Mineralogy & Crystallography
On The History Of These Sciences
From Beginnings Through 1919
By
Curtis P. Schuh
( Rough Notes
Tucson, Arizona
2007
Mineralogy Sz Crystallography: A Biobibliography &; History
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
IBM-PC is a trademark of International Business Machines.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Schuh, Curtis Paul, 1959- .
Mineralogy and crystallography: on the history of these sciences
from beginnings through 1919 / Curtis P. Schuh.
v. p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
Contents:
ISBN X-XXX-XXXX-XXX
1. Mineralogy-history 2. Crystallography-history
ZQ???.??.?? 2007
CIP
Copyright © 2005-2007 by Curtis P. Schuh
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the author. Printed in the United States of America on acid-free
paper.
987654321
Mineralogy &l Crystallography: A Biobibliography & History
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
Edition Note
Internet Issue
( 2007 )
The files listed on the internet do not contain
the complete and final versions of Mineralogy
& Crystallography: a Biobibliography or the
companion book, Mineralogy & Crystallogra-
phy: On the History of these Sciences. Rather
these are intermediate presentations of a por-
tion of the computerized database being cre-
ated to output a final version as printed books.
However, even in this incomplete state these
works give a substanial history of mineralogy
and crystallography together with exhaustive
descriptions of the major books. These files
are being made available to the general public
because of numerous requests for access to the
information and the benefit to the compiler in
the feedback he recieves from the readers. Al-
though it is a work in progress with errors and
formatting problems, these intermediate files
are still a very useable reference sources.
The Biobibliography and the History are
companion works ultimately intended to each
stand complete in itself, but to never the less
complement each other, with information from
one feeding into the other. This is particularly
true of the section labeled "Regional Histo-
ries" in the History, which describes the devel-
opment of mineralogy in individual countries.
While gathering information for the History, an
ever increasing number of additional titles are
necessarily being added to the Biobibliography.
Happily however, there is finally an end in sight
to the project. It was not possible to create the
History without having first compiled the Bio-
bibliography, and now that it is being written,
work on both books is steadily drawing to a
point where the text to both can be given a
final edit, and be made ready for actual publi-
cation as physical books. However, in advance
of that future date, these files are being placed
on the internet so that researchers and scholars
may reference them.
For this project, the TjjX program devel-
oped by Donald Knuth professor emeritus of
Stanford University has been used to format
the database text and elegantly typeset the vol-
umes directly into the user friendly file format
of PDF (Postscript Document Format) devel-
oped by Adobe Software. The PDF file format
has many advantages, especially since these
files can be viewed and printed through the
Adobe Reader software, which is readily avail-
able. By this method it is possible to distribute
electronic versions of the Biobibliography and
History at a very cheap cost. Paper versions of
the files can also be created by those individuals
who prefer physical copy in their hands. Sev-
eral paths are available to accomplish this goal.
First download the files to your local computer
and use either a home computer with a printer
to output the over 2,000 pages or take the files
to the local copy bureau and have them print
the works double-sided and bound into three
volumes.
The text of the Biobibliography and His-
tory are of course subject to change (sometimes
radical) in the future. In particular, reference
numbers for the individual titles listed in the
Biobibliography unfortunately change because
additions and deletions to entries in the source
database cause these numbers to increase or de-
crease, respectively. The files placed on the in-
ternet were created in January 2007 in antici-
pation of the forthcoming 53st Annual Tucson
Gem & Mineral Society Show to be held in Tuc-
son, Arizona on February 8-11, 2007.
Since this is a work in progress, comments
and suggestions about the content, format or
missing entries are welcome by the compiler.
The intention is to bring the work to comple-
tion with in the the next few years, so that it
can finally be printed as actual physical books.
If you wish to contact the compiler, he may be
reached through email at the address provided
below.
Curtis P. Schuh
Tucson, Arizona
Email: oschuh@theriver.com
Mineralogy & Crystallography: A Biobibliography & History
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: August 24, 2007
Mineralogy & Crystallography: A Biobibliography & History
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: August 24, 2007
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Ancient Studies
2.1 Egypt
2.1.1 Ebers Papyrus
2.1.2 Ley den & Stockholm Papyrus
2.2 Babylonia & Assyria
2.3 The jEgean (Crete)
2.4 Troy (Hissarlik)
2.5 Asia Minor.
2.5.1 The Hittites
2.6 Persian Empire
2.9 Palastine
2.10 Ancient China
2.11 Ancient India
2.12 Ancient Greece
2.12.1 Aristotle
2.12.2 Theophrastus
2.12.3 Agatharchides
2.12.4 Damigeron
2.12.5 Diodorus Siculus
2.12.6 Dioscorides
2.12.7 Strabo
2.12.8 Physiologos
2.12.20 Xenocrates
2.12.21 Galen
2.14 The Roman Period
2.14.1 Lucretius
2.14.2 Vitruvius
2.14.4 Seneca
2.14.5 Cato
2.14.7 Pliny
2.14.8 Suetonius
2.14.9 Solinus
3.0 Medieval Mineralogy
3.1 Islamic Influences
3.1.1 Islamic Mineralogy
3.1.2 Jabir ibn Hayyan [Latin, GEBER]
3.1.3 pseudo- Aristotle
3.1.4 al-Katib
3.1.5 Masawaih [Latin, MESUE THE ELDER]
3.1.6 al-Kindl [Latin, ALKINDUS]
3.1.7 al-Jahiz
3.1.8 ad-DimisqT
3.1.9 al-Dmawari
3.1.10 al-RazT [Latin, RHAZES]
3.1.11 Ikhwan al-Safa 3 or "Brothers of Purity"
3.1.12 Ibn Slna [Latin, AviCENNA]
3.1.13 al-Blrum
3.1.14 al-Kamili
3.1.15 al- c Arabi
3.1.17 al-TifasT
3.1.18 NasTr al-DTn al-TusT
3.1.19 al-Qazwml
3.1.20 al-Qibjaql
3.1.21 As-SuwaidT
3.1.22 al-Qasanl
3.1.23 al-DimasqT
3.1.24 Ibn Ahf Bakr MustaufT al-Qazwml
3.1.25 al-Jildakl
3.1.26 al-Akfanl
3.1.27 al-Majrltl
3.1.28 Mansur
3.1.29 al-Jazaril
3.1.30 al-Gaffari
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
Contents
3.1.31 al-Maqrizi
3.1.32 al-Wardl
3.1.33 STrazT
3.1.34 al-Baihaql
3.1.35 al-Mubarak Qazwml
3.1.36 al-Maghribl
3.2 LlTHOTHERAPY
3.2.1 Lapidaries
3.2.1.1 Scientific Lapidaries
3.2.1.1.1 Marbode (1035-1123)
3.2.1.1.2 Albertus Magnus (1193-1280)
3.2.1.1.3 Bartholomaeus de Ripa Romea
3.2.1.1.4 Mandeville
3.2.1.1.5 Camillus Leonardus (1502)
3.2.1.1.5.1 Ludovico Dolce (1508-1568)
3.2.1.1.6 Martin Steinpreis (cl510)
3.2.1.1.7 Erasmus Stella (1517)
3.2.1.2 Alexandrian Lapidaries
3.2.1.2.1 Kyranides
3.2.1.2.2 a-Plutarch
3.2.1.2.3 a-Orpheus
3.2.1.3 Christian Lapidaries
3.2.1.3.1 Epiphanius
3.2.1.3.2 Bede
3.2.1.3.3 Volmar (cl252-1254)
3.2.1.3.9 Alfonso X (1221-1284)
3.2.1.4 Byzantine Mineralogy
3.2.2 Herbals
3.2.3 Pharmaceutical Mineralogy
3.2.4 Mineral Poisons & Cures
3.3 Encyclopedias
3.3.1 Isidore of Seville (6th Century)
3.3.2 Theophilus the Monk
3.3.3 Alexander Neckam (1157-1217)
3.3.4 Bartholomaeus Anglicus (cl200-1247)
3.3.5 Thomas Cantimpre (1200-1270)
3.3.6 Vincent of Beauvais (1190-1264)
3.3.7 Lumen Animae (cl300)
3.3.8 Konrad von Megenberg (7-1374)
3.3.9 Domenico Bandini (cl335-1418)
3.3.10 Gregor Reisch (cl467-1525)
3.3.11 Arnoldus Saxo (cl225)
3.3.15 Hrabanus Maurus
3.4 Books of Secrets
3.4.1 The Literature of "Secrets"
4.0 AGRICOLA AND HIS TlME
4.1 Mining in Saxony
4.1.1 The Renaissance
4.2 Technological Heritage
4.2.1 Bergbuchlein (cl505)
4.2.2 Probirbuchlein (cl510)
4.2.3 Biringuccio (1540)
4.3 Georgius Agricola
4.4 The Influence of Agricola
5.0 Physical Properties
5.1 Color
5.1.1 Streak
5.2 Specific Gravity and Density
5.3 Cleavage
5.4 Luminescence
5.4.1 Phosphorescence
5.4.1.1 The Bologna Stone
5.4.2 Fluorescence
5.5 Hardness
5.6 Optical Properties
5.6.1 Double Refraction
5.6.2 Basis of Optical Mineralogy
5.6.3 Rotatory Polarization
5.6.4 Optical Properties and Heat
5.6.5 Pleochroism & Absorption
5.6.6 Optical Anomalies
5.6.7 Reflection
5.6.8 Infrared Optics
5.7 Electrical Properties
5.7.1 Pyroelectricity
5.7.2 Conductivity
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
Contents
5.7.3 Piezoelectricity
5.7.4 Thermoelectricity
5.7.5 Dielectric Property
5.8 Magnetism
5.9 Elasticity
6.0 Chemical Mineralogy
6.1 Technological Background
6.1.1 The Housecleaning
6.1.2 The Chemical Revolution
6.1.4 Science of Chemistry
6.1.5 Nineteenth Century
6.2 Mineral Analysis & Analysts
6.3 Chemical Compostion of Minerals
6.5 Isomorphism & Dimorphism
6.7 Pseudomorphs
6.8 Par agenesis
7.0 Experimental Mineralogy
7.1 Origin of Minerals
7.1.1 Fluid Inclusion Studies
7.2 Artificial Minerals
8.0 Crystallography
8.1 Geometrical Crystallography
8.1.1 Seventeenth Century
8.1.2 Eighteenth Century
8.1.3 Nineteenth Century
8.1.4 Twentieth Century
8.1.5 Twinned Crystals
8.1.6 Epitaxial Crystal Growth
8.2 Crystal Structure
8.2.1 Early Theories about Structure
8.2.2 Theory of Haiiy
8.2.3 Later Structural Studies
8.3 X-Ray Crystallography
8.4 Etch Figures
8.5 Liquid Crystals
9.0 Systematic Mineralogy
9.1 Concept of Species
9.1.1 Derivation of 'Mineral'
9.1.2 Minerals and Species
9.2 Classical Sources
9.3 Medieval Ideas
9.3.1 Avicenna
9.3.2 Albertus Magnus
9.4 The Renaissance
9.4.1 Stella
9.4.2 Agricola
9.4.3 Gesner
9.4.3 Kentmann
9.4.9 Caesalpinus
9.5 The Seventeenth Century
9.5.15 Boetius de Boodt
9.5.16 Aldrovandi
9.5.17 Jonston
9.5.19 Bockenhoffer
9.5.21 Becher
9.5.23 Hiarne
9.6 The Eighteenth Century
9.6.20 Woodward
9.6.21 Henckel
9.6.23 Pott
9.6.25 Bromell
9.6.26 Linne
9.6.34 Wallerius
9.6.34 Woltersdorff
9.6.35 Cronstedt
9.6.36 Bergman
9.6.37 Kirwan
9.6.45 Rome de LTsle
9.6.80 Werner
9.7 The Ninteenth Century
9.7.1 Haiiy
9.7.3 Berzelius
9.7.3 Mohs
9.7.4 Nordenskiold
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
Contents
9.7.5 Breithaupt
9.7.7 Beudant
9.7.9 Shepard
9.7.11 Dufrenoy
9.7.11 Pansner
9.7.41 Haidinger
9.7.44 Hausmann
9.7.45 Rose
9.7.50 Dana
9.7.61 Kobell
9.7.75 Hunt
9.7.77 Weisbach
9.7.81 Knop
9.7.99 Conclusion: 19th Century
10.0 Nomenclature
10.1 Ancient Names
10.2 Middle Ages
10.4 Scientific Nomenclature Develops
10.4.2 Werner and his School
10.4.3 Reflections of Chemical Reform
10.4.4 Nomenclature Reformation
10.4.5 Physical Properties
10.4.6 Localities
10.4.7 Personal Names
10.4.8 Dictionaries
11.0 Regional Histories
11.1 General (Worldwide)
11.2 Europe
11.2.1 United Kingdom
11.2.1.1 England
11.2.1.2 Scotland
11.2.1.3 Wales
11.2.1.4 Ireland
11.2.2 Iberian Peninsula
11.2.2.1 Spain (Espana)
11.2.2.2 Portugual
11.2.2.3 Canary Islands
11.2.3 Central
11.2.3.1 Austria (Osterreich)
11.2.3.1 France
11.2.3.1 Germany (Deutschland)
11.2.3.1 Hungary (Magyarorszag)
11.2.3.1 Switzerland (Helvetia)
11.2.3.3 Italy (Italia)
11.2.4 Low Countries
11.2.4.1 Belgium
11.2.4.1 Luxemburg (Luxembourg)
11.2.4.1 The Netherlands (Holland)
11.2.6 Eastern
11.2.6.1 Albania
11.2.6.1 Armenia
11.2.6.1 Belarus
11.2.6.1 Bulgaria (BtJirapHfl)
11.2.6.1 Estonia
11.2.6.1 Latvia (Latvija)
11.2.6.1 Lithuania (Lietuva)
11.2.6.1 Romania (Romania)
11.2.6.1.1 Poland (Polska)
11.2.6.50 Russia (Poccufl)
11.2.6.50.1 Russia (18th Century)
11.2.6.50.2 Russia (19th Century)
11.2.6.50.3 Russia (20th Century to 1917)
11.2.6.91 Slovakia (Slovenska)
11.2.6.99 Yugoslavia
11.2.6.99.1 Bosnia and Herzegovina
11.2.6.99.1 Croatia (Hrvatska)
11.2.6.99.1 Macedonia
11.2.6.99.1 Serbia (Srbija)
11.2.6.99.1 Slovenia (Slovenija)
11.2.7 Northern Islands
11.2.7.1 Iceland (Island)
11.2.7.3 Greenland (Gr0nland)
11.2.8 Scandinavia
11.2.8.1 Sweden (Sverige)
11.2.8.2 Finland
11.2.8.3 Norway (Norge)
11.2.8.4 Denmark (Danmarks)
11.2.8.5 Faroe Islands (Fser0e Islands)
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
Contents
11.2.9 Eastern Mediterranean
11.2.9.1 Greece ('EUoto)
11.2.9.2 Cyprus
11.3 Asia
11.3.1 Far East
11.3.1.1 China
11.3.1.2 Japan
11.3.1.3 Korea (Chosen)
11.3.1.4 Taiwan
11.3.2 Central Asia
11.3.2.1 Siberia
11.3.2.2 Transcaucausia
11.3.7 Subcontinent
11.3.7.1 India
11.3.7.2 Sri Lanka (Ceylon)
11.3.7.3 Nepal
11.3.7.4 Pakistan
11.3.8 Southeast Asia
11.3.8.1 Burma
11.3.8.1 Cambodia
11.3.8.1 Indonesia
11.3.8.1 Laos
11.3.8.1 Malaysia
11.3.8.1 Philippines
11.3.8.1 Thailand
11.3.8.1 Vietnam
11.3.9 Middle East
11.3.9.1 Afganistan
11.3.9.1 Iran
11.3.9.1 Palestine & Israel
11.3.9.1 Syria
11.3.9.1 Turkey
11.4 Africa
11.4.1 Algeria
11.4.1 Cameroun
11.4.1 Comoros
11.4.1 Congo
11.4.1 East Africa
11.4.1 Egypt
11.4.1 Ghana
11.4.1 Katanga
11.4.1 Madagascar
11.4.1 Morocco
11.4.1 Nambia
11.4.1 Reunion Islands
11.4.1 Senegal
11.4.1 Somalia
11.4.1 South Africa
11.4.1 Sudan
11.4.1 Tunisia
11.4.1 West Africa
11.4.1 Zambia
11.4.1 Zimbabwa (Rhodesia)
11.5 North America
11.5.1 Canada
11.5.2 United States
11.5.3 Mexico
11.5.4 Cuba
11.5.5 Costa Rica
11.5.6 Guatemala
11.5.7 Puerto Rico
11.5.8 Jamaica
11.5.10 Honduras
11.5.12 El Slavador
11.6 South America
11.6.1 Argentina
11.6.1 Bolivia
11.6.1 Chile
11.6.1 Colombia
11.6.1 French Guiana
11.6.1 Guyana (formerly British Guiana)
11.6.1 Paraguay
11.6.1 Peru
11.6.1 Uruguay
11.6.1 Venezuela
11.6.1.90 Brazil (Brasil)
11.7 Australasia
11.7.1 Australia
11.7.1 New Caledonia
11.7.1 New Guinea
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
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NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
14.6 Optical Instruments
11.7.1 New Zealand
11.7.1 Palau Islands
11.7.1 Tasmania
12.0 Collectors & Dealers
12.1 Collectors
12.2 Dealers
12.3 Collections
12.4 The Golden Age (1876-1909)
12.9.1 Austria (Osterreich)
12.9.1 Belgium
12.9.1 Denmark
12.9.1 England
12.9.1 France
12.9.1 Hungary
12.9.1 Italy
12.9.1 Russia
12.9.1 Sweden
12.9.1 United States
13.0 Instruction
13.1 Mining Academies
13.3 Textbooks
13.4 mlneralogical societies & clubs
13.5 Journals & Periodicals
14.0 Instrumentation
14.1 Analytical Balances
14.2 Blowpipes
14.2.1 Portable Laboratories
14.2.2 Laboratory Blowpipes
14.3 Specific Gravity Measurement
14.3.1 Hydrostatic Balances
14.3.2 Hydrometers
14.3.3 Pycnometer
14.3.4 Heavy Liquids
14.4 scler.ometer. (hardness)
14.5 Goniometers
14.6 Optical Instruments
14.6.1 Microscopes
14.6.1.1 Petrographic Microscopes
14.6.2 Refractometers
14.6.3 Dichroscopes
14.6.4 Polarized Light Measurment
14.6.4.1 Polarimeter
14.6.4.2 Polariscope
14.6.4.3 Tourmaline Tongs
14.6.4.4 Conoscopes
14.6.4.5 Stauroscopes
14.6.4.6 Wollaston Prisms
14.6.4.7 Nicol Prism
14.7 Crystallographic Projections
14.8 Crystal Drawings
14.9 Crystal Models
14.9.1 Crystal Model Making Apparatus
15.0 Illustrated Works
15.1 Rendering Minerals
15.2 Black and White Illustrations
15.2.1 Printing from Actual Specimens
15.3 Minerals Illuminated in Colors
15.3.99 Rumpf
15.3.99 Richter
15.3.99 Seba
15.3.99 Hebenstreit
15.3.99 Hill
15.3.99 Schmiedel
15.3.99 Knorr
15.3.99 Wirsing
15.3.99 Stieglitz
15.3.99 Der Naturforscher
15.3.99 Ledermuller
15.3.99 Gmelin
15.3.99 Hamilton
15.3.99 Guettard
15.3.99 Heinitz
15.3.99 Houttuyn
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
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NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
15.3.99 Gautier d'Agoty
15.3.99 Uibelaker
15.3.99 Wiinsch
15.3.99 Buc'hoz
15.3.99 Wulfen
15.3.99 Klaproth
15.3.99 Karsten
15.3.99 Spalowsky
15.3.99 Bertuch
15.3.99 Baumeister
15.3.99 Lenz
15.3.99 Rashleigh
15.3.99 Patrin
15.3.99 Sowerby
15.3.99 Egypt
15.3.99 Mawe
15.3.99 Stephenson
15.3.99 Wilhelm
15.3.99 Schriften
15.3.99 Oken
15.3.99 Schmidt
15.3.99 Sowerby
15.3.99 Kurr
15.3.99 Reynaud
15.3.99 Simonin
15.3.99 Weber
15.3.99 Hamlin
15.3.99 Kunz
15.3.99 Brauns
15.3.99 Sauer
15.3.99 Spencer
15.3.99 Pogue
16.0 Petrology
17.0 Meteoritics
18.0 Study of Caves
References Consulted
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
Mineralogy & Crystallography:
On Their History
1.0 Introduction
The purpose of the present text is to provide
a concise survey of the history of mineralogy
and crystallography through the year 1919.
