calligra-
pher 'Arif Hikmet (d. 1337/1918), in which the letters resemble a hyacinth and are also
reminiscent of diwani letters. IV 1126b
♦ al-khatt bi-raml (A) : in divination, geomancy. IV 1128b
khattara (Mor, pop. khettara or rhettara) : a term used to designate the underground
draining system, existing especially in Marrakesh, with wells sunk to a depth of 40 m.
IV 532b
334 KHATTI — KHAYMA
khatti (A) : 'from al-Khatt' in Bahrayn or Hadjar, a description for a spear with a bam-
boo or strong reed shaft, often made by a certain expert named Samhar, whence the
appellation samhari. XII 735b
khatun (T) : a title of Soghdian origin borne by the wives and female relations of the
T'u-chiieh and subsequent Turkish rulers. It was employed by the Saldjuks and
Kh w arazm-Shahs and even by the various Cingizid dynasties. It was displaced in
Central Asia in the Timurid period by begum, which passed into India and is still used
in Pakistan as the title of a lady of rank (-► begam). IV 1133a; X 419a
khaul (J) : a celebration in Java, similar to the mawlid in the Middle East, held once
a year to honour the day a saint passed away or was born. XI 537a
khawa (A, < ikhdwa 'brotherliness') : a term formerly used on the Arabian peninsula
for payments made in return for the right to enter alien territory and for protection
while staying there. Similar payments made by pilgrim caravans on the way to the
Holy Cities were called surra. IV 1133a
khawarik al-'adat (A) : among the Sa'diyya Sufi order, deeds transcending the natural
order, such as healing, spectacles involving body piercing, darb al-sildh, and, best
known, the daws a. VIII 728b
khawass al-kur'an -+ KHassa
khawatim (A, s. khatimd) : in the science of diplomatic, the concluding protocal of doc-
uments, consisting of the istiihna', the ta'rifch (dating), and the 'aldma (signature). II
302a
khawf -> SALAT AL-KHAWF
khawkha (A) : private entrance to the mosque. IX 49b
khawr (A) : on the Arabian peninsula, a term for an inlet in the Arabian shores of the
Persian Gulf; a submarine valley. I 536a; XI 292b; also, a desert well with water too
salty for humans to drink from. I 538b
khawta' -+ khirnik
khayal (A) : figure. IV 602b; also tayf al-~ or ~ al-tayf, phantasm of the beloved, a
standard amatory topic of poetry. X 220a; X 400a
In Ibn al- c Arabi's thought, an important term used as a corrective to c akl. X 318b
In Indian music, the most important song form in the classical repertoire. It arose as a
reaction to the traditional rigid and austere composition dhrupad. Its content deals pri-
marily with religious and amorous themes, and consists of a relatively short set piece
employed as the basis for improvisation. Ill 453b; IV 1136a
♦ khayal al-zill (A) : 'the shadow fantasy', popular name for the shadow-play, pos-
sibly brought over from south-east Asia or India and performed in Muslim lands from
the 6th/12th to the present century. IV 602b; IV 1136b
♦ khayala (A) : equitation, the art of horseback riding. IV 1143b
khayashim (A, s. khayshum) : the nasal cavities. VI 130a; VIII 121a
khayl (A, pi. khuyul, akhydl) : in zoology, the equine species. The term has no singu-
lar, and like ibil 'camels' and ghanam 'sheep', is included in the category of collec-
tives for domestic animals forming the basis of nomadic life. IV 1143a
khaylaniyyat (A), or bandt al-md' : in zoology, the sirenian mammals or 'sea cows'.
VIII 1022b
khayma (A) : a tent; ~ was originally used to denote a rudimentary shelter, circular in
construction, erected on three or four stakes driven into the ground with supporting
cross-members covered with branches or grass. IV 1147a
♦ khaymanegan (T) : lit. people living in tents; in Ottoman administration, any wan-
dering subject who might come and exploit the land on a temporary basis, paying rents
or tithes to the owner. VI 960a
KHAYR — KHIBA' 335
khayr (A) : charity, gifts in money or kind from individuals or voluntary associations
to needy persons. In Islam, to make such gifts is a religious act. The word has the
sense of freely choosing something, i.e. virtue or goodness, a service to others beyond
one's kin. It also means goods such as property or things that have material value. IV
1151a
♦ khayr wa-khidmat (A) : among the ahl-i hakk, an offering of cooked or pre-
pared victuals, like sugar, bread etc., which with raw offerings of male animals (->•
nadhr wa-niyaz) is an indispensable feature of a dhikr session. I 261b
♦ khayri -»■ wakf khayrI
khaysh (A, pi. khuyush, akhydsh, n. of unity, khaysha) '■ a coarse, loose linen made with
flax of poor quality and used in the manufacture of sacks, wrappings and rudimentary
tents; also, a kind of fan, still used in 'Irak, where it is now called by the Indian name
pdnka. IV 1160b
khayyat (A) : a tailor, dressmaker. IV 1161a
khayzuran (A) : a rod, one of the insignia of sovereignty of the Umayyad caliphs in
Muslim Spain. IV 377b; bamboo. IV 682a; VIII 1022a
khazaf (A) : in art, ceramics. IV 1164b
khazin (A, pi. khuzzdn, khazana) : lit. he who keeps safe, stores something away; a term
for a quite menial and lowly member of the 'Abbasid caliphal household. IV 1181b; a
keeper of books or librarian. IV 1182a; VI 199a
As a term of mediaeval Islamic administration, ~ stands for certain members of the
financial departments and also of the chancery; an archivist. Ill 304b; IV 1181b
The plural khazana is found in the Qur'an and denotes the angels who guard Paradise
and Hell. IV 1181b
♦ khazindar, khaznadar (T) : in Mamluk usage, keeper of the treasury (var. of
khizdnadar), an office originally given to an amir of forty but later upgraded and filled
by an amir of 100. IV 186b; in Ottoman administration, a treasurer. XII 511b
khazine (T, < A khazlna) : the Ottoman state treasury. IV 1183b; the annual income of
a province sent to Istanbul. IV 1184b
In popular language, ~ gradually took the form of khazne, and came to be used as a
place for storing any kind of goods or for storing water. IV 1 1 83b; and -»■ khzana
khazir (A), or khazlra : a gruel generally made from bran and meat cut up into small
pieces and cooked in water, eaten by pre-Islamic Arabs. II 1059a
khazl (A) : in prosody, a type of double deviation (zihaf), whereby there are two cases
per foot, combining idmar and tayy. XI 508b
khazna (A) : in music, the uppermost internode (of a flute). XII 667a
khaznadar -»■ khazindar
khazne -»■ khazine
khazz (A) : a term for a mixture of silk and wool, but sometimes also used for silk. Ill
209b; poplin. VII 17b; floss silk. XII 341a; black silk. X 609b
In zoology, beaver (syn. kunduz). II 817a
khazzan (A) : a type of sedentary merchant in mediaeval Islam, who, by means of stock-
ing or de-stocking, plays on variations of price as influenced by space, time and the
quantities of the commodities traded. IX 789a; a wholesaler. X 469a
khel -»■ tira
khettara ->• khattara
khiba 1 (A) : a kind of tent, probably similar to the bayt in size, but distinguished from
it by the camel hair (wabar) or wool that was used to make the awning. Apparently,
it was the usual dwelling of the cameleer nomads. It is impossible to be certain whether
the distinction between ~ and bayt corresponds to a different geographical distribution,
336 KHIBA' KHINZIR
to a contrast between two large categories of nomads in Arabia, or simply to different
levels of life within one tribe. IV 1147a
khibyara ->■ batrakh
khida' (A) : trickery. IX 567b
khidab (A) : the dyeing of certain parts of the body (and especially, in regard to men,
the beard and hair) by means of henna or some similar substance. V lb; IX 3 1 2a; IX
383b
khidhlan (A) : in theology, a term applied exclusively to God when He withdraws His
grace or help from man (ant. lutf). I 413b; V 3b
khidiw (A, < P) : khedive, the title of the rulers of Egypt in the later 19th and early
20th centuries. In a way, ~ was a unique title among the vassals of the Ottoman sul-
tan, which the ambitious viceroy of Egypt sought precisely in order to set himself apart
and above so many other governors and viceroys of Ottoman dominions. V 4a
khidmatiyya (IndP) : in the Mughal infantry, the name given by Akbar to a caste of