Hopefully, it reflects this rich area of study
showing the development of these important
scientific endeavors from simple origins through
a maturity, which today some might regard
as no more than technical art. This is
mirrored in the fact that few people now would
claim mineralogy as a science balanced on
the edge of significant discovery, but that was
not the case in the past. Then, mineralogy
and its companion study crystallography,
were important investigations with each new
discovery being widely publicized and debated.
Many researchers, some of whom may be
counted among the greatest geniuses of the
human race, explored, contemplated, and
wrote about minerals and crystals. This
history tries in some measure to spotlight
these people and their discoveries. It is also
written as a companion work to Mineralogy
and Crystallography : A Biobibliography, which
fully describes many of the books relevant to
these studies across the same time period.
This is a derivative study with little or
no attempt to synthesis the motivations and
discoveries it presents into a picture that a
true historian would write. The intent instead
is to provide a general overall view showing
how the research and discoveries interlocked
to create these important sciences from the
simplest of beginnings. Since very broad topics
are described, this text necessarily and heavily
relies on the many articles and books previously
published in the history of these sciences to
give its account. To some degree this has
caused in several sections a disjointed story
to emerge. Hopefully, in the future, further
research will allow a rewriting of these sections
and thereby smooth out the issues. Sources
used in compiling any given section are fully
listed in the citations, and the interested reader
may consult them for further information.
Pre-History of Mineralogy
Mineralogy in its most rudimentary form has
probably existed since humans developed tools.
In the hard, natural life of our ancestors, a
case could be argued that it was the junction
when man first made flint arrowheads and other
stone tools that the first mineralogical studies
began. Flint is a rock composed entirely of
microscopic quartz crystals, and the ancient
tool makers would doubtless had experience
in distinguishing hard flint from softer stones.
This event may have occurred as long as 25,000
years ago. If it is too much of a stretch to call
that moment the beginning of mineralogy, then
certainly by the time of the first purposeful
recovery of native metals like gold, silver,
and copper, man had developed a practical
working knowledge of mineral resources. This
event probably occurred about 9,000 years ago.
Somewhere between those bracketing dates,
still well into prehistoric times, must lie the
very start of our study.
It is not difficult to imagine the awe
that early man would feel in the unexpected
discovery of a hard, clear quartz crystal, with
its geometric six-sided form clearly displayed.
It must have been a remarkable event, and
one which early humans would not have been
equipped to easily explain. To help, inventions
of a divine powers were created to account
for the remarkable things of the world. This
eventually led man to explain many aspects
of the natural world in terms of supernatural
powers interacting with the physical world.
From this world conception, at an early date,
mystical and occult properties were attached to
gems, stones, minerals, and metals. Eventually
1
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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2.1 Egypt
this blossomed into a far reaching propaganda
that was widely believed.
Later, as civilizations developed, and
distinct economic classes separated, those in
the upper stratum had time to contemplate the
surrounding world. Among the hypothesizes
set forth were that minerals and gems contained
curative/ preventive medical powers. For
example, diamond the hardest of all substances,
was early on believed to increase strength
(in later millennia, the Romans would give
diamond other powers). A key link in
developing the science was started. Man began
to hypothesis about the character of minerals.
Of course, true scientific mineralogy requires
the unbiased testing of hypothesizes rather
than assumed correctness, but the first step,
the philosophy had started.
Undoubtedly, mineralogical knowledge
must have become reasonably sophisticated,
but as the early civilizations were devoured by
invading armies or suffered in the environment,
and those individuals possessing the necessary
knowledge met premature ends, the possibil-
ity of significant increases in knowledge ap-
proached impossibility. It requires not only
a theoretical philosophy but also a means of
preserving knowledge for the future to insure
a working science. This happened about 1250
B.C.E. somewhere in the Near East (probably
Babylon) with the invention of writing. From
that time on, the ideas and discoveries of the
current generation would be passed to the fu-
ture, where they could be reviewed, tested and
modified, and as necessary ultimately be ac-
cepted or denied.
2.0 Ancient Studies
Like all science, the study of minerals grew
out of practical experience encountered during
daily life. Determining which stone could best
be broken to a hard, sharp edge for use as a
weapon or tool, for example. Grouped together
these experiences accumulated into the first
tangible beginnings of what today would be
called mineralogy. Thus, the study of minerals
certainly must rank as one of the oldest studies
of humankind. Daily living would have brought
early humans throughout their lives into
contact with stones, and more rarely natural
crystals and native metals. Consequently, a
large body of practical knowledge about the
mineral world developed in the prehistoric
cultures of antiquity, and well before the
first records were written. Then when the
great civilizations of Egypt, India, and China
began to flourish, evidence of widespread
mineral knowledge became apparent. In
particular, a variety of minerals were thought
to have magical or curative properties, that
would be bestowed to the human subject
if it were worn or ingested. Due to the
rarity of some varieties of metals and stones
they were further described as "precious" and
command expensive prices. Finally during
this time, serious attempts were made to
copy or produce good fakes of these precious
substances, and as a consequence, much was
learned about the physical properties and the
chemical composition of these materials by the
alchemists.
2.1 Egypt! 1 !
The dynastic period of old Egypt can generally
be divided into the Old Kingdom, the Middle
Kingdom, and the New Kingdom. At the
beginning of the Old Kindgom cooper, gold,
electrum (a natural alloy of gold and silver)
were relatively scarce items, used mostly for
ornaments. Vases of rock crystal and colored
stone with wrappings of gold leaf tied with
string are known. In addition, jewellery
of gold, lapis lazuli, carnelian, amethyst,
and turquoise have also been recovered from
archaelogical sites. The Old Kingdom was
largely agricultural in structure, but granite
quarries at the First Cataract of the Nile
^ J For further reading see: S. Aufrere., L'univers mineral
dans la pensee Egyptienne. Cairo, Institut Francais
d'Archeologie Orientale, 1991. 2 vols. li, 835 p.,
notes. [Published as: Bibliotheque d'Etude, no. 105].
• M. Clagett., Ancient Egyptian science: A source book.
Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1989. 2 vols,
xv, 863 p., illus, biblio., index. [Published as: Memoirs of the
American Philosophical Society, no. 184]. • J.R. Partington.,
Origins And Development Of Applied Chemistry. London,
Longmans, Green and Co., 1935. 597 p. [Provides a
concise, well referenced account of the sources, production
and uses of materials in Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria, Asia
Minor, Persia, Syria and Palestine from the earliest times
to the end of the Bronze Age].
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
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2.1 Egypt
were begun, followed by the extraction of huge
blocks of sandstone at Silsileh. Harder and finer
stones were obtained from the areas between
Coptos and the Red Sea. By the end of the Old
Kingdom, limestone was recovered from many
areas, with the blocks being cut with tubular
copper drills and notched copper saws with
sand used as an abrasive. Mouth blowpipes
were probably a hollow reed tipped in clay as
shown in the tomb of Beni Hasan and for a long
time mistaken to be for glass blowing. Bronze
was at the time unknown, and iron was not
yet used for cutting stone, although perhaps
used in a small extent for other tools. It is
clear, however, that from the earliest times, the
Egyptians possessed considerable knowledge of
the technical arts and of minerals.
The Middle Kingdom is associated with
the rise to prominence of the city of Thebes.
During this period, mines of gold, silver,
electrum, copper were activily prospected and
worked with slave labor. For example, the
output of the Nubian gold mines was improved
and the working of the copper mines in Sinai
were reorganized to be worked throughout the
year, where previously they had only been
worked in the cool months. Each mine had
a foreman, and there were periodic visits by
officials from the treasury. Bronze, an alloy
of copper and tin, came into common use,
and there was extensive commerce with Egypts
neighboring civilizations. This activity built up
considerable wealth within Egypt.
The New Kingdom brought the widespread
acceptance of gold and silver as items of value
used in commerce. Conqured nations such as
the Syrians paid tribute to Egypt in silver, lapis
lazuli, malachite, turquoise, precious stones,
bars of lead, copper, tin and bronze. Fine gold,
ivory, ebony, precious red stone and precious
yellow stone were obtained from the Nubians.
Metal work and jewellry creation during this
period shows a high quality. Precious stones
were shaped and polished, and high temper-
ature annealing and soldering is seen in the
goldwork of the time, and may have been influ-
enced by Minoan originals. Some tomb paint-
ings show the weighing of precious materials,
bars of metals, bronze, lapis, malachite, etc. in-
dicating an extensive trade in minerals between
Egypt and the outlying countires perhaps as far
east as India. The fabulous objects found in the
tomb of Tutankhamen who ruled towards the
end of this period, contain finely worked gold
items inlaid with glass and stone, as well as
statues made from copper, bronze, alabaster,
turquoise, malachite, etc.
2.1.1 Ebers Papyrus PI
The Ebers Papyrus, said to have been
discovered in a terra-cotta jar between the
legs of a mummy buried 10 feet deep at
Thebes about 1900 B.C., is 20 meters long
and 30 cm wide. The content of its 39
small treatises provide some of the earliest
accounts of medical and chemical preparations
that have been preserved from antiquity, and
many of these have probably been compiled
from still earlier sources (perhaps centuries
older). Its subject matter would indicate that
it is a collection of prescriptions and reciepes
used by physcians, cosmetitians, hair-dyes, hair
restorers, pest exterminators, etc. Most of the
concoctions described are of organic, especially
vegetable, origin, showing that the Egyptians
were familiar with a large number of plants,
but some are mineral in nature, such as copper
sulfate, salt, natron and aner sopdu (Memphite
stone). PI The prescriptions described in
the papyrus closely resemble the structure of
those found in the medical and receipe books
published in Europe in the seventeenth and
eighteenth century.
2.1.2 Leyden & Stockholm Papyrus! 4 !
I- J Other studies include: C.P. Bryan., Ancient Egyptian
medicine: the Papyrus Ebers. Translated from the German
version by C.P. Bryan, with an introduction by G.E.
Smith. Chicago, Ares Publishers, 1932 [Reprinted, 1974].
xl, 167 p., plates, illus. • H.L.E. Luring. , Die uber
die medicinischen Kenntnisse der alten Agypter berichtenden
Papyri: verglichen mit den medicinischen Schriften griechischer
und romischer Autoren. Leipzig, 1888. 170 p. • J.F.
Nunn., Ancient Egyptian medicine. Norman, University of
Oklahoma Press, 1996. 240 p., illus., map.
[ 3 ] Berthelot [p. 185]
I- -I Other information may be found in: R. Halleux., Les
alchimistes grecs. 1: Papyrus de Leyde, papyrus de Stockholm,
fragments et recettes. Texte etabli et traduit par Robert
Halleux. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1981. 235 p. (84-
151 double), biblio., index. • ibid., Indices chemicorum
graecorum. I: Papyrus Leidensis, Papyrus Holmiensis. Roma,
Ateneo, 1983. xxv, 135 p. [Published as: Lessico
Intellettuale Europeo, no. 31]
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2.2 Babylonia & Assyria
It is recorded that around 290 C.E. the
Egyptian emporer Diocletian fearing the art
of alchemy decreed that all works and ancient
books describing the alchemical arts or gold
and silver be destroyed. This caused the
disappearance of a mass body of literature
that doubtless would have provided a great
insight into the ancient ideas about the
history of chemistry and the knowledge of
minerals. The previously mentioned Ebers
papyrus escaped destruction as did two other
early Egyptian Papyrus that deal with chemical
and mineralogical matters. These were most
probably recorvered from the tomb of a high
ranking apothecary who died in Thebes before
290 C.E. and are known today as the Papyrus
X of Leyden and the Stockholm Papyrus. They
are important for shouwing numerous chemical
processes and recipes for alloys, metal working,
dyeing, making imitation precious stones and
similar arts. Based on their content they are
thought to be mid-Third Century copies of a
work first writtin in the First Century B.C.E.
In addition, both the Leyden and Stockholm
papyrus are apparently derived from the same,
now lost, work.