Hindu highway robbers, called mdwis, whom he recruited to guard the palace and con-
trol highway robbery. V 686b
khidmet (T) : one of seven services to be rendered by the ra'iyya to the TlMAR-holder
such as the provision of hay, straw, wood, etc. II 32a; and ->■ khayr wa-kbidmet
♦ khidmet akcesi (T), or malshet 'livelihood' : in the Ottoman tax system, service-
money which government agents were allowed to collect for themselves as a small fee
for their services. VIII 487b
khidr (A, pi. khudur) : the section inside the Arab tent reserved for women. The term
derives from the name of the curtain which separated this section from the rest of the
tent. IV 1148a
khifad ->■ khafd
khil c a (A, pi. khila') : a robe of honour, also called tashrif. Throughout much of the
mediaeval period, the term did not designate a single item of clothing, but rather a
variety of fine garments and ensembles which were presented by rulers to subjects
whom they wished to reward or to single out for distinction. These robes were nor-
mally embellished with embroidered bands with inscriptions known as tiraz and were
produced in the royal factories. I 24a; V 6a; V 737a
♦ khil'et beha (T) : lit. the price of a khil'a, a sum of money given in place of the
robe of honour to Janissary officers upon the accession of a sultan in the Ottoman
empire. V 6b
khilafa (A) : caliphate; the name of a politico-religious movement in British India, man-
ifesting itself in the years after the First World War. V 7a
khilfa -> ra j s
khimi (A, < Gk) : a kind of edible mussel, probably the Chana Lazarus L., the juice of
which is said to get the digestion going. VIII 707a
khinnaws (A, pi. khananis) : in zoology, a piglet. V 8a
khinzir (A, pi. khanazir), or khinzir barri : in zoology, all suidae or porcines belonging
to the palaearctic zone, without any distinction between the pig (~ ahli) and the wild
boar, Sus scrofa (~ wahshi). In North Africa, halluf is preferred, while the Touaregs
use azubara, or tazubarat. V 8a
In medicine, the plural form khanazir denotes scrofulous growths on the neck. V 9b;
X 433a
♦ khinzir abu karnayn (A) : in zoology, the African phacocherus {Phacochoerus
aethiopicus) and hylocherus (Hylochoerus meinertzhageni). V 9b
♦ khinzir al-ard (A) : in zoology, the orycterops (Orycteropus afer). V 9b
♦ khinzir al-bahr (A) : 'sea-pig', in zoology, the dolphin and porpoise, also called
bunbuk. V 9b; VIII 1022b
KHINZlR — KHIYAR 337
♦ khinzir al-ma J -» khinzIr al-nahr
♦ khinzir al-nahr (A), or khinzir al-ma' : in zoology, the potamocherus (Potamo-
choerus porcus) of Africa. V 9b
khiri (A) : in botany, the stock. IX 435a
khirka (A) : rough cloak, scapular, coarse gown, a symbol of embarking on the mysti-
cal path. V 17b; the patched robe of the sufis, synonymous with dilk. V 737a; V 741a;
a veil, head scarf, worn by women in the Arab East. V 741a; in Turkey, a full, short
caftan with sleeves. V 752a; and -»■ mandIl
In mysticism, from the original meaning of cloak, ~ has been broadened to designate
the initiation as such. V 17b; followed by a noun complement, it may serve to define
various categories or degrees of initiation to the mystical path, e.g. khirkat al-irdda,
khirkat al-tabarruk. V 18a
♦ khirkat al-futuwwa (A) : the act of investiture originally conferred by the
'Abbasid caliphs and later by the Ayyubid sultans, which was one of the features mark-
ing out the chivalric orders of the Islamic world before they spread into Christendom.
V 18a
♦ khirka khidriyya (A) : 'investiture by al-Khidr', an expression describing those
cases in which some contemplatives are said to have received spiritual direction
directly from the powerful and mysterious person who, in the Qur'an, shows a wisdom
superior to the prophetic law. V 17b
♦ khirka-yi sa'adet (T) : under the Ottomans, the annual ceremony held on 15
Ramadan of honouring the collection of relics preserved in the treasury of the Topkapi
Palace in Istanbul. II 695b; and -> khirka-yi sherif
♦ khirka-yi sherif (T), or khirka-yi s^adet : one of the mantles attributed to the
Prophet, preserved at the Topkapi Palace in Istanbul. II 695b; V 18a
khirnik (A, pi. khardnik), or khawta' : in zoology, the leveret, a young hare. XII 84b
khirtit -> karkaddan
khisa' (A) : in medicine, the ablation of the testicles, an operation consisting of incising
and at the same time cauterizing the scrotum by means of a red-hot blade of iron and
removing (sail, salb or imtildkh) the testicles. IV 1087a,b
khishab (A), or al-khashabat : a group of Malik b. Hanzala's descendants, which
included the offspring of Malik's sons, Rabl'a, Rizam and Ka'b. X 173b
khitan (A) : (male) circumcision. V 20a; VIII 824b
♦ khitanan (A) : the two circumcised parts, i.e. that of the male and the female.