The Leyden papyrus comprises about
seventy-five reciepes several of which have
been extracted from the Materia Medica of
Dioscorides. Methods for writing in gold or
silver are given as are descriptions of how to
dye the surface of metals. Lists of materials
required are presented. The Stockholm
papyrus contains about 150 reciepes. The two
manuscripts practically duplicate each other
with some rearrangement and reworking of the
same reciepes. The parts describing metals are
largely concerned with the trasmution of gold,
silver or electrum from cheaper materials, or
giving an artificial color to the cheaper material
to convey a preciousness. The nomenclature of
the materials is essentially that of Dioscorides
with few changes in the meaning of his terms,
although in some cases the Latin equivalents of
Vitriuvius and Pliny are used.
2.2 Babylonia & Assyria
Mesopotamia located between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers and rising in the mountains
of Asia Minor and extending to the Persian
Gulf was the site of an ancient civilization
that riveled in many ways Egypt. While the
earliest remains probably go back to 4000-3500
B.C.E., the earliest dated sites are from 3100-
3000 B.C.E. The earliest civilization in the area
was agricultural, however, as villages became
towns, craftsmanship and knowledge of the
mineral world expanded. Graves from this
early period contain stone bowls, gold, silver,
copper pots, as well as jewellry inlaid with lapis
lazuli, mother-of-pearl and other stones. From
the earliest period, the Sumerians one group
who occupied the land were familiar with the
use and sale of gold, silver, copper and certain
precious stones. They also worshipped gods
related to metallurgy, and like the Egyptians
they regarded the setting sun as passing
through the lower hemisphere as the god of the
treasurers of the underworld.! 5 !
Metal working and related crafts were
apparently known from the earliest times
in Babylonia and Assyria; however, there
appears to have been no local source material
in Babylonia and the deposits of copper,
lead, silver, antimony and salt were probably
not worked by the Assyrians. Instead, the
merchants of these regions bartered with
other countries, most probably Egypt for
raw material that could be worked by local
craftsmen. The bellows was employed to
generate high temperatures in the furnace
and on the anvil. There was none the less
a large knowledge of metals, minerals and
precious stones, so much so that a modern
dictionary of terms was compiled for this
ancient civilization.! 6 ] Thus gold was known
and used for jewellerry of rings, neckleaces,
buttons, studs, bracelets and earings, usually
inlaid with other materials like glass or precious
stones. Electrum (gold alloyed with silver),
silver, copper, tin, lead, iron and antimony
were all known. In addition, the first Bronze
1 1 M.Levey., Chemistry and chemical technology in ancient
Mesopotamia. Amsterdam, New York, Elsevier Pub. Co.,
1959. xi, 242 p., illus., map (on lining papers). •
A. Leo Oppenheim., "Man and nature in Mesopotamian
civilization" (15, pp. 634-666) in: C.C. Gillispie, ed.,
Dictionary of Scientific Biography. • Partington, Origins,
1936, , p. 216.
1 1 Thomson, R.C., Dictionary of Assyrian chemistry
and geology. Oxford, 1936.
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2.3 The tEgean (Crete)
Age objects dating to about 3500-3000 B.C.E.
were found in this region, with occurances
throughout the history of the civilizations,
indicating a sophisticated knowledge of copper
and tin alloying. Polished haematite was used
for making small objects such as weights,
cylinder seals, rings, bracelets, bangles, studs
and personal ornaments. But iron in this state
was costly and rare. Iron of meteoric origin also
seems to have been available in small quantities
to the Babylonians. Interestingly, the long
held association of certain planet gods with
specific metals seems to have originated with
the Sumerians. For example, silver is related
to the moon, gold to the sun, lead to Saturn,
etc.
Stone for building purposes was quarried
and consisted of diorite, alabaster, dolomite,
limestone, breccia and basalt. It was used
to erect temples, palaces and more permanent
structures. In addition, stones used for
utilitarian purposes such as mill stones were
quarried within the region. Bitumen or asphalt
is known in several locations in Mesopotamia.
It was used in creating mortar for cementing
limestone blocks or bricks together, as well as
water proofing reed baskets and the hulls of
boats, medicinal salves, and incendiary bombs
during periods of war. Naptha or petroleum
could usually be found at the bitumen deposits
and this was used for lamps in the homes and
temples. It may have also been poured on the
heads of attackers of the cities and set alight.
Gemstones were known and appreciated
from the earliest period by the Sumerians, who
had access through trade to many types and
varieties. Cutting of the gems and jewellry
creation was an early industry, and through
trade stones from Susiana, Arabia, the Pamiers,
Eastern Asia, Egypt, Nubia and India were
known. Agates, beryls and sardonyx from
Choaspes, amethysts from near Petra, and
alabaster from Damascus, jasper from near
Zenovia on the Euphrates have been identified
from archaeological sites. Bead necklaces of
roughly chipped rock-crystal, carnelian, lapis
lazuli, jasper, garnet, chalcedony, obsidian and
shell are also known. Colored glass, perhaps
used to imitate natural stones, has also been
found in the region.
There was a strong belief in the curative
and magical powers of metals and certain
stones. Together with herbs, seeds, woods,
milk, cream, butter, copper, silver, gold,
stones and gems could be added to water
and prescribed by the medical professionals as
a curative for many ills. Pure things such
as copper, gold and silver were thought to
benefitial when handled or touched. Hundreds
of tablets describing medical treatments and
prescriptions are preserved in the British
MuseumJ 7 ! Methods of perparing various
cures is preserved. Included is the notion that
the smell of copper dust is enough to cure some
diseases. Plants and minerals are thought of in
terms of female and male. The male gender
is often stronger and darker that the female
type. Partington (1936) provides a useful list
of mineral drugs listed in Assyrian texts. I 8 1
2.3 The ^gean (Crete)
After the Egyptians, a choice of material is
available for further consideration. The regions
of present day Greece, and the lands of Asia
Minor and the Middle East all developed
considerable civilizations. Following their
developmental sequence in time, the next early
people to appear were on Crete at Knossos,
which would be the center of the whole iEgean
culture. The first settlement of man in the
iEgean region was probably at Knossos in the
later (Neolithic) Stone Age. Other ancient sites
exist in Crete and the Phylakopi in Melos is
also an old site, but not as old as Knossos. Few
remnants of the Stone Age society exist. Their
Bronze Age, was characterized by advanced
metal work and pottery glazed with different
colors. Although attempts were sometimes
made to regarded it as a prehistoric Greek
civilization, the iEgean culture is more related
to Egypt than to the European Greeks, who
were of a different race.
Relations between early, perhaps Predy-
nastic, Egypt and the iEgean were intimate.
Like that well-known society, builders and ar-
tisans in the iEgean developed a well crafted
^ 1 A useful account has been compiled by: Kiichler,
Beitrage zur Kenntniss der assyrisch-babylonischen Medi-
zin. Leipzig, 1904.
I 8 1 Partington, Origins, 1936, , p. 316-317.
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2.4 Troy (Hissarlik)
technology that included stone axes, serpen-
tine maces, obsidian knives, and stone and clay
spindle whorls, but the only trace of metal was
one copper axe, perhaps imported from Egypt.
Ceramics were decorated from a very early pe-
riod with no break indicated between the Stone
and Bronze Ages.
Although there is little or no indication
that metals were mined in Crete in ancient
times, the island had the reputation of being
peopled by skilled metallurgists. Gold, silver
and copper objects, both utilitarian and
ceremonially, have been found at all of the
jEgean sites. The goldsmith's work was very
similar to the very fine silver work recovered
at Troy in Asia Minor. Based on analysis
most of this metal came mostly from Nubia by
way of Egypt, perhaps through Libya, where
there were one or two Minoan settlements and
an established intercommunication. Silver was
also used in large quantities, and is found
in pottery, jewelry, and coins of the society.
Weapons of copper including daggers, spear-
heads and axes, have been recovered, with the
metal having been imported, probably from
Africa.
Seal cylinders of agate, steatite, jasper,
magnetite, and hematite dated from about
c2000 b.c.e. have been found, showing that the
lapidaries of Crete were highly skilled in their
craft. Other engraved gems and stones of
various dates include deep purple amethyst,
transparent paste onyx, carnelian, bloodstone,
iridescent glass, hyacinth, sard, yellow and
red jasper, sardonyx, agate, garnet, spinel,
greenstone, basalt, and colored glass. Some
ornamental objects as well as beads made from
lapis lazuli are also known. Pliny said that
diamonds could be found in Crete but these
are not true diamonds, but probably sapphires
or rock crystal. Other gemstones mentioned
as originating from Crete include amethyst,
emerald (probably chrysoprase?), aquamarine,
opal, agate, jasper, and coral. Dioscurides
mentions asbestos, which has been mined in
Cyprus in modern times.
The Bronze Age also came to Knossos and
Crete with vases and basins, with the necks or
rims soldered on, have been found at Knossos.
Other bronze objects including vases, cups and
utensils became common and with weapons
finally appearing in great numbers.
Legends preserved by Hellenistic authors
also say Crete was the supposed home of
mythological beings. At the root of these fables
are perhaps the many and varied fossil bones
that are found in the Jurassic stratum of the
land. Another ancient legend may have at its
roots the events that occurred on one island
of the jEgean civilization, Santarini. It has
been shown that this island was once home
to an advanced, ancient civilization, that was
destroyed when the island's volcano erupted in
prehistoric times. This extinction may be at
the root of the fabled legend of Atlantis. In
any event after the catastrophic tsunamis that
followed the eruption spread throughout the
Mediterranean, this ancient society noticeably
declined.
2.4 Troy (Hissarlik)
Troy and the Troj an Wars are given full colorful
decriptions in Homer's masterful works, the
Illiad and the Odessy. These tales, thought
for milennia to be a work of imagination, were
shown through the excavations by Schliemann
in 1870-1890 to have decribed an actual
prehistoric city. This is Hissarlik, the ancient
citadel of Troy. It is located on a what is
now a large plain, but in its time was a broad
shaped peninsula, near the the mouth of the
Dardanelles. Its location rises from the level of
the plain to a low spur, 50 feet in height, which
is covered with layers of ruins dating back to
probably c2000 b.c.e..
The walls of the city are made from
a porous limestone, while other building of
various times are made from sun dried bricks.
In several instances marble and other stone
was used. Also clay earth and chalk, perhaps
imported from other lands, were used. Many
objects of metal, stone, and gems have been
recovered from the locality. Gold, silver,
copper, bronze, and lead, were worked with
great skill. Ivory and jade, imported from
Africa and perhaps as far away as India have
been found. Mica-schist and granite moulds
used in the casting of metals using an oper
hearth have been recovered. Other crucibles
and funnels of clay used in metal work are also
6
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2.6 Persian Empire
known. Ornamental jewelry fashioned from
gold, silver, and copper that contains rock
crystal, amethyst, jasper, coral, and similar
material has been found in the burial tombs
of the ancient citizens.
2.5 Asia Minor Pi
One of the great crossroads of ancient
civilizations is a broad peninsula that lies
between the Black and Mediterranean seas.
Called "Asia Minor" (Lesser Asia) by the
Romans, the land today forms the greater
part of modern Turkey. It lies across the
Aegean Sea to the east of Greece and is usually
known by its Greek name Anatolia. The
land of Asia Minor is among the first cradles
of human civilization. Some of the earliest
Neolithic settlements discovered in the Middle
East have been found in Asia Minor. It was the
original location of the kingdom of the Hittites
(cl900-1200 B.C.E.), with the west coast being
settled by the Greeks (1000-750 B.C.E.). It
was conquered by the Persians in 546 B.C.E.,
and remained under Persian rule until the 4th
century B.C.E., when it became a Macedonian
territory ruled by Alexander the Great. Under
Alexander's successors, the land was divided
and redivided many times by many rulers. It
was slowly taken over by the Romans. In 395,
after the division of the Roman Empire the land
became a center piece of the Byzantine Empire.
It was overrun in the 7th century by the Arabs,
and in the 11th century the Turks set up a
sultanate.
2.5.1 The Hittites! 10 !
Records of the Egyptians and Mesopotamians
cite the Hittites as one of the peoples inhabiting
Asia Minor. They probably migrated to the
region by way of the Caucasus around 2000
B.C.E.. Archae logical evidence supports the
fact that like the Egyptians, they early on
developed a written language, and based on
these records and those of other surrounding
1 1 Heleen Sancisi-Weerdenburg and Amelie Kuhrt, eds.,
Asia Minor & Egypt: Old Cultures in a New Empire. Leiden,
Eisenbrauns, 1991. xviii, 367 p.
I 10 ! J.G. MacQueen., Tile Hittites: And Their Contempo-
raries in Asia Minor. Revised edition. London, Thames &
Hudson, 1996. 176 p.
civilizations they expanded their territory
through many wars.
The Hittites and related tribes of Asia
Minor worked their land for minerals from an
early period. They operated mines in the area
providing nearly every kind of mineral and
exporting metals to the ancient world. Even
during the Roman period, even though some
deposits had been worked out, others were still
profitably exploited.
The Hittites mined vast quantities of
silver and developed metallurgical techniques
to refine and alloy it. In their language
silver was called "khattus" . Several locations
were important including one town called
'Boghazkoi' that means "town of silver" .
Artifacts of pure silver have been recovered.
These are objects of ceremonial and decorative
purposes.
Copper and bronze were also developed
in Asia Minor. Swords, spears, and other
weapons, house hold items, and decorative
objects with inlaid rock crystal, jasper,
carnelian, lapis lazuli, and shell have been
recovered. Lead in the form of galena was
mined, smelted, and exported to other lands.
Mercury in the form of cinnabar was also
recovered at some of the richest mines of the
ancient world. Sulfides of arsenic in the form
of orpiment and realgar were like wise mined.
2.6 Persian Empire
The Persian Empire was a series of historical
empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau and
the adjacent lands. The political entity which
was ruled by these kingdoms is the country of
Iran (literally "Land of Aryans"). Generally,
the earliest entity considered a part of the
Persian Empire is Persia's Achaemenid dynasty
(648-330 B.C.E.), a united Aryan-indigenous
kingdom that originated in the region now
known as Fars and was formed under Cyrus the
Great. Successive states in the region of Iran
prior to 1935 are collectively called the Persian
Empire by Western historians.
The Iranian plateau has given up very
old remains of civilizations dating to about
3000 B.C.E.. The earliest of these settlements
show no metal but contain crudely formed
pottery. Later remains include objects of
7
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2.9 Palastine
bronze, copper, gold, and silver. Copper
implements include narrow chisels, needles and
mirrors. Because the copper contains trace
quantities of antimony, arsenic and lead, it is
suspected that the copper originally came from
central Asia. Ornamental objects including
beads made from carnelian, lapis, shell, jasper,
and finger rings have also been recovered.
An Iranian civilization probably existed
from a very early period, but little is known of it
before about 550 B.C.E.. They were influenced
heavily by the Assyrians, particularly in their
language, but they developed their own unique
civilization. Early Persian authors say much
about the early battles between the Iranian
people and surrounding tribes, but much
else about their early history is shrouded
in mystery. Their country formed a bridge
between the civilizations of Asia and the
Mediterranean, and consequently, it reflects the
influences of both the east and west.
At its height the Persian Empire was a
territory of enormous extent embracing the
whole of today's Middle East and parts of
western Asia. IT was also a very wealthy
civilization. Many objects including statues
and household items made of bronze, copper,
silver, and gold have been recovered. The
Persians made much use of pearls, emeralds,
rubies, sapphires, diamonds, laps, agates,
amethyst, hematite, quartz and other stones in
many objects including jewelry. They recovered
minerals from many mines scattered through
out their territory, and produced most of the
metals used by the ancient civilizations.
2.9 Palastine!"]
An ancient country, called the Pelesheth in the
Bible, and popularly known by it Greek name
Palestine is a long broad strip of land located at
the eastern end of the Mediterranean. Roman
and Greek authors meant the whole region of
the Jews, east and west of the River Jordan,
and what is known to Christians as the Holy
t > Other historical information may be found in: Im-
manuel Low., Fauna und Minerahen der Juden. Heraus-
gegeben und mit einem Vorwort und Anmerkung versehen
von Alexander Scheiber. Hildesheim, G. Olms, 1969. xiii,
282, [11] p., portrait. [Describes the animals and minerals
in rabbinical literature and the Old Testement. 1
Land. However, in prehistoric times, it was
occuppied by the Semites, the oldest branch
known as the Canaanites, which first appear
about 2500 b.c.e..