V 20a
khitat (A, s. khitta) : in literature, a genre consisting of description of the historical
topography of town quarters (-»■ khitta).
khitba (A) : in law, 'demand in marriage', betrothal, not involving any legal obligation,
but certain effects nevertheless follow from it, although the law schools differ: the right
of seeing the woman, and the right of priority, in that once a woman is betrothed to a
man, that woman cannot be sought in marriage by another man. V 22b; VIII 27b
khitma -»■ khatma
khitr (A) : a flock of two hundred sheep or goats. XII 319b; and -»■ nil
khitta (A, pi. khitat) : a piece of land marked out for building upon, a term used of
the lands allotted to tribal groups and individuals in the garrison cities founded by the
Arabs at the time of the conquests. V 23a; X 645a
khiwan (A, < P) : a wooden surface or table. IV 1025a; VI 808b; X 4b
khiyana (A) : in law, embezzlement. IX 62b
khiyar (A) : in law, the option or right of withdrawal, i.e. the right for the parties
involved to terminate the legal act unilaterally. V 25a
♦ khiyar al- c ayb (A), or khiyar al-nakisa : in law, the option in the case of a latent
defect making the agreement void. V 25b
♦ khiyar al-madjlis (A) : in law, a Meccan doctrine, later taken up by al-Shafi c i,
whereby an offer in a transaction can be withdrawn after it has been accepted, as long
as the two parties have not separated. I 1111b; III 1017a
♦ khiyar al-ru'ya (A) : in law, the option of sight, rejected by the Shafi'is. V 25b
♦ khiyar al-shart (A) : in law, jus paenitandi, a clause by means of which, in cer-
tain legal acts (in particular, contracts), one of the parties, or both of them, reserve the
right to annul or to confirm, within a specified time, the legal act which they have just
drawn up. I 319b; V 25a; IX 359a
♦ khiyar al-ta'yin (A) : in law, a clause allowing the one making the stipulation
to make his final choice between the different objects of one and the same obligation.
V 25b
khnif -> akhnif
kho shab -> sherbet
khodja -> kh w adja
khoomei (Mon) : a raucous, guttural voice, very rich in harmonics, sometimes approach-
ing diphony, as used in nomadic music. X 733b
khotoz (T) : a popular feminine head-gear in the form of a conical kulah or hood dec-
orated with a fine scarf or shawl and trimmed with feathers, precious stones and rib-
bons, worn in Ottoman Turkey. V 751b
khubz (A) : generic term for bread, whatever the cereal employed and whatever the
quality, shape and method of preparation. V 41b
khudawand (P) : God, lord, master, used in Ghaznawid times in the sense of lord or
master, as a term of address to the sultan in documents and letters belonging to the
Saldjuks and Khwarazmshahs. and also as a form of address to government officials
(civil and miltary) and patrons in general. There is no established etymology for this
word and no Middle or Old Persian antecedent. V 44a
♦ khudawendigar (P) : a title used for commanders and viziers during the Saldjuk
period. As an attribute, the term was also used for mystics like Djalal al-Din Ruml.