The early peoples of Palestine were
influenced by Egypt, Babylonia, and the
Aegean cultures. Early trade with Egypt shows
that gold, silver, copper, lead, and ivory were
sent from Palestine abouth 1500 B.C.E., but
the region at the time also incorporated the
whole of Syria and a large portion of Asia
Minor. Amulets that had inlaid precious stones
worked as magical talismans were imported
from Egypt.
The old Hebrew tribes known collectively
as the Israelites first appear about 1250
B.C.E. and settled the region by the 14th
century. They orignally spoke Aramaic and
probably adopted the Hebrew language from
the Canaaites. The famous Exodus is an
obscure event with the best known refrence in
the Old Testement.
Paleolitic cultures are associated in Pales-
tine with crudely chipped flints found through-
out the region. Rudimentary pottery devel-
oped into sophisticated clay ware that were
highly decorated objects, with designs made
with glazes derived from copper, lead, and
other minerals. Glasses, tinted with mineral
salts are known from 2500 B.C.E., and show
Babylonian, Egyptian, Cyprian, and Creatian
influences.
Metals used in Palestine were gold, copper,
silver, bronze, brass, lead, and iron. Gold was
however, rare, and was not much used. Bronze
was probably imported as ingots and worked by
the local craftsmen. Objects of silver including
jewelry and household objects date from 1100
B.C.E.. Copper, bronze, brass was also used
from the same time and made into knives,
chisels, daggers, axes, saws, spoons, statues,
etc.
The Bible
The old testement of the Bible as an historical
document provides information on ancient
Palestine. The precious stone (yeqarah) was
early in use and several kinds are frequently
named in the Old Testament, although their
identification is very uncertain. It mentions
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2.10 Ancient China
an astonishing totat of 1,704 references to
gemstones and minerals under 124 Greek and
Hebrew names. These contain descriptions
probably based on information based on Greek
knowledge. Their identification is, however,
like those of other classical authors and very
conjectual. For example, the twelve stones
of Aaron's Breast Plate has been variously
described.! 12 ] The usual identification of the
stones is given as:
Jasper
(Sardius)
Citrine
(Topaz)
Emerald
Carbuncle
Lapis Lazuli
Rock Crystal
Golden
Sapphire
(Ligure)
Blue Sapphire
Amethyst
Yellow Jasper
Onyx
Chrysoprase
(Jasper)
Stones of the High Priest's Breastplate
2.10 Ancient China! 13 ]
That huge region today called China and
occupying a prominent place from central
Asia to the Pacific coast was the home of
an early civilization. Early on the Chinese
possessed a high degree of artistic quality in
their decorative arts. This included creating
fabulous carvings in jade and other stones! 14 !
! 1 For further historical information, see: William
Frederick Collins., Mineral enterprise in China. London, W.
Heinemann, [1918]. xi, [1], 308 p., maps (partly folding).
[Mines and mineral resources of China.] • Ch'iao-p'ing
Li., The chemical arts of old China. Foreword by Tenney
L. Davis. Easton, Pennsylvania, Journal of Chemical
Education, 1948. viii, 215 p., 83 b/w illustrations,
pictorial endpapers, appendices. • J. Needham., Science
and civilization in China. Cambridge [England], University
Press, 1954. [See volume 3, sections 23 (geology) and 25
(mineralogy)].
! 1 S.C. Nott, Chinese jade throughout the ages. Second
edition. • Berthold Laufer., Jade. A Study in Chinese
Archaeology and Religion. Chicago, Field Museum of
Natural History, Publication 154, Anthropological Series
Vol. X, Chicago, 1912 (reprinted in China, 1941). xiv,
370 p., 68 plates, text illus. [In the history of Chinese
mineralogy the work of Keng Hsin Yu Tshe of the Ming
Dynasty on jade is important.]
that date from the period (
B.C.E.). Gemstones such as diamond imported
from India were also very important.! 15 ] Ei
early Chinese writings on mineralogy, stones
and rocks were differentiated from metals and
alloys, and further characterized by color and
other physical properties.
The most remarkable of these writings
were a series of pharmacopoeias that included
descriptions of plants, animals, and minerals,
together with commentary on their therapeu-
tic values. Like the herbals of western tradi-
tion, these Chinese counterparts were highly
popular, and many variations appeared. The
Chi Ni Tzu that may date from the fourth cen-
tury B.C.E. includes a list of twenty-four inor-
ganic substances. The first century Shen Nung
Pen Tshao Ching (Pharmacopoeia of the Heav-
enly Husbandman) that once was a separate
work, became incorporated with the commen-
taries of the later Pen Tshao books (1596). It
describes forty-six mineral substances, arrang-
ing them into three categories based on their
value as therapeutics.
All subsequent appearances of the Pen
Tshao began with sections describing minerals
substances, though some treat them more
fully than others. Thus, 215 minerals
are treated in the Cheng Lei Pen Tshao
(Recognized Pharmacopoeia) edited by Thang
Shen- Wei around 1115 C.E., but only two or
three appear in the 670 C.E. Shih Liao Pen
Tshao (Nutritional Medicine Pharmacopoeia)
of Meng Shen. An elaborate treatment of
217 minerals occurs in the culmination of
the series, Pen Tshao Kang Mu (The Great
Pharmacopoeia) of Li Shih-Chen written about
1596. These minerals are well described
because a collection labeled specimens to those
described corresponding to those mentioned by
Li Shih-Chen were transported from China to
Europe in the eighteenth century. There they
were analyzed in the following century and fully
! 1 Berthold Laufer., The Diamond: a Study in Chinese and
Hellenistic Folk-Lore. Chicago, Chicago Field Museum of
Natural History, 1915. 75 p. [Published as: Field Museum
of Natural History Publication 184, Anthropological Series,
15, no. 1.] • T. Wada., "Schmuck und Edelsteine bei den
Chinesen," Mitteilungen der Deutschen Gesellschaft fur Natur-
und Volkerkunde Ostasiens, Tokyo, 10 (1904), p. 1-16.
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
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2.11 Ancient India
described by BiotI 16 ] and MelyJ 17 ! In 1878,
Geerts using a Japanese commentary of the
Pen Tshao Kang Mu also made a study of its
section on minerals,! 18 ! and it was the source
for another valuable descriptive catalog. I 19 l
Outside of pharmacy, Chinese literature
contains other mineralogical works. In the
Thang dynasty about 818 C.E. the important
treatise Shih Yao Erh Ya (Synoptic Dictionary
of Minerals and Drugs) was prepared by Mei
Piao. This is a remarkable glossary of terms
used by Thang dynasty alchemists, listing 335
synonyms for sixty-two chemical and mineral
substances. Scientific writings came to the
fore during the Sung dynasty and several
books devoted to minerals appeared. One
of the earliest was the Yiiyang Kung Shih
Phu (Treatise on Stones by the Venerable
Mr Yiiyang) written in the eleventh century,
but little remains of the work. About 1120
the Szechuanese monk Tsu-Khao prepared the
Hsiian-Ho Shih Phu (Hsiian-Ho Reign Period
Treatise on Stones), which described sixty-
three different stones, but only the table of
contents is extant. Perhaps the most important
work of the era is the Yiin Lin Shih Phu (Cloud
Forest Lapidary) authored by Tu Wan that
dates to about 1133. I 20 ! It describes 110 stones
and minerals.
During the Ming and Chhing periods
scientific writings tapered off considerably. The
handful of mineralogical works that appeared
include the 1617 Shih Phin (Hierarchy of
Stones) that was written by Yu Chiin, the
smaller 1665 Kuai Shih Tsan (Strange Rocks)
by Sung Lo, and the 1668 Kuan Shih Lu (On
Looking at Stones) by Kao Chao.
[16] ????
I 17 l Mely, Les Lapidaires Grecs, 1898-1902, 1, p. 11-11
^ ' A.J.C. Geerts, Les Produits de la Nature Japonaise et
Chinoise. Yokohama, 1878-83. 2 parts. [8], xi, [1], 294, [2]
p., 15 plates.; [4], [295J-662 p., 8 plates
I 19 l Bernard E. Read and Phu Chu-Ping Pak. "A
compendium of minerals and stones used in Chinese
medicine, from Pen Tshao Kang Mu, Li-Shih-Chen, 1597
A.D.," Peking-, Society of Natural History Bulletin, 3 (1928,
no. 2, [i]-vii, [1]-120 p. [Revised and reissued separately,
French Bookstore, Peiping, 1936, 2nd edition.]
1 20 J English transl., Wan Tu., Stone catalogue of Cloudy
Forest. A commentary and synopsis by Edward H. Schafer.
Berkeley, University of California Press, 1961. 116 p., illus.
2.11 Ancient India! 21 !
The Indian subcontinent including the present
days countries of Pakistan and Bangladesh was
the incubator of ancient civilizations. Evidence
suggests that parts of the region were settled as
early as 8000 B.C.E. Remains of the Paleolithic
and Neolithic age contain stone tools made of
flint. There is also evidence at prehistoric sites
that minerals were used as coloring agents in
potteries. I 22 ! Although rare, ornamental
beads of agate and other stones, as well as
implements and jewelry made from copper
have been dated to the earliest period. India
is rich in metals, minerals, and especially
gemstones that were easily recovered from
alluvial deposits along the rivers, so it is
not suprising that early on a good practical
knowledge of metals and minerals developed.
In the Indus valley the Harappan civiliza-
tion developed in prehistoric times and flour-
ished to about 1500 B.C.E. when earthquakes
caused some channels of the river to dry up and
large populations to relocate. The archaeology
sites show evidence of a wide use of minerals.
Highly decorated clay pottery and glass colored
by mineral pigments are known. Metallic ob-
jects made of gold, silver, lead, and copper have
been recovered. Beads and other ornamental
t > Other information may be found in: A.K. Biswas.,
Minerals and metals in ancient India. Report on sponsored
work (1987-91) submitted to Indian National Science
Academy, New Delhi. New Delhi, D.K. Printword Pvt.
Ltd, 1996. 2 vols. (I: 524 p.; II: 259 p., plates, biblio.,
index). [Volume I 'Travellers' accounts and archaeological
evidences'; volume II 'Literary Evidences.'] • ibid., "Gems
and minerals in ancient India," (1, 401-467) in: A.K.
Bag, ed., History of Technology in India. New Delhi,
Indian National Science Academy, 1997. 2 vols. (I: From
Antiquity to cl200 A.D., xl, 717p.; II: From 1801 to 1947,
A.D., xix, 1036 p.) • R. Krishnamurthy. , "Gemmology
in ancient India," Indian Journal of History of Science, 27
(1992), p. 251-60. * K. Muthulekshmi., The history of Indian
chemistry. Paper presented at the National Seminar on
Scientific Heritage of India at the University of Calicut,
Kerala from July 1-4, 2000. [internet citation]. • M. Ray,
"Minerals and gems in Indian alchemy," Indian Journal
for the History of Science, 26 (1991), p. 133-54. • Moriz
Winternitz., A history of Indian literature. Translated from
the original German by S. Ketkar, and revised by the
author. New York, Russell & Russell, 1927-31. 2 vols.
[History and criticism of Sanskrit literature indigenous to
India.; Reprinted, 1971.]
t ' Prafulla Ray, History of chemistry in ancient and
medieval India incorporating the history of Hindu chemistry.
Calcutta, Indian Chemical Society, 1956. 494 p., illus.
10
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objects made of local stones and imported lapis
lazuli and turquoise have been discovered. The
remnants of high temperature furnaces and fir-
ing pots are also known.
Probably during the Vedic period (3000
- 600 B.C.E.) precious stones were identified
as jewels (mani) and separated from more
common materials. The fine polish given to
rocks, minerals, and gems of the period show
that the technical art of polishing had reached
a high level. The process involved garnet and
corundum grit of decreasing size used to flatten,
smooth, and finally polish the stones surface.
Iron and a bronze like alloy of copper and tin
were discovered late in the period.
The Harappans developed extensive trade
within and outside of India. Like the ancient
cultures of the Middle East they made many
articles out of metals, semiprecious stones and
other minerals. India was linked by land
and sea routes to central Asia, Afghanistan,
and Iran and is evidenced by the discovery of
tin, lapis lazuli, turquoise and other minerals
not native to the Harappan culture at various
archaelogical sites.
Indian medicine consisted mainly of drugs
made from native plants. However, other
medications employed minerals. Sanskrit texts
mention the use of bitumen, rock salt, yellow
orpiment, chalk, alum, bismuth, calamine,
realgar, stibnite, saltpeter, cinnabar, arsenic,
sulfur, yellow and red ochre, black sand, and
red clay in prescriptions. Among the metals
used were gold, silver, copper, mercury, iron,
iron ores, pyrite, tin, and brass. Mercury
appeared to have been the most frequently
used, and it is called by several names in the
texts.
During the Buddhist period (600 B.C.E.-
1200 C.E.) the trade routes were extended
to far away cultures. The Sumerians and
Egyptians were trading for Indian products.
Precious stones imported from India were used
as decorations in the breast plates of their high
priests. The Minoan, Phoenicians and Cretan
traders appear to have also had an active
commercial trade with India. The subcontinent
was linked by land and sea routes to central
Asia, Afghanistan, China, and Iran. That
trading occurred with these regions is shown
2.11 Ancient India
by the discovery of lapis lazuli, turquoise,
and other minerals not native to Indian
territory. Around 25 B.C.E. the Romans began
commercial commerce with India that would
last for centuries. Pliny mentions frequently
that India is the source of many minerals and
gems. Various goods desired by the Romans
and in very great demand included agates,
onyx, rock crystal chalcedony, bloodstone,
red jasper, opal, sapphire, ruby, jadeite,
moonstone, aquamarine, emerald, garnet,
zircon, pearls, ivory, and diamond. India in
exchange brought in from the Roman Empire
copper, lead, arsenic (realgar, orpiment),
antimony (stibnite), mercury (cinnabar), and
tin.
Gemology (Ratnapariksa)
India and old Ceylon, an island located off its
southeast coast, remained throughout ancient
times and until the eighteenth century the
single known source for diamonds, emeralds,
sapphires, and other precious gems. The
ceaseless commerce that built up around the
gemstone trade little by little brought about a
series of rules that guided the Indian merchants
in estimating the values of gems that evolved
into a common law of transactions. Stones
were cataloged, their density measured, as were
other characteristics like color and sparkle.
Lists were compiled describing a stones
qualities and defects. All localities that were
sources for the gems were also recorded, which
allowed a detailed comparison to distinguish
specimens form different locations.
Later, as skillful forgers made good
imitation jewels, and it became necessary
to discover means of recognizing authentic
gems form other material. The whole of
observations formed a body of doctrines called
'ratnapariksa' (appreciation of the gems). The
oldest mention of ratnapariksa occurs in the
ancient Kamasatra.
In the ratnapariksa tradition, colors and
the places of origin were fully used to catalog
the qualities, defects, and set a price of the
stones. It is, however, not clear when this
general knowledge was formally compiled and
recorded in a formal treatise. But Finot firmly
believed that it was well before the Christian
11
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2.11 Ancient India
It would be a mistake to consider the
ratnapariksd as a simple handbook for the use
of jewelers. Undoubtedly, it formed a necessary
tool to one of the chief branches of commercial
instruction. The skill to examine and judge
the quality of the gem rough was a valuable
talent that was vital to creating the best cut
stones. But the ratnapariksd also formed an
early method to distinguish gem mineral by
means of physical properties.
Knowledge of how the early Indian soci-
eties viewed precious stones and other miner-
als is preserved in a few ancient and precious
Sanskrit manuscripts. Finot in his indispens-
able Lapidaires Indiens (1896) gives descrip-
tions and French translations of six of these
ancient Indian works. Gemology transmit-
ted through the doctrines of ratnapariksd was
transmitted in a series of more or less complete
treatises across several centuries.
1. — Ratnapariksd of Buddhabhatta
This work consists of 252 stanzas of a
varied meters and is attributed to a Buddhist
named Buddhabhatta. Of this author, nothing
including the period in which he lived, is
known. His work appears also not to be
an original work, but a shortened version
of an unknown manuscript. The compiler,
himself, indicates that he is presenting a simple
summary of the Ratnapariksd that treats the
principle gems. I 24 '
2. — Brhatsamhitd of Varahamihira
This is also a long fragment of the
Ratnapariksd. It was compiled by Var a hmihira
[505-587 c.E.]. Finot believes it to have been
written using the same source material as the
work by Buddhabhaita had accessed, because
based on textual content, neither text was the
direct source for the other. It enumerates 22
species of stone of which 16 are common to the
Buddhabhatta book. Also, the scale of prices
used to value diamonds differs somewhat in
the two texts, but the method for determining
values is identical. This strongly points to
another Ratnapariksd having once existed that
was the source for both of these other books,
I 23 l Finot, Lapidaires Indiens, 1896, p. ??
t > Finot, Lapidaires Indiens, 1896, p. vi.
but which a rather complete summary is given
by Buddhabhatta and a long fragment by
Varahamihira.
These works were themselves used as
sources, usually with major rewriting and
almost always unattributed. The Garuda-
Purana of the thirteenth century contains
many entries on gemstones without citation.
Another compilation entitle, Gai-nda-Purana
also was derivative of the earlier work.! 25 '
3. — Agastimata
The Agastimata is one of the most
important extant early treatises on precious
stones. Although generally, it has features
common with Buddhabhatta's work, the detail
it offers differs so much, they must be
regarded as representatives of two states of
the tradition that have significantly diverged
from one another. The Agastimata appears,
therefore, to be a more recent transmission
of its information, with elaborate descriptions
and a precise nomenclature. Unfortunately,
the date of composition of this work can not
be achieved with any accuracy. Because of
its description of pearls, Finot says it was
written well with in the Christian era, and was
probably composed in southern most India. I 26 l
4. — Navaratnapariksd
The Navaratnapariksd is a good summary
of knowledge of precious stones, written in a
clear and simple style. It was known by Finot
in two manuscript recessions, the longest being
183 stanzas.
5. — Ratnapariksd of Agastiya
The Ratnapariksd is known in only a
single manuscript. It is a compendium
of approximately 100 stanzas that repeats
traditional doctrines on the gems. Attributed
to Agastiya, it is according to Finot original in
its detail, but is unfortunately corrupted with
serious gaps in the text. I 27 !
6. — Laghu-Ratnapariksd
The Ratnasangraha is a short summary
in 22 verses, with each stone the subject of
two stanzas, the first enumerating the stone's
qualities, and the other giving the defects.
I 25 l Finot, Lapidaires Indiens, 1896, p. ?? — 1812 edition.
I 26 l Finot, Lapidaires Indiens, 1896, p. ??
1 27 J Finot, Lapidaires Indiens, 1896, p. ??
12
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2.12 Ancient Greece
According to Finot, it is in the form of a dialog
between Civa and P°rvat i discussing the virtues
of stones.
2.12 Ancient Greece
Ancient Greece was the cradle of an early
and influential civilization. About the sixth
century B.C.E. the change from a bronze to an
iron based society brought about many social
and economic changes, including a general
reevaluation of the natural world. The science
of other civilizations such as Babylon and
Egypt percolated over a long period into
the Greek philosophy, eventually forming a
'natural philosophy'. This philosophy was a
general ordering of knowledge that was quite
rational in its character. In the important
Ionian trade center of Miletos located on
the coast of Asia Minor, where the cultures
of the surrounding Babylonian and Egyptian
civilizations commingled, this proto-science
first developed. In that city about 575 B.C.E. a
'school' was founded that nurtured several early
important Greek scientists. Their philosophical
ideas would form the first nucleus of Greek
science.
One of the earliest Greek authors who
incidentally mentioned minerals is Thales of
Miletos, I 28 ! who wrote that iron ores may
be found in Lydien. Believing that it was
alive because it attracted iron, he described the
magnet as having a soul.! 29 ! This may be
the earliest record of the magnet, which is a
natural form of the mineral magnetite. Thales
also believed that the most important principle
of the universe was water. Unfortunately no
writings of his have survived.
A follower of Thales was ANAXIMAN-
DROS I 30 ! who wrote a prose work On Na-
ture (nepi fi-uoea) circa 546 b.c.e., which only
survives in fragments. The later Greek writer
Theophrastus who had a copy of the book avail-
able, says Anaximandros considered philosophy
[28] Thales [c624-c548 B.C.E.] was an Ionian, with possibly
some Phoenician ancestry. He is considered one of the
founders of Greek science and philosophy. He traveled
extensively for a long period in Egypt, where he learned
their mathematics and astronomy.
I 29 l Partington, History of Chemistry, 1971, 1, pt. 1, p. 6-7.
[ 3 °] Anaximandros of Miletos [610-c545 B.C.E.], an Ionian,
was a pupil of Thales.
as a principle of all things indefinite.! 31 ] No
writings of his have survived.
AnaximenesI 32 ! followed Anaximandros
idea of the non-limited in quantity but gave it a
definite quality that he called 'air' or 'breath'.
He was not thinking of air in the current sense
but as an invisible quality that became visible
only when it combined with fire, water, or
earth. He thought that air with fire condensed
to form clouds, water, earth and stones, with
decreasing density formed. Air was in constant
motion providing unexpected combinations.
Recording the ideas and philosophies of
these early thinkers was also paramount to
developing a true scientific approach. The
adoption and reworking by the Greeks of an
alphabetical writing system first developed in
Asia Minor about 1200 B.C.E. made it possible
to preserve and distribute within their society
all manner of information. Perhaps among
the first information recorded were the popular
narratives that were a staple of the Greek oral
tradition of singers. These tales copied and
recopied countless times into new manuscripts
have passed through the ages, preserving some
of the earliest results of human thought.
The best of these preserved stories are
the epic poems attributed to Homer I 33 l who
flourished about 1000 B.C.E. Homer's books
known as the Iliad (Hia8) and the Odyssey
(08vcc£ia) I 34 l are called the "Greek miracle"
because these magnificent poems mark the
beginning of European literature. Being as
they are a history of warfare in Greece, they
I 31 ! Partington, History of Chemistry, 1971, 1, pt. 1, p. 7-
8. ■ Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1,
p. 72.
1 1 Anaximenes of Miletos \fl. 546 B.C.E.] was an Ionian
philosopher.
t > Homer is considered the greatest epic poet of Greece.
He may be a composite of several persons, but if he lived
at all, he was likely a European Greek rather than Ionian,
because he lived in the ninth century B.C.E., before Asia
Minor was colonized. He is also said to have been blind.
Refs. Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1,
p. 52-56.
P 4 J The editio princeps of the Iliad and the Odyssey "was
published in Florence in 1488 by Demetrios Chalcondylas.
There are thousands of other editions, translations,
abstractions, and commentaries published since then. The
English translation by A.T. Murray of the Iliad and
Odyssey in four volumes of the Loeb Library, London, 1919-
25 is very useful.
13
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2.12 Ancient Greece
implicitly contain descriptions of the earliest
accounts of knowledge and craftsmanship in
Europe. They are full of magic and romance,
containing much on social life, that is at
once superstitious and moral, and giving an
account of the beginning of urban life and
culture. Subordinately, the poems also contain
references to gems and other stones that were
either incidental to the story or important
elements. They provide the earliest record
of the knowledge possessed by the ancients
with regard to minerals and the mineralogical
content of these remarkable literary works have
been the subject of studies. I 35 '
The silver ores of Laurium (Aocupioi))
located in the southern region of Attica,
were known from very early times, perhaps
even prehistoric, but were first developed into
mines by the Greek state about 483 B.C.E.,
and exploited for some time afterward.! 36 ]
The ancient shafts and tools recovered from
the site have provided valuable insight into
ancient mining techniques. But the economic
importance of the minerals recovered from
these mines was substantial, as it provided
a large revenue to the Athenian government.
Being state property that was partitioned
among the capitalist citizens, the mines were
worked exclusively by slaves. Sometime after
480 B.C.E., the revenue was diverted to build
a fleet of ships that gave naval supremacy to
Athens. It is also possible that portions of
the money financed the building of some of the
famous marble architecture of the city. By the
last half of the first century B.C.E. the mines
were exhausted and the tailings were being
reworked, and by the second century C.E. the
t > Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Griechen und Romer, 1861,
p. 1-6. • Aubin Louis Millin [1759-1818]., Mineralogie
Homerique; ou Essai sur Jes Mineraux, dont il est fait mention
dans Jes Poemes d'Homere. Strasbourg et Paris, 1790. xiv,
118 p. • ibid., Mineralogie Homerique, ou Essai Sur Les
Mineraux, Dont il est fait mention dans Jes Poemes d'Homere.
Second edition. Paris, 1816. 8, [ix]-xviij, [2], 199, [1] p.
• ibid. , German transl., Mineralogie des Homer. Konigsberg
und Leipzig, 1793. 22, [2], 126 p.
t > Anonymous., "Der Bergbau und die Mineralien von
Laurion, Griechland," Emserhefte, Halten, Germany, Bode
Verlad Gmbh., 2-94 (1994), 80 p., illus. • Edouard
Ardaillon., Les mines du Laurion dans Vantiquite. Paris,
1897. 218 p., illus. * William Kohlberger., "Minerals of
the Laurium mines, Attica, Greece," Mineralogical Record,
7 (1978), 114-125.
mines were no longer exploited.
Pythagoras! 37 ] may have been one of
history's greatest thinkers, but it is difficult
to say how much of what is attributed to
him is authentic. He flourished about 530
B.C.E. and is sometimes seen as a man of
science, and at other times a disciple of mystic
ideas. Legends attached to his name at
an early time and it is now impossible to
say with certainty much about his life. He
came from Samos and founded at Kroton, a
Greek colony in southern Italy, a brotherhood
including woman that was a combination of
religion, science, and community. It was viewed
with suspicion by the surrounding community,
and Pythagoras and his followers viewed with
mistrust. Eventually, the group was forced
to disband, with Pythagoras himself fleeing to
Metapontion where he is said to have died.
A mathematical genius, Pythagoras de-
veloped techniques to solve geometrical prob-
lems. His most famous solution being called
the Pythagorem theorem that says the square
of the length of the hypotenuses of any right tri-
angle is the addition of the squares of the two
other sides: a 2 + b 2 = c 2 . He is also credited
with discovering the numerical ratios that de-
termine the concordant intervals of the musical
scale. Pythagoras' focus on applying rigid logic
to solving real problems was revolutionary.
An important upswing in mineralogy and
all other sciences occurred when problems
were solved by Pythagoras application of
thought and logic. The Pythagorean school
viewed the cosmos as five interlocked geometric
shapes, i.e., cube, tetrahedron, octahedron,
icosahedron, and pentagonal dodecahedron. A
viewpoint that for better or worse flowed into
the following centuries. They saw the earth
as an ordered unit that could be analyzed,
dissected, and understood by the human mind.
This conception that man could decipher the
secrets of nature was the real, lasting legacy of
Pythagoras and his school of thought.
In the classical age, the scientific study of
minerals as it is thought of in modern terms
did not exist. Instead, minerals in the classical
I 3 ' J Pythagoras [ft. 532 B.C.E.] was a native of Samos, and
was one of the best Greek philosophers and mathematician.
14
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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2.12 Ancient Greece
age were more the object of philosophical
speculation more than laborious observation
because there were at the time few aids to
guide the researcher. Besides, the number of
scientists or natural philosophers in Greece at
the time was not large, and the majority of
ideas that have managed to survive to the
present show more attention to mathematically
attuned studies like astronomy. Those few
writings that do mention minerals are usually
simple mentions of locations of ore deposits
or simple descriptions of the mineral or metal
under discussion. Nevertheless mineralogy as
it developed in ancient Greece experienced an
important upswing that was not achieved again
until 2000 years later during the Renaissance.
Writing in the early eighth century B.C.E.
HesiodI 38 ! in his Works and Days (Epyoc
Km rpepm.) I 39 l provides descriptions of
animal husbandry, naval navigation, a calendar
of lucky and unlucky days, etc. Hesiod
conceives of Five World Ages, four of which he
characterizes by matching them to the metals,
gold, silver, bronze, and iron. This idea may be
Babylonian in origin but is none the less very
interesting. He also references a small selection
of minerals, including chalk and amber. I 40 !
About 440 b.c.e. HerodotosI 41 ! au-
thored The Persian Wars (llepi youepaeu yev-
eoudo)! 42 ! in nine books that contains much
on science and ethnographic lore, including his
t > Hesiod was born in the first half of the eighth century
B.C.E. in Ascra, near Mount Helicon in Boeotia. He is
called the father of Greek didactic poetry. Refs. Sarton,
Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. 57.
[S9\ ^he editio princeps of the Works and Days was
published in Milan in 1493 by Demetrios Chalcondylas,
and a collected edition of his "works appeared from the
famous Aldine press in 1495. Many other editions have
appeared. One of the best in English is Hugh Gerard
Evelyn- White's edition of Hesiod, The Homeric Hymns and
Homerica, London, Loeb Classical Library, 1914.
t > Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Griechen und Romer, 1861,
p. 6-7.
1 41 J Herodotos of Halicarnassos [c484-425 B.C.E.] was a
Greek historian, and is sometimes called the father of
history. He traveled extensively throughout the regions of
the Mediterranean, lived in Samos, then Athens during the
ascendancy of Pericles. Refs. Sarton, Introduction to the
History of Science, 1927, 1, p. 105-106. • World Who's Who
in Science, 1968, p. 789.
t > The first printed edition was published by Aldo
Manuzio in Venice in 1502. Many other renditions have
been published.
first hand descriptions of a prehistoric Macedo-
nian lake village and an account of the eclipse in
the spring of 480 B.C.E. But no eclipse occurred
in that year! He also gives a long discussion of
the Nile river and deduced from the presence
of fossilized shells that lower Egypt was once
covered by the sea. I 43 ! Scattered through out
are mentions of a large variety of metals and
minerals including sources for iron, copper, tin,
gold, silver, ivory, and amber.! 44
Thucydides! 45 ] writing about 404 b.c.e.
mentions the lava fields of Aetna in his
history of the Peloponnesian War, which he
witnessed. I 46 l This history is a literary
classic, in which Thucydides also provides a
brief account of the evolution of Greek society
from the earliest times to his own era.
According to Lenz, I 4 ?] XenophonI 48 '
writing about 330 B.C.E. mentions lead ore in
his Cyropaedia (KtipoTiaiSeia).! 49 ] Empedo-
CLESl 50 ! describes sulfurous gases emanating
from certain areas of ground in Sicily, and was
I 43 ! Geikie, Founders of Geology. London, 1905, p. 7, 28,
32-33 & 36.
t > Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Griechen und Romer, 1861,
p. 7-14.
I 45 l Thucydides [c460-400/395 B.C.E.], an Athenian, was
one of the first historians and one of the greatest of all
times. His is sometimes called the founder of scientific
historiology. Refs. Sarton, Introduction to the History of
Science, 1927, 1, p. 106.
1 1 Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Griechen und Romer, 1861,
p. 14.
1 1 Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Griechen und Romer, 1861,
p. 15-16.
I 48 l Xenophon [c430-354 B.C.E.] was a Greek natural
philosopher and historian, who was once a student of
Socrates. He worked as a mercenary for the Greeks in a
campaign in Persia. After a defeat he successfully directed
a retreat of the soldiers back to Greece. He authored a
number of works in philosophy and history. Refs. Sarton,
Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. 122-123. ■
World Who's Who in Science, 1968, p. 1831.
l 49 J Cyropaedia. First edition, Rome, 1474. A Greek and
English edition in two volumes is part of the Loeb Library,
1914.
I 50 ! Empedocles [Agrigentum, Sicily, c490-Mt. Etna, 430
B.C.E.] was a native of a Greek colony located in Sicily.
He was a follower of Pythagorean philosophy. A political
leader in Akragas, he helped overthrew a tyrannical ruler,
but refused the throne when it was offered. He was
then exiled and he wandered through Greece and other
Mediterranean regions. In his time, he was considered a
prophet, miracle worker, poet, and physician. Refs. Sarton,
Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. 87. • World
Who's Who in Science, 1968, p. 523-524.
15
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by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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2.12 Ancient Greece
the first to formulate the concept of nature con-
sisting of four basic elements: earth, water, fire,
and water. This would later become a founda-
tion concept in Plato's and Aristotle's view of
the physical world.