V 44b
In Ottoman usage, the term was used as the title of Murad I, and as the name of the
sandjak and province of Bursa. V 44b
khudha -»■ bayda
khudhruf -> duwwama
khudja (Tun) : a secretary in the army in the Regency of Tunis. IX 657a
khuff (A, pi. khifdf) : a sort of shoe or boot made of leather, worn in early Islamic
times. V 735b; XII 463a; a leather outer sock, still worn in the Arab East. V 741a
In zoology, a camel, as used in Tradition prohibiting competitions with animals. V 109a
In anatomy, a flat sole, as that of a camel or ostrich. VII 828b
khuffash -> watwat
khul' (A) : in law, a negotiated divorce. Ill 19a; IV 286a; X 151b; a divorce at the
instance of the wife, who must pay compensation to the husband. VI 477b
khula'a' (A) : 'outlaws', in early Islam, those expelled from their tribe to a life of brig-
andage. X 910a
khulafa' ->■ khalIfa
khulasa (A) : in literature, a technical term referring to a selection made from an exten-
sive work. VII 528b
khuld (A, < Ar; pi. khilddn) : in zoology, the Mole rat or Blind rat (Spalax typhlus). XII
287b
khulla (A) : in botany, graminaceous and herbaceous vegetation. IV 1143b
khulta (A) : in business, partnership, ~t shuyu' denoting a joint undivided co-ownership
and ~t al-djiwdr a jointly managed partnership. XI 414b
KHULUWW — KHUSS 339
khuluww (al-intifa c ) (A) : in law, a system in Egypt and Palestine for repairs and set-
ting up of installations, whose main features were a loan made to the wakf and the
right of the wakf at any time to repurchase the property and repay the tenant the added
value. XII 368b; a form of rent that gave the tenant the right to act like a proprietor,
i.e. in selling, bequeathing and alienating his rights in the property. XI 67b
In Algeria and Tunis, ~ was rather like hikr, long-term leasing of wakf property, and
involved perpetual usufruct or even 'co-proprietorship' with the wakf. XII 368b
khumasiyy (A) : 'a boy five spans in height, said of him who is increasing in height'
(Lane). VIII 822a
khumbara (P), or kumbara : bombs, used in Ottoman warfare. There is mention in the
sources of bombs made of glass and of bronze: shlshe khumbara, tunaj khumbara. I
1063a
♦ khumbaradji (T, < P) : in the Ottoman military, a bombardier, grenadier. I
1062a; V 52b
khums (A) : lit. one-fifth; a one-fifth share of the spoils of war, and, according to
the majority of Muslim jurists, of other specified income. I 1142a; II 869b; IX 420a;
XII 531a; one of five tribal departments into which Basra was divided under the
Umayyads. I 1085b
khumul (A) : the effacement of self, one of the components of asceticism, zuhd. XI
560a khunyagar (P) : pre-Islamic Persian minstrels (gosan in the Parthian period,
huniydgar in Middle Persian) who performed as storytellers, singers and musicians as
well as improvising poets. From the 5th/l 1th century on, the performing artist became
increasingly referred to by ramishgar or mutrib. IX 236b
khurafa (A) : a fabulous story; superstition, fairy tale, legend. Ill 369b
khurafa 1 (A), or asmar : in literature, a genre of Sasanid literature translated into Arabic
consisting of prose narratives without ostensible didactic pretences, often of erotic con-
tent. X 231b
khurasani (A) : in Ottoman Turkey, the round turban worn by viziers and other officials
who were no longer in active service and therefore did not wear the miiajewweze,
a barrel- or cylindrical-shaped cap, worn with the turban cloth from the time of
Suleyman's dress edict, as the proper court and state headdress. Also, a cap of red
material, worn by 'Othman I and the Tatars and Caghatay Turks, called tddj-i ~. X
612b
khurrem (P) : cheerful, smiling; a name for both men and women. V 66a
khurudj (A) : armed rising. XI 478a
In prosody, the letter of prolongation following the ha' as wasl (as in yaktuluhu). IV
412a
khurur (A), or kharlr, kharkhara, harir : the purring of a cat. IX 651b
khusa (A) : in medicine, testicles. Those of the fox (~ al-tha'lab), cock and ram were
used in the preparation of aphrodisiacs. XII 64 lb
khushda&h (A) : among the Mamluks, a brother-in-arms. VI 325b
khushdashiyya (A) : comradeship, as existed in the Mamluk household. VI 325b; man-
umission [of a Mamluk]. VI 318b
khushkar (A) : a coarse-ground flour, used for baking bread consumed in the classical
period by people of less means. V 42a
khushshaf -+ watwat
khushuna (A) : in medicine, hoarseness of the bronchial tubes. X 868b
khusrawani (A, < P kisra) : a kind of drink or a very fine, royal silk used for clothing
and used to cover the Ka'ba in the late lst/7th century, V 1 85a
khuss (A) : the son of a man and of a djinniyya. Ill 454b
♦ khussan (A) : according to Ibn Durayd, the stars around the (North) Pole that
never set, i.e. the circumpolar stars. VIII 101 a
340 KHUSUF — KIL KOBUZ
khusuf ->■ KUSUF
khutba (A) : sermon, address by the khatib, especially during the Friday service, on the
celebration of the two festivals, in services held at particular occasions such as an
eclipse or excessive drought. V 74a; a pious address, such as may be delivered by the
walI of the bride on the marriage occasion. VIII 27b
In the vocabulary of colour, ~ is applied to a dirty colour, a mixture of two blended
colours, alongside the more general term for colour, lawn. V 699b
khuttaf ->■ WATWAT
khuwan (A) : a solid, low 'table', synonymous with ma'ida. XII 99b
khuwwa (A), also khawa : in the Syrian desert, its borderlands and northern Arabia,
protection-money, paid to Bedouin in order to pass through regions safely or to protect
property. In North Africa, the terms khafara or ghafdra are most widely used. I 483b;
IX 316b; XII 305a; XII 535a
khuzam al-kitt (A) : 'cat's mignonette', in botany, the varieties Astragalus Forskallii and
Astragalus cruciatus of the genus Milk vetch. IX 653b
khuzama (A) : in botany, lavender. V 80a
khuzaz (A, pi. khizzdn, akhizza), or hawshab, kuffa : in zoology, the male hare, or buck.