Plato! 51 ! was the founder of an academy
in Athens whose philosophical work was not
focused on the natural world. Nevertheless,
his writings on chemistry and other aspects of
nature including minerals were influential.! 52 ]
Plato believed that metals formed from water
solidifying within the intense cold of the
earth, while other minerals were created from
combinations of fire and water. However,
Plato's studies of minerals were very limited,
and it was left to his most famous pupil to
explore and expand generally on his teachers
theories about nature.
2.12.1 Aristotle
Aristotle! 53 ! is perhaps the most famous
of the ancient scholars due to the vast
scope of disciplines his writings touched upon.
He was a critic of literature, scientist, and
philosopher. He also had a strong interest in
I 51 ! Plato [Athens, Greece, 427/8-Athens, Greece, 347
B.C.E.] is one of the most famous Greek philosophers.
Plato was a student of Socrates, and after his execution
he traveled extensively. He returned to Athens where he
founded in 387 B.C.E.a school for research that is considered
the first university. His writings are a staple of learning to
the present time.
! ' Edmund O. von Lippmann., Abhandlungen und
vortrage zur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften. Leipzig,
Veit, 1906-1913. 2 vols. [The volumes contain accounts
of the chemical knowledge of the ancient authors.]
1 1 Aristotle [Stagira, Chaldice, near Macedon, Greece,
384 B.C.E.-Chalcis, Island of Euboea, Greece, 332 B.C.E.]
was the son of Nicomachus, physician to King Amynas II
of Macedon. He became a student of Plato, at the Athens
Academy, 367-347 B.C.E. Afterward he traveled throughout
the Greek world, especially Asia Minor, 347-342 B.C.E. He
was appointed by Phillip II of Macedon to be tutor to his
son (later called Alexander the Great). Aristotle founded
and was a teacher of the Lyceum (or Peripatos) in Athens,
335-323 B.C.E. In 323 B.C.E., he retired to Chalcis upon
death of his guardian, Alexander the Great. He is the
founder of the systematic study of symbols and logic and
theory of symbolism which enabled him to develop logic
as a science. He collected facts about the natural "world
around him through personal observation. These he then
recorded in a series of monographs which were handed
down through manuscript until the invention of printing.
Aristotle, as a teacher, had great influence on his students,
with his ideas and ideas attributed to him, becoming the
cornerstone of western science and philosophy for one and
a half millennia. Refs. Xxx xxxx xxxx.
physical science and biology, and authored his
Meteorlogia (MexecopffiXcoyiKa) that included
discussions of a number of sciences such as
astronomy, geology, and seismology, besides
meteorology. I 54 l It was typical of his
age that the natural sciences were not yet
differentiated into individual studies, but part
of an overall natural philosophy. In this context
Aristotle developed a concept of how the earth
functioned.
Aristotle believed that all physical matter
was created by various combinations of two
natural exhalations. They were created when
the sun warmed the earth.
1. Vaporous, which is cool and moist, and formed from
the water and earth.
2. Windy or smoky, which is hot and dry and formed
solely by the earth itself. It rises above the more
watery exhalation and exists in the zone of fire.
Airs, clouds, lightning are created by the
exhalations. They also combine with in the
earth to make bodies. The vaporous forms
the metals, including the ores, such as iron,
gold, silver, and copper. The smoky exhalation
forms the other minerals and fossils. These
include the insoluble like realgar, ochre, and
sulfur. He considered most minerals to be made
of colored dust such as cinnabar. The ductile
or fusible metals such as gold and copper were
theorized to form by the entrapment of the
vaporous exhalation, particularly within stones
whose dryness compresses and solidifies.
Aristotle's model also presents heat and
cold as active qualities. Heat, he said, is of
three kinds: ripening, boiling, and roasting.
Cold also consists of three types: rawness,
scalding, and scorching. These had been used
by Hippocrates in his On Ancient Medicine.
which was perhaps Aristotle's source. The
effects of heat and cold interacting with the two
exhalations are said to form the whole of the
physical world.
Many stones, gold, silver, copper, tin, and
lead are composed of water and are melted by
heat. Liquids like water, wine, urine, vinegar
I 54 l Bibliography
Wanting
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On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
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are made solid by cold. Wood, bone, horn,
bark, leaves, and vegetables are composed of
earth in varying proportions, because some of
these substances are softened by fire, while
some give of fumes. Semen and blood are
composed of earth, water, and air.
Homogenous bodies that include plants,
animals, and minerals have passive qualities
that can be used to distinguish them.
Aristotle lists them as solidifiable, meltable,
softened by heat or water, flexible, breakable,
fragmentabale, plastic, ductile, malleable,
fissible, cuttable, viscous, friable, compressible,
and combustible. His distinguishing qualities
thus defined, Aristotle describes the metals and
non-metals.
The occasional remarks Aristotle makes
in his writings about minerals and stones
follow the theory of Empedokles that first
theorized the four basic elements of earth, air,
fire, and water that was further developed
by Plato to say that the metals formed
distinctive ores because of the fusibility of
water inside the earth, while the non-metals
were formed by earth alone. Aristotles' scant
descriptions of minerals and their formation
in the Meteorologia was in many respects the
authoritative text for mineralogy for centuries
afterward. His conception of minerals was left
to one of his brightest students to elaborate.
2.12.2 Theophrastus
Aristotle's pupil, Theophrastus! 55 ] authored
a large number of works on both philosophy and
science. His best know book is the Characters
(XapaKTipEo) that gives a series of vignettes of
human characters probably based on Aristotle's
Ethics. Theophrastus' Plantis (llepi <t>ma>v
oo/tUDv) and De Lapidibus (llepi XiBccu) are
his best known scientific works. The later
work, De Lapidibus or On Stones is the oldest
treatise dealing exclusively with minerals, and
it is important not only in the development
[55] Theophrastus [Ereos, Island of Lesbos, Greece, c371
B.C.E. -Athens, Greece, 287 B.C.E.] studied at Athens and
became an ardent supporter of Plato's philosophies. While
there, he became a pupil and friend of Aristotle, and when
Aristotle went into exile, Theophrastus succeeded him
as the leader and principal spokesman of the Peripatetic
school of philosophy — a leadership he held until his death.
Refs. Xxx xxxx xxxx.
2.12 Ancient Greece
of mineralogy but also in the technology of
chemistry. I 56 !
The text of De Lapidibus is written as
a series of 69 paragraphs that suggest it
is a series of lecture notes rather than a
formal treatise. Some passages contain obvious
additions that appear to be notes appended
to the more detailed information. If true,
It seems possible then that this book is a
set of lecture notes as the author might have
delivered them to students in the gardens
of the Lyceum almost two millennia ago.
Incredibly, the text of the treatise appears to
have survived to the present little changed
from what was originally written. All books
that have survived from the ancient period
have made their passage through time by a
tradition of manuscript copying. Invariably, as
the scribes copied and recopied manuscripts,
mistakes were unwittingly introduced. The
fact that De Lapidibus exists in only a few
manuscripts that when compared show few
differences, suggests that Theophrastus' work
is probably very close to what was originally
written.
The text gives a Peripatetic view of the
origin of minerals and stones, and upon this
foundation suggested by Aristotle and Plato,
modifications are introduced. Metals are
said to be composed of water, while stones
and mineral earths are composed solely of
earth. A mineral forms because its elementary
substance has been purified through filtration,
and its degree of purity can be determined
by examining such qualities as its smoothness,
density, luster, and transparency. The primary
interest in the work are the descriptions of
specific minerals. Theophrastus divides them
into two broad categories, Earths and Stones,
under which about fifty distinct 'species' are
recognized. A commentary is attached to
each mineral, where in the author recounts
various physical properties such as texture,
color, transparency, hardness, luster, and
density, as well as the practical uses. Thus
described, it is possible to apply modern names
I 56 l Bibliography
Wanting
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On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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2.12 Ancient Greece
to the species Theophrastus described over
eighteen centuries ago, and read the Classical
theories about marble, pumice, onyx, gypsum,
amber, pyrite, coal, azurite, chrysocolla,
realgar, orpiment, cinnabar, quartz, lapis
lazuli, emerald, sapphire, ruby, and diamond.
By recording the physical properties of the
minerals, this work set an high standard for
other mineralogical writings. Theophrastus is
in fact the first investigator to methodically
treat mineral substances for themselves rather
than for their magical or curative properties,
and he may be considered the best and most
accurate mineralogist among the ancients.
The bodies that formed in the earth owe
their origin to water (the metals) and others to
the earth (the stones).
The mineralogical text of Theophrastus
was the most substantial written in the
ancient period. Not until the time of Pliny
did something comparable appear, but even
that was based in part on Theophrastus.
Nevertheless other ancient authorities touched
upon mineralogical subjects. Apart from the
philosophical explanations about the origin
or composition of minerals, localities of ore
deposits and mines are frequently noted.
Medical uses of minerals were also an important
area of study. This shows a trend toward
overall accuracy.
2.12.3 Agatharchides
Agatharchides or Agatharchus,! 57 ! wrote
works about Asia and Europe, styled on the on
the writings of Thucydides. Long extracts from
a work of his about the Red Sea are contained
in Photius, who appreciated the style of their
writing as well as their content. He describes
locations where gold sands may be recovered
(placer deposits?), as well as lead, salt, and
some tin.! 58 !
2.12.4 Damigeron
t > Agatharchides of Cnidus, was a Greek historian and
geographer, who lived in the time of Ptolemy Philometor
(181-146 B.C.E.) and his successors.
t > Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 21-22. • Lenz, Geschichte der Griechen und
Romer Mineralogie, 1861, p. 29-31. • Sarton, Introduction to
the History of Science, 1927, 1, 11-11.
Damigeron! 59 ! drew heavily on Pliny
in his descriptions of stones and minerals,
when he composed his second century C.E.
poem, De Virtutibus Lapidum (The Marvelous
Stones). I 60 ! In his list of stones that
possess supernatural properties he lists rock
crystal, diamond, jasper, opal, chrysolith,
magnet, coral, agate, heamatite, sardoynx, and
emerald. Other than the charmed properties
of the stones, little other material is given to
distinguish the stones. Orpheus' Lithica seems
to draw heavily on Damigeron's lapidary. I 61 l
2.12.5 Diodorus Siculus
A native of Sicily, Diodorus Siculus was a
Greek historian who authored his Bibliotheca
Historica (Historical Library) I 62 ! in Greek that
is thought to have consisted of 40 books, but
which parts of only 15 have survived. It gives a
history of the world from its creation to about
60 B.C.E. Lacking any overall arrangement of
the descriptions, it is nonetheless a valuable
collection of materials from many sources that
are now lost. Among his commentary, he gives
occasional notes to traveler's that touch upon
mineral topics. Some of the most interesting
passages are quotations from Agatharchides on
mining in Egypt and the recovery of tin in the
British Isles. He also covers Arabia, Ethiopia,
1 J Damigeron ...
[ ]
[ Biography Needed ]
[ ]
I- -I Damigeron et varii ethnicse vetustatis scriptores de
virtutibus lapidum, (3, pp. 324-335), in: J.B. Pitra, ed.,
Cardinal. Spicilegium Solesmense, 1855. [BL, 3622. c. 2.].
• Damigeron., De virtutibus lapidum. The virtue of stones.
Attributed to Damigeron. Translated by Patricia P. Tahil.
Edited by Joel Radcliffe. Seattle, Ars Obscura, 1989.
vii, 75 p., illus., notes. • R. Halleux and J. Schamp.,
Les lapidaires grecs. Lapidaire orphique, kerygmes lapidaires
d'Orphee, Socrate et Denys, lapidaire nautique, Damigeron-
Evax. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 1985. xxxiv, 349 p., notes.
1-1 Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 32. • Mieleitner, Geschichte der
Miner alogie, 1922, p. ??-??. • Sarton, Introduction to the
History of Science, 1927, 1, ??-??.
[62] The first print editions were in Latin, 1472, and in
Greek in 1539; the first translation into English was by
Thomas Stocker, London, 1568, and later by G. Booth,
1700. ...
[ ]
f Wanting 1
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2.12 Ancient Greece
India, describing large animals, plants, and
stones. Common of the time, he believed
that rock crystal is pure water that has been
frozen to rock by heavenly forces. Emerald and
aquamarine derive their colors directly from
heaven while topaz receives its color from the
sun. He records that amber is found around
the islands of the north (probably in the Baltic
sea), and that it floats on the water there. In
Babylon he describes asphalt where it is used
as a building material, and describes the alkali
waters of the dead sea, which are bitter to
the taste. Locations around the Mediterranean
and the Near East where precious and other
ornamental stones are recovered are noted, as
are metal mines. I 63 !
2.12.6 Dioscorides
The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorid-
es I 64 ! is famous for his De Materia
Medical in five volumes which enumerates
the plant, animal, and mineral pharmaceutical
preparations he used in his medical practice. It
appeared between 50 and 70 C.E., and became
the model for all modern pharmacopoeias,
because it focused on the manufacture,
properties, and testing of drugs. As was
the case with many Greek medical texts, De
Materia Medica was treated as dogma for
many centuries, and in fact Dioscoride's text
remained a valuable addition to any physician's
library until about 1600.
^ 1 Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 22-23. • Lenz, Geschichte der Griechen
und Romischen Mineralogie, 1861, p. 32-38. • Sarton,
Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1, ??-??.
[o4] p e danius Dioscorides [c40 in Anazarbus, Cilcia -
c90] was an ancient Greek physician who worked in the
Roman empire. He was a pharmacologist and botanist who
practiced in Rome at the times of Nero. He was a surgeon
"with the army of the emperor so he had the opportunity
to travel extensively seeking medicinal substances from
all over the Roman and Greek "world. Refs. John M.
Riddle., Dioscorides on pharmacy and medicine. Foreword
by John Scarborough. Austin, University of Texas Press,
1985. xxviii, 298 p., illus. • ibid., "Dioscorides,"
(pp. 1-143) in: P.O. Kristeller and F.E. Cranz, eds.,
Catalogus translationum et commentarioum: Medieval and
Renaissance Latin Translations and Commentaries, 4, Catholic
Univiversity of America Press, Washington, 1980.
I 65 l Bibliography ...
[ ]
Wanting 1
To write his reference, during his lifetime,
Dioscorides traveled extensively seeking medic-
inal substances from all over the Roman and
Greek world. He benefited greatly from the
ease of travel across wide stretches of territory
under the control of the Roman Empire at the
height of its growth. Furthermore, he had ac-
cess to a large number of medical manuscripts.
To some extent Dioscorides and Pliny appear
to have used the same sources for their descrip-
tions, put Pliny's treatment is the better of the
two. Dioscorides' work also has some minor ad-
ditions from Arabian and Indian sources.
The fifth book of the De Materia Medica
deals with wine and minerals, and chapters 84
to 185 contain Dioscorides' descriptions about
one hundred different preparations derived
from minerals. I 66 l In addition to most of
the substances known before, he, so far as
can be identified, adds schist, cadmia (blende
or calamine), chalcitis (copper sulphide), misy,
melanteria, spry (copper or iron sulphide
oxidation minerals). He describes the making
of certain artificial products, such as copper
oxides, vitriol, litharge, pompholyx, and spodos
(zinc and 1 or arsenical oxides). His principal
interest for us, however, lies in the processes set
out for making his medicines.
2.12.7 Strabo
The later Grecian writer STRABO,! 67 ! in
his seventeen volume Geography (GREEK), I 68 !
gave full descriptions of all parts of the
known world. Writing in Greek about 7
C.E., his fascinating pictures of the history
and geography of the Roman territories or the
'Inhabited World' as it was known at the time,
is particularly interesting for the descriptions
of the geo-political landscape during the early
years of the Roman Empire. This was the time
^ 1 Adams, Birth and Development of Geological Sciences,
1938, p. 23-24. • Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Griechen und
Romer, 1861, p. 67-79.
1 1 Biography ...
[ ' ]
[ Wanting ]
[ }Refs. Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, 1927,
1, p. ??-??.
I 68 ! Bibliography ...
[ ]
[ Wanting 1
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2.12 Ancient Greece
in which the emperors Augustus and Tiberius
prevailed, and as a historian Strabo recorded
the final collapse of the Roman Republic and
its replacement with the Roman empire.
In his great work, Strabo frequently
mentions mines and minerals, with his greatest
interest directed to the silver mines located in
Spain, and then under Roman control.! 69 ]
2.12.8 Physiologos! 70 ]
The Physiologos or Physiologus is a kind of
bestiary containing descriptions after a fixed
plan for each animal, plant or stone: a
Biblical account, then the 'wonder' stories, and
finally the allegorical-mythical interpretation.
It was supposed to have been written in
Alexandria but the original was more likely
composed about 254-380 C.E. in Caesarea,
perhaps by a Palestinian Jew under Syrian
influences. The basis was a zoological work
of the First Century C.E., which was also
used by the author of the Kyranides. It
contains many ideas showing Middle East and
Oriental influences, particularly with regard
to the magical, mystical and superstitious
character of the natural objects described.
Works such as the Physiologos were regarded
as important in the early Christian Church for
explaining nature through the Bible, although
its references to magic contained in magic
Indian stones, agates detecting pearls, the
magnet, male and female igniting and ignitable
stones, and the diamond, caused the Church of
later centuries concern.
Written in Greek, the original Physiolo-
gus (Greek for "The Naturalist") described the
^ 1 Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 25-27. • Lenz, Geschichte der Greichen
und Romischen Mineralogie, 1861, p. 49-67.
^ 1 Other information may be found in: Karl Ahrens.,
Zur Geschichte des sogenannten Physiologus. Ploen, 1885.
• ibid., Buch der Naturgegenstande. Kiel, C.F. Haeseler,
1892. 84 p. [A Syriac version of the Physiologus, with
German translation. "Textverbesserungen von Prof. Dr.
G. Hoffmann".] • F.N.M. Diekstra., "The Physiologus,
the Bestiaries, and Medieval Animal Lore," Neophilogus,
69 (1985), no. 1, 142-155. * isis, 14 (1930), 428. •
M.R. James., "The Bestiary," History, 26 (1931), 1-11. •
Krumbacher, Geschichte Byzantinischen Litteratur, 1897, p.
874-877. • Friedrich Lauchert., Geschichte des Physiologus.
Strassburg, Karl J. Truebner, 1889. 328 p. • Partington,
History of Chemistry, 1971, 1, pt. 1, 248-249. • Sarton,
Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1, 300. •
Thorndike, History of Magic, 1, p. 490.
characteristics of animals and birds-both real
and fantastical- and provided allegorical inter-
pretations of the characteristics enumerated.
It has been described as a "kind of naturists
scrapbook" containing a compilation of animal
description, lore, and myth. Accreted to it
through the years were descriptions of other
natural objects including plants and stones, as
well as Biblical citations. In short, the Phys-
iologus is best described as the "great source-
book of Christian nature symbolism," in which
nature is not treated as an object of scientific
study, but as a metaphor for Christianity and
for God. For instance, the Eagle soaring to the
sky and plunging into a cool well becomes an al-
legory for baptism, while the descent of the lion
from the hilltop becomes an allegory for Christs
descent to Earth. In this sense, visibilia (ani-
mals) were thought to reflect invisibilia (God).
With its diverse roots in Eastern Mediter-
ranean lore, Classical natural history, Judeo-
Christian exegesis, the Physiologus became im-
mensely popular all over the world and was
subsequently translated into a diversity of lan-
guages: Ethiopian, Armenian, Syriac, Arabic,
Latin, Russian, Flemish, Provencal, Old En-
glish, Middle English, Icelandic, and many oth-
ers. It has been said that no other book except
the Bible has ever been so widely distributed
among so many people and for so many cen-
turies as the Physiologus.
2.12.20 Xenocrates
A lapidary authored by a certain XENOCRATES
appeared during the time of Nero in the first
century C.E. Incidental evidence in citations
from this work contained in Pliny's Natural
History indicates that the author was still alive
in 77 C.E. Lost in time the actual author is
somewhat of a quandary.
Pliny in the list of works he has cited in
writing his Natural History indicates in his first
book that a Xenocrates Zenonis is the source
for books 34, 35, and 37, and a Xenocrates
Ephesius as a source for books 12 and 13 on
botanical matters. However, since Pliny also
quotes a Xenocrates Ephesius as an authority
on rock crystal in his book 37, it seems that
these citations refer to the same Xenocrates and
may be combined to form Xenocrates, the son
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of Zenon, from Ephesos. Ullmann believes that
this was the author of the lapidary Pliny cites.
Other authorities such as Wellmann and
Wirbelauer believe that the author refered to
was a Greek physician, who worked during the
first century of the Roman period, Xenocrates
of Aphrodisias, who flourished circa 70 C.E.
in Rome.! 71 ! He wrote books on food and
drugs, especially interesting for their recitation
of many ancient superstitions and occult
remedies, however, most of these survive only
in fragments or are incorporated in other extant
works. He is blamed by Galen for making use
of strange remedies invloving human brains,
flesh, liver, urine, excrement, etc. Perserved
by Oribasius, his De Alimento ex Aquatilibus
gives an interesting record of the state of
natural history during his time. The first
edition of this book was printed in Greek with
a Latin translation by Bishop Janus Dubravius,
and published in 1559. I 72 ! There were three
later editions that are revised and better texts
by J.G.F. Franz (Francofurti, 1779), I 73 ! A.
Conray (Neapoli, 1794), I 74 l and A. Koraes
(Paris, 1814). I 75 l
Whoever the actural author may have
been, the Lithognomon (AiSoyvcDjiCDv) of
1 J Biographical information may be found in: Hazel,
Who's Who in the Greek World, 2000, p. ??. • Michaud,
Biographie Universelle, ??, p. ??-??. • Smith, Dictionary of
Greek and Roman Biography, 1849, 3, p. 1294.
1 1 Janus Dubravius [cl486-1533]., De piscinis et piscium
qui in eis aluntur naturis libri quinque ... Item Xenocratis De
alimento ex aquatilibus Graece & Latine nunc primum aeditus,
cum scholiis Conradi Gesneri. Zurich, 1559. [14], 136 p.;
[69] p., illus.
! 1 Xenocrates, of Aphrodisias, edited by Johann Georg
Friedrich Franz [1737-1789]., Peri tes apo enydron trophes.
Cum Latina interpretatione LB. Rasarii et Conradi Gesneri
scholiis animadversionibusque illustravit atque glossarium
adiecit G.F. Franzivs. Francofurti, 1779.
! ' ibid., Xenocratis De alimento ex aquatilibus, cum
latina interpretatione Jo. Bapt. Rasarii, scholiis Conradi
Gesneri, & notis integris Jo. Friderici Franzii. Accedunt
novae variantes lectiones ex codd. mss. depromtae, &
animadversiones Diamantis Coray nunc primum editae;
itemque adnotationes in auctorem, additamenta in
glossarium Franzii hodiernam ichthyologiam illustrantia, &
lucubratio de piscium esu Caietani de Ancora. Neapoli,
Typis Regiis, 1794. xlviii, 266, [2] p.
I 75 ! ibid., edited by Adamantios Koraes [1748-1833].,
Xenokratous kai Galenou Peri tes apo ton enydron trophes Hois
prostepheintai semeioseis kai ta peri tes ekdoseos prolegomena.
Parisioi, I.M. Everartos, 1814. [4], xl, 245, [1] p.
Xenocrates is a typically synthetic work that
combines mineralogical knowledge of different
sources and of different centuries.! 76 ] It
includes in the stone descriptions a variety of
details including color, action of light, size, and
other characteristics of appearance. Localities
are noted and include countries like Italy,
Spain, Sicily, Greece, Cyprus, Libya, Egypt,
Arabia, Syria, and India. Uses to which the
stones are put are mentioned. Xenocrates
also makes plentiful use of magical properties
and superstitions especially in his discussions
of the medical uses of the stones that mostly
originated in eastern lapidaries. It was
extensively copied and quoted by contemporary
and later authors, such as the fore mentioned
Pliny, who Wellmann thinks derived his catalog
of gems in Book 37 directly from Xenocrates.
Julius Solinus in his third century Collectanea
Rerum Memorabilium, Damigeron in the fifth
century De Virtutibus Lapidum, and Isidor
of Sevilla in Book 16 of his late sixth century
Etymologie probably also made use of the
Lithognomon in their treatment of stones and
minerals. Thus the text was widely available
during the Middle Ages.
Although the complete text of Xenocrates
still existed in Byzantium in the 13th century,
it is today lost. Therefore, identifying the text
of the stone book has been only a relatively
new development. The most recent research
has been done by Ullmann, who identified and
reconstituted portions of the original text using
several early lapidary manuscripts.! 77 ] This
amounts to only about 14 long quotations and
other fragments from the Lithognomon that
! 1 Additional information may be found in: Meier,
Gemma Spiritalis, 1977, p. 62-63. • Meyer, Geschichte
der Botanik, 1855, 2, p. 55-58. • Partington, History of
Chemistry, 1971, 1, pt. 1, p. 189. • Sarton, Introduction to
the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. 261. • Manfred Ullmann.,
Natur und Geheimwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 10-11
and p. 98-100. • ibid., "Xenokrates," (cols. 974-977) in:
Georg Wissowas, ed., Paulys Realencyclopadie der Classischen
Alterumswissenschaft. Miinchen, 1974, supplement, vol. 14.
• Max Wellmann., "Xenokrates aus Aphrodisias," Hermes,
42 (1907), p. 614-629. • ibid., Die Stein und Gemmenliteratur
des Altertums, 1935, p. 102-104.
l''\ Manfred Ullmann., "Das Steinbuch des Xenokrates,"
Medizinhistorisches Journal, 7 (1972), p. 49-64. • ibid.,
"Neues zum Steinbuch des Xenokrates," Medizinhistorisches
Journal, 8 (1973), p. 59-76.
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2.14 The Roman Period
have been perserved in other works.
2.12.21 Galen
Galen! 78 ! was authored a large number of
books (some sources say 500), many of which
are still extant as either fragments or complete
treatises. He was an authority in many fields
medical including anatomy, physiology, embry-
ology, pathology, therapeutics, and pharmacol-
ogy. With respect to mineral studies, he fo-
cused on the pharmaceutical uses to which min-
erals and stones could be applied. In his De
Simplicium Medicamentarum Temperamentis
et Facultatibus (Simple Medicines), I 79 ! to-
gether with medications prepared from plants
and animals, he describes ointments and reme-
dies made from various minerals; however, lit-
tle appears to be original to Galen in his
mineral prescriptions, with the recipes be-
ing repeated from earlier authorities, such as
DioscuridesJ 80 !
2.14 The Roman Period! 81 !
I- -I Galen (born in Pergamum 129; died at the age
of 70), anatomist, physician, philosopher, was the
greatest physician of antiquity after Hippocrates. He
dissected numerous animals, but very few human bodies;
discovered a large number of new facts in the fields of
anatomy, physiology, embryology, pathology, therapeutics,
pharmacology. He made various physiological experiments,
e.g., to determine the mechanism of respiration and
pulsation, the function of the kidneys, of the cerebrum,
and of the spinal cord at different levels. He proved
experimentally that arteries contain and carry blood; that
it suffices to divide even a small artery to drain away all
the blood of the body in half an hour or less;' that the
right auricle outlives the rest of the heart. He gave a
semirational (physiological) interpretation of dreams and
had some notion of their medical interest. His chief
merit consists in having systematized and unified Greek
anatomical and medical knowledge and practice. He was a
very prolific, clear, and vigorous writer. Refs. Xxx xxxxxx
xx xxx xxxx. Xxx xxxxxx xx xxx xxxx. Xxx XXXXXX XX
xxx xxxx. Xxx xxxxxx xx xxx xxxx. Xxx XXXXXX XX xxx
xxxx.
I 79 ! Bibliography ...
[ ' ]
[ Wanting ]
[ 1
l 80 l Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 49. • Partington, History of Chemistry,
1971, 1, pt. 1, p. 192-200. • Lenz, Mineralogie der alten
Greichen und Romischen, 1861, p. 116, 179. • Sarton,
Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. ??-??. •
Thorndike, History of Magic, 1923, 1, p. 125-132.
[° 1 l For further information on Roman science generally
see: Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1,
throughout the volumes.
The Roman Empire developed in the first
century B.C.E., and covered the entire land
mass surrounding the Mediterranean including
the ancient civilization of Greece and its
various colonies. However, the Romans
lacked the versatility, many-sidedness and
imaginative power of the Greeks. These
were qualities imported from the Greeks and
elsewhere, where scientific study, especially
medicine was still studied. The eminent
qualities of the Romans are sober and acute
thought, and firmness and perseverance of
will. Their intellect was directed to the
practical, and sometimes degenerated into
egotism and cunning, just as their perseverance
often turned into obstinacy and pedantry. In
the domain of state and law these qualities
accomplished great and enduring results, while
they were decidedly unfavorable to art and
literature. This is generally seen in their
scientific thought. Few theoretical studies
are recorded by the Latin writers. Their
bent is towards practical applications. The
preeminent scientific writer among all ancient
Roman writers on mineralogy is, as in so
many other subjects, is of course, Pliny, hi
fact, except for some few lines by other Latin
authors, there is practically little else in extant
Roman literature of technical interest, for
the metallurgical metaphors of the poets and
orators were threadbare by this time, and do
not excite so much interest as upon their first
appearance among the Greeks and Hebrews.
2.14.1 Lucretius
The Roman LUCRETIUS I 82 l composed about
57 B.C.E. his De Rerum Natura (On the
Nature of the Universe), a philosophical poem
of epic proportions.! 83 ] When he died
I 82 l Titos Lucretius Carus (Born: c99; Died: 15 October
55 B.C.E.) was a Roman poet and the author, but nothing
else is certain of his life.
1 1 Facsimiles of the two fundamental manuscripts, both
of the ninth century and both kept in Leiden, have
been published, with introductions by Em. Chatelain,
Codex Vossianus oblongus. Leiden, 1908.; Codex Vossianus
quadrates. Leiden, 1913. • Editio princeps, Brescia (cl473).
• First scientific edition, Lachmann (1850) and elaborate
commentary by the same (3d ed., Berlin, 1868; 4th ed.,
1871). • H.A.J. Mumo, De Rerum Natura. 3 vols., 4th ed.,
London, 1905-1910. [Vol. I, Text; Vol. II, Notes; Vol. Ill,
English translation. A full account of earlier editions "will
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2.14 The Roman Period
the composition was left unfinished but the
beauty of the poetry nevertheless quickly made
the work very popular throughout the Roman
Empire. Its style is sincere and earnest, and
the verse is written in good Latin. As a result,
the text, except for a few lines, has survived to
the present day in a nearly complete form.
This epic undertakes a full and completely
naturalistic explanation of the physical origin,
structure, and destiny of the universe. It is an
amazing account of the positive knowledge of
his time (Greek knowledge of course) and of the
atomic theory, together with a few prophetic
views (e.g., vague anticipation of the theory of
natural selection). Lucretius's chief purpose
was to suppress superstition by elevating
deduction through reason. In all of science,
including mineralogy, Lucretius' theories on the
atomic structure of matter and the evolution
of life formed basic ideas from which much
of western philosophy and science gained
inspiration until the late Renaissance.! 84 ]
2.14.2 Vitruvius
Marcus Vitruvius I 85 ! is the author of
the famous treatise De Architectura (On
be found in Vol. I]. • Lucretius, Epicurean and Poet. London,
1907-1909. 2 vols., 710 p. [This is the most elaborate study
available; it deals with the life and times of Lucretius, his
philosophic ideas and scientific knowledge, their sources,
and their influence in later times down to our own.] •
William A. Merrill's edition with introduction and notes
(New York, 1907) is also excellent.
^ 1 John Masson., The Atomic Theory of Lucretius,
Contrasted with Modern Doctrines of Atoms and Evolution.
London, 1884. 264 p. • Partington, History of Chemistry,
1971, 1, pt. 1, p. 138-148. • Sarton, Introduction to the
History of Science, 1927, 1, 205-206.
I 85 ! Marcus Vitruvius Pollio (born ca 80/70 BC?; died
ca. 25 BC) was a Roman writer, architect and engineer,
active in the first century B.C.E. Little is known about
his life. Even his first name Marcus and his cognomen
Pollio are uncertain. They are only mentioned by Cetius
Faventinus. Most data about his life are extracted from his
own work. He was born as free Roman citizen, most likely
at Formiae in Campania. He is believed to have served in
the Roman army in Spain and Gaul under Julius Caesar.
He was probably one of the army engineers, constructing
war machines for sieges. In later years he was employed by
his sponsor, the emperor Augustus, entitled with a pension
to guarantee his financial independence. His date of death
is unknown, which suggests that he had enjoyed only little
popularity during lifetime. Refs. B. Baldwin., "The Date,
Identity, and Career of Vitruvius," Latomus, 49 (1990), p.