XII 84b
khzana (Mor) : the official tent of state authorities, of conical design and made of
unbleached cloth decorated with black patterns. IV 1149
kiai ->■ kyahi
kiak -> ghidjak
kibal ->■ al-na'l al-sharif
kibd -> kabid
kibla (A) : the direction of Mecca (or, to be exact, of the Ka'ba or the point between
the mlzdb 'water-spout' and the western corner of it), towards which the worshipper
must direct himself for prayer. IV 318a; V 82a; V 323b; VIII 1054a
In many Muslim lands, ~ has become the name of a point of the compass, according
to the direction in which Mecca lies; thus ~ (pronounced ibla) means in Egypt and
Palestine, south, whereas in North Africa, east. V 82b; V 1169a
♦ kiblat al-kuttab (A) : 'model of calligraphers', the name for Yakut al-Musta'simi.
XI 264a
kibrit (A, < Akk) : in mineralogy, sulphur, brimstone. V 88b; alchemists invented many
pseudonyms for sulphur, such as 'the yellow bride' (al- c arus al-safrd'), 'the red soil'
(al-turba al-hamra'), 'the colouring spirit' (al-ruh al-sdbigh), 'the divine secret' (al-sirr
al-ilahl), etc. V 90a
kibt (A, < Gk) : a Copt, or native Christian of Egypt. V 90a
kidam (A) : in philosophy and theology, the term for eternity. V 95a; and -> kadam
kidh (A) : in archery, the shaft of an arrow, the forepart (towards the head) being called
sadr and the rear part the main. The forepart includes a socket (ru c z) meant to take the
head (nasi or zudjdj). IV 799b
kidr (A, pi. kudur) : in the mediaeval kitchen, a cooking pot or casserole, made of stone,
earthenware, copper or lead and of various sizes. VI 808a
kighadj (A, < T kigaq 'slope, incline') : in archery, a term denoting either an exercise
in which an archer, shooting parallel with his left thigh, shoots at a ground target, or
else any kind of downwards shot made from horseback. Possibly, it also means shoot-
ing rearwards by a group of cavalrymen at full gallop. IV 801b
kihana (A) : divination, the art of knowing that which cannot be spontaneously known.
V 99b
kikha (K) : an elected chief of a Kurdish village. V 472a
kil kobuz ->■ GHIDJAK
KILADA — KIRAB 341
kilada (A) : in the terminology of horse-riding, a collar worn by a horse. II 954a
kilidj (T) : in Ottoman administration, a term for a timar registered in the idjmal reg-
ister constituting an indivisible fiscal and military unit. X 503b ff.
kilidjuri (T ?) : a double-edged sabre, recommended for hunting the wild boar. V 9a
kilim (T, < P gilim) : a woolen rug generally long and narrow in shape. XII 136a
kilwat -*■ kat
kily (A, < Ar), or kild : in mineralogy, potash, potassium carbonate [K 2 C0 3 ], but also
soda, sodium carbonate [NA 2 C0 3 ]; ~ thus indicates the salt which is won from the
ashes of alkaline plants, but is also confusingly used for the ashes themselves and the
lye. Synonyms are shabb al-'usfur and shabb al-asdkifa. V 107a
kima (A) : in law, the market value (of the victim of bloodshed). I 29b
kimar (A) : gambling, strictly prohibited according to Islamic law. V 108b
kiml (A) : in law, non-fungible. XII 55a
kimiya' (A, < Syr) : alchemy (syn. san'a), abbreviated al-kdf, which serves also as a
pseudonym. V 110a
kin ->■ YASAMlN
kina (A) : a flock of one to two hundred sheep; such a flock for goats is called ghlna
or kawt. XII 319b
kina' (A, pi. akni'a; > Sp al-quinal), also mikna'(a) : a cloth that men and women
wound on the head, like the 'isaba and the kufiyya. Sometimes it also seems to mean
a woman's veil of silk embroidered with gold, then again to be the same as taylasan.
X612b
kinana (A) : in archery, a quiver made from skins; some lexicographers note that the ~
can be made from skin or wood. IV 800a
kinaya (A) : in rhetoric, a term corresponding approximately to metonomy and meaning
the replacement, under certain conditions, of a word by another which has a logical con-
nection with it (from cause to effect, from containing to contained, from physical to
moral, by apposition etc.); ~ constitutes a particular type of metaphor. V 116b
In law, indirect. XI 61b
kinbar (A) : coconut palm fibre. VIII 811a
kindil (A, < Gk) : in archery, a cylindrical quiver in which the arrows are placed with
their heads downwards, as opposed to the procedure with the dja'ba. IV 799b; (oil)
lamp. IX 282a; IX 288a; IX 665a
kinlik ->■ djarima
kinna (A) : in botany, galbanum, the desiccated latex of Ferula galbaniflua, used as a
spice and medicine. VIII 1042b
kinnina (A) : in chemistry, a phial, one of the many apparatuses in a lab described in
the 5th/llth century. V 114b
kira' (A) : in law, the leasing or hiring out of things, in particular immovable property
and ships and beasts which are used for transportation. The contracting parties are the
kdri, the lessor, and the muktari, the lessee. V 126b
♦ kira 5 mu'abbad (A) : in law, conductio perpetua, the lease in return for a quit-rent
of ancient French law, the equivalent of emphyteusis or emphyteutic lease. In Egypt,
~ is known as mudda tawlla, in Algeria as 'and', and in Morocco as kira' 'aid
'l-tabkiya. V 127a
kira a (A, pi. kird'ai) : reading; in the science of the Qur'an, recitation; a special read-
ing of a word or of a single passage of the Qur'an; a particular reading, or redaction,
of the entire Qur'an. V 127a; V 406a; X 73a
kirab (A) : a water-bag, which nomadic peoples of Arabia made out of the skins of ani-
mals. XII 659a
342 KIRAD — KISA'
kirad (A) : in law, a commercial arrangement in which an investor or group of investors
entrusts capital or merchandise to an agent-manager who is to trade with it and then
return it to the investor with the principal and previously agreed-upon share of the
profits (syn. mudaraba, mukarada). The ~ combines the advantages of a loan with
those of a partnership. Its introduction in the form of the commenda in the Italian sea-
ports of the late 10th and early 11th centuries AD was germinal to the expansion of
mediaeval European trade. V 129b
kiradji (T) : in the Ottoman empire, a purveyor of caravan transport. X 533b
kiran (A) : in music, a lute like the c ud. X 768b
kiran (A) : in astrology, the conjunction; without further qualification, this refers to the
mean or true conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter. V 130b; VIII 833a
In astronomy, ~ is sometimes used in place of idjtimd', the conjunction of the sun and
moon. IV 259a
In the context of the pilgrimage, ~ denotes one of three methods of performing the pil-
grimage, viz. when the 'umra 'Little Pilgrimage' and the hadjdj 'Great Pilgrimage' are
performed together. The other two methods are ifrad and tamattu'. Ill 35a; III 53b;
X 865b
In the terminology of ploughmen, ~ (or karan) refers to a rope passing over the oxen's
head and attached to the beam of the tiller. VII 22b
For ~ in numismatics, -► sahib kiran
kiras -► shutik
kirat (A, < Gk) : a unit of weight. 24 kirdts made up a mithkdl, which was equal to 60
barley grains. VI 118a; on the other hand, sometimes 4 barley grains made a ~. Ill
10b; V lib
kirba -> khamil
kird (A) : in zoology, a substantive having the general sense of monkey, but represent-
i 