425-434. * DSB, 15, p. 514-521. • Indra Kagis McEwen.,
Vitruvius: Writing the Body of Architecture. New York, MIT
Press, 2004.
Architecture), which is divided into 10 books.
Contrary to what the title might suggest the
work is not simply a comprehensive treatise
on architecture but is also an encyclopedia of
building technology during the Roman era, as
well as a cornucopia of scientific knowledge.
He discussed sound as a vibrating motion in
the air, gives the earliest formula for hydraulic
cement, and describes the importance of
hygiene and regular bathing.
With respect to rocks and minerals
Vitruvius discusses at great length the virtues
and problems of various building materials
including marble, limestone, and granite. He
gives information on quarrying methods and
locations where the most suitable rock can
be found. He also knows that rocks have
different strengths, which should be taken into
account in building design. Vitruvius also
discusses a variety of mortars and cements,
the mineral materials required for each of their
manufacture, and what application each is best
suited forJ 86 !
2.14.4 Seneca! 87 !
Lucius Annaeus Seneca! 88 ! was the leader
of Stocism in Rome. His Naturales Quaes-
tiones (Natural Questions) are a collection of
questions and answers on matters related to the
natural and physical sciences from the atom-
istic viewpoint. I 89 ! Only seven books of the
1 I Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 35-36. • Lenz, Mineralogie der alten
Greichen und Romischen, 1861, p. 40-46. • Sarton,
Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. ??-??.
[°'\ Thomas G. Rosenmeyer., "Seneca and Nature,"
Arethusa, 33 (2000), no. 1, p. 99-119. • Martin
von Schanz., Geschichte der romischen Litteratur his zum
Gesetzgebungswerk des Kaisers Justinian. Miinchen, 1904-
1935, §???.
^ 1 Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Born: Cordova, Spain, 4
B.C.E.; Died: 65 C.E.) was a Roman writer, philosopher,
the leader of Stoicism in Rome, statesman, and scientist.
I 89 ! Editio princeps (Naples, 1475). Critical edition in 4
vols, by Hermes and others (Leipzig, 1898-1907; Vols. I-
III republished 1905-1914; vol. II contains the Naturalium
quaestionum libri VIII (only 7 books are extant) edited
by Alfred Gercee, 326 p., 1907). English translation by
John Clarke, with notes by Sir Archibald Geikie (422 p.,
London, 1910. Particularly interesting from the geological
and meteorological standpoint). • Christian Beyer, et al.,
"Die Naturales Quaestiones von Lucius Annaeus Seneca.
Eine kommentierte Bibliographie," Nachrichten aus dem
Institut fur Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften, Mathematik
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2.14 The Roman Period
complete work are extant, and most of that
is given over to celestial phenomena. Book
1 discusses 'lights' or fires in the atmosphere;
Book 2, lightning and thunder; Book 3 con-
cerns bodies of water. Seneca's method is to
survey the theories of major authorities on the
subject at hand and his work is therefore a re-
warding guide to Greek and Roman thinking
about the heavens. Book 4 discusses hail and
snow; Book 5, winds; Book 6, earthquakes; and
Book 7, comets. It is a work of philosophical —
rather than scientific — remarks about natural
phenomena. It offers no great originality but
gives an insight into ancient theories of cos-
mology, meteorology, and similar subjects. He
is also the first writer to express belief in the
progress of knowledge.
His Quaestiones Naturales are a collection
of physical, astronomical, geographical, geo-
logical, and meteorological questions explained
from the atomistic point of view. They contain
hardly anything which is really original, but ex-
erted a great influence throughout the Middle
Ages. Special mention must be made of his ac-
count of the earthquake which did much dam-
age in Campania on February 5, 63-the earliest
detailed account of an earthquake. This led
him to discuss earthquakes and volcanic phe-
nomena. He distinguished three kinds of mo-
tion in quakes (succussio, inclinatio, and vibra-
tio). Seneca was the first to express a belief
in the progress of knowledge (not the progress
of humanity); this idea of progress is unique
in ancient literature. Earlier monographs of
Seneca on India and Egypt and on earthquakes
are lost. I 90 !
Seneca was one of the most important
and prolific writers of his day, both in prose
and in verse. Ten books of ethical essays
(miscalled 'Dialogi) survive on subjects such
as anger, the constancy of the Stoic sage,
and tranquillity of mind. Three of them are
consolationes to the bereaved. He presented
und Technik, Hamburg, 22 (1992), 22-35.
^ 1 Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 47-8. • Geikie, Founders of Geology, 1905,
p. ?? • Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Greichen und Romischen,
1861, p. 47-48. • Partington, History of Chemistry, 1971, 1,
pt. 1, p. 166. • Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science,
1927, 1, p. ??.
to Nero, early in his reign, a treatise called
De Clementia in which he commended this
quality to the autocrat. It is possible that
Shakespeare had it in mind when composing
Portias great speech on the quality of mercy.
He also wrote the De Beneficiis in seven
books. His Naturales Quaestiones, eight books
on physical science, achieved great popularity.
The Epistolae Morales of which 124 survive
give philosophical and ethical advice to a
friend. He is almost certainly the author of
the Apocolocyntosis, a bitter satire on the
deification of Claudius. Seneca also wrote
nine tragedies on Greek mythological subjects,
designed to be recited or read rather than
acted. They are somewhat melodramatic and
violent ,and had an influence on Elizabethan
and Jacobean tragedy in England out of all
proportion to their merits.
2.14.5 CatoP 1 ]
The Roman statesman, moralist, and farmer
Marcus Porous Cato, or Cato the
Censor was born at Tusculum, 234 b.c.e.,
and died in Rome in 149 B.C.E. . He
wrote in his old age a treatise on farming,
gardening, fruit-growing, etc. De Agriculture
that was the first book on the subject in
Latin. It also contained valuable information
on Roman medicine (empirical and magical).
He was violently opposed to Greek medicine
and philosophy. Among the facts incidentally
quoted by Cato, is the earliest mention for
ordinary mortar and the earliest description of
a bain-marie.
In the De Re Rustica cement, calx, silex,
breccia and salt are mentioned. Cato also
describes methods for extracting salt from sea
water. I 92 l
Cato the Censor is so called to distinguish
him from his equally illustrious great-grandson,
Cato of Utica. As the latter is one of the
noblest figures of Roman times and will not
be mentioned elsewhere in this Introduction,
1 1 Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 48. • Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Greichen
und Romischen, 1861, 28-29. • Sarton, Introduction to the
History of Science, 1927, 1, p. ??.
1 1 Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Greichen und Romischen,
1861, 28-29.
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2.14 The Roman Period
it is proper to say a few words about him in
this place. Born in 95, bred as a Stoic, leader
of the aristocratic party ultimately defeated
by Caesar, his political career was outwardly
a succession of failures, but he gave such
admirable proofs of moral strength and virtue
that his life will ever remain a source of
inspiration. In 46, his task being accomplished,
he committed suicide at Utica (hence his name
in order not to fall into the hands of Caesar.
Cicero, Caesar, and Plutarch have told and
discussed his life.
Ed. Thramer: Cato Censorius and die
Griechenmedizin (Mitteil. zur. Gesch. d.
Medizin, t. 14, p 404-405 1915. A short note
to point out that the medical ideas which Cato
opposed to the Greek ideas were probably also
of Greek origin) .
2.14.7 PlinyP 3 !
Plinius Secundus, perhaps better known by
the modernized Pliny the Elder was born
in Nova Coma, Italy in 23 or 24 B.C.E. At
an early age he was sent to Rome for his
education. He eventually entered the military
service. His career is only known in general
outline, but Pliny probably served during the
Germanic Wars, of which he wrote a now lost
20 book history. He came to the attention of
the Emperor and was appointed to a succession
of administrative posts in territories of present
day Spain, Germany, France, and north Africa.
At the end of his civil career Pliny was made
commander over the Roman fleet stationed at
Misenum. From there he set out to witness
firsthand the major volcanic eruption of Mt.
Vesuvius located near the bay of Naples. While
observing the eruption he got too close and was
as suffocated by the vapors from the eruption.
He died near the volcano at Stabiae in August,
79 C.E.
Pliny must have been one of the most
widely read scholars of antiquity, as well as its
most industrious researchers, because he held
the opinion that no book was so poor that it
did not yield something of interest. His nephew
1 1 Other information may be found in: Martin von
Schanz., Geschichte der romischen Litteratur bis zum
Gesetzgebungswerk des Kaisers Justinian. Miinchen, 1904-
1935. [Article, "Plinius Secundus", §490.]
and editor, Pliny the Younger, in his Epistolae
preserves an interesting sketch of his uncle,
saying that he was in his leisure continuously
reading. Even during meals and baths books
were read aloud to him. Throughout his
long and distinguished career he was always
accompanied by his own large library, and an
even larger collection of excerpts he had copied
from books he did not own. A stenographer
was always nearby so that any dictation Pliny
wished to give was recorded. Even though he
lead a very busy and active life, Pliny was able
through great focus to collect a large number of
'facts' that allowed him to write a large number
of works, but of which only one has survived. I 94 '
It is said that in the middle of his life, he was
offered a princely sum of money for his library
and excerpts, but that he could not part with
his treasure. Instead Pliny extended it with
further excerpts. The nephew records in his
Epistolaeih&t after his uncle's death more than
160 complete books were found in his library.
Certainly, these were the foundation references
for Pliny's greatest and single surviving work.
Pliny set as a goal to compile an
encyclopedia of the entire range of natural
science. So broad would his treatment be in
the Historia Naturalis that even none obvious
studies like medicine, art and geography would
be represented. By 77 C.E. the work had
come to a conclusion of sorts, with his material
categorized into thirty-six books. Adding a
foreword in which the contents of the other
books are given, Pliny presented the work to
Titus, so that in essence the work was complete
in thirty-seven books. In the original layout,
the list of sources for each of the books was
given at the start of each book. This was
contrary to many other ancient authors that
concealed what sources they used. In fact, in
his foreword Pliny openly expresses his debt to
the authors from whom he copied his material.
Soon after he presented the volume, Pliny was
appointed commander of the fleet. However,
he apparently continued to add new material
to the work up to his unexpected death. The
nephew, Pliny the Younger, inherited all of
his uncle's literary compositions, including the
I 94 ! Lost books
25
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
2.14 The Roman Period
Historia Naturalis. The nephew, did some
superficial editing of the manuscript, probably
making only a structural change that collected
together all of the original sources into a single
list that was placed at the end of the foreword
in the first book. The remainder of the work
maintained its original structure of thirty-six
books, and that is how the text has come down
to the present.
Book Description and foreword.
1 Table of contents and list of sources.
2 Mathematical and physical description of the world.
3-6 Geography.
7 Anthropology and physiology of man.
8-11 Zoology.
9 Fish.
10 Birds.
11 Insects.
12-27 Botany.
28-32 Medical zoology.
33-37 Mineralogy, especially applied to life and art.
The enterprise that Pliny dedicated
himself to was certainly large. Nobody
before him, including any of the Greeks, had
attempted what Pliny executed. Only an iron
will and great diligence could create such a
grandiose work, the single most comprehensive
compendium of science that exists from ancient
times. The author read and excerpted many
authors indeed for his extraordinary book;
however, this activity was exhausting. No time
remained for him to think about what he was
copying into his Historia Naturalis. Therefore,
a deeper understanding or even mild criticism
in the material Pliny presents is absent. All his
facts have an equal weight, regardless of how
fabulous the claim. It is a work that can be
regarded only as a compilation.
Pliny himself says the book contains some
20,000 facts collected from 2,000 works by 100
select authors, the most important single source
being Varro. These numbers are, however,
undercounted since no fewer than 146 Roman
and 327 foreign authors are cited in the text.
He includes everything with no attempt to
verify even the most outlandish and improbable
'facts'. Thus he appears to be more of an
avid cataloger rather than a modern scientific
researcher. Yet, his work is one of the most
valuable that has survived from the classical
period because it quotes works and authors
that are today only known from their inclusion
in the Historia Naturalis. This is true of Pliny's
treatment of mineralogical topics as well.
From no other ancient writer do we have as
much mineralogical data as we do from Pliny,
and probably this fact has over emphasized his
contribution to ancient mineral studies. Next
to Theophrastus, however, Pliny gives the most
important mineralogical information of the
ancient period, and after it appearance little
in the way of important scientific mineralogical
data are giving in antiquity. The works of
the following centuries describe minerals almost
exclusively from their occult or medical value,
which although interesting provide no real
scientific value. I 95 l
The influence Pliny's encyclopedia exerted
in later times was immense. It was often
copied in whole with a substantial number of
early manuscripts still survive. It was also
the principle source for two other later works:
Solinus' Collectanea Rerum Memorabilium
of the middle third century, later used by
Isidore of Seville, and the so called Medicinia
Plinii from the start of the fourth century
that excerpted and rearranged Pliny's medical
information. In addition the encyclopedists of
the Middle Ages frequently drew on Pliny for
their material.
2.14.8 Suetonius
The most important literary character of
his time, SUETONIUS I 96 ! compiled among
other works, a miscellany, called the Prata
(Meadows) that dealt chiefly with Roman
antiquities and natural sciences (laws, customs,
winds, seas, animals, plants, and minerals),
of which only a small fragment is extant.
Unfortunately, nothing of its mineralogy
survives. I 97 !
^ J Lenz, Mineralogie der alten Greichen und Romischen,
1861, p. 79-173. • Sarton, Introduction to the History of
Science, 1927, 1, p. 249-251. • Teuffel, History of Roman
Literature, 1892, §312.
1 96 J Caius Suetonius Tranquillus (Born: c75 C.E.; Died
cl60 C.E.) was a Roman historian and polygraph.
1 1 Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1,
p. 284. • Teuffel, History of Roman Literature, 1892, §347.
26
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3.0 Medieval Mineralogy
2.14.9 Solinus
In the third century, the Roman grammar-
ian and historian Caius Julius Solinus I 98 l
compiled his Collectanea Rerum Memorabil-
ium (Collection of Curiosities) that contains
a broad description of the ancient world, with
many remarks on the natural history, religion,
and social issues of his time.!"] Solinus does
not name his sources, but the greater part of
the text, which is arranged on a geographical
plan, is mainly derived from Pliny's Natural
History and the geography of Pomponius Mela.
The author begins his work with a very
valuable section that gives a description of
the mythical prehistory of the establishment
of the Roman Republic by Romulus after the
Etruscan rulers were conquered. He continues
the history to the time of Augustus. A general
treatise on humanity follows that treats the
peoples of Italy, Greece, Germania, Gallica,
Britannia, and Hispania, the last also has
details of northern Africa. Asia, Arabia,
Egypt, Syria, the Near East, and India are
also described. The author wanted to maintain
the readers attention and therefore paid special
attention to the peculiarities of the people
and places discussed. Solinus peppers his
commentary with anecdotal information about
the land, animals, plants, and minerals of
the various regions. Descriptions of several
dozen precious stones, which come from Pliny,
are interspersed throughout the work with
placement under the countries where the stones
are supposed to be found. Later, in the
sixth century, these stones would be collected
together again by Isidore of Seville for inclusion
in Book XVI of his Etymologiae.
A revised version of the original text
appeared in the sixth century. This version
includes at the start a letter purportedly from
Solinus that acts as an introduction. In it,
the work is awkwardly renamed Polyhistor
seu de Mirabilibus Mundi (Multi-History of
the Wonders of the World). Throughout the
II Add Biographical References.
II Many incunabula his editions the first being probably
that of Venice, 1473 (there are at least two undated editions
"which may be earlier). Critical edition by Th. Mommsen
(Berlin, 1864; revised 382 p., 1895). English translation by
Arthur Colding (1587).
Middle Ages both versions of the text circulated
widely and in some cases 'Polyhistor' was taken
for the author's name. The broad sweep
of its coverage made it a popular manual of
its subject, and as a result the book had
tremendous influence during the Middle Ages,
being, for example, a principle source for
Isidore of Seville. An important commentary
on this work by Claude de Saumaise appeared
in his Plinianae Exercitationes (1689). The
best edition edited by Th. Mommsen was
published in 1895; it contains a valuable
introduction to the extant manuscripts, the
authorities used by Solinus, and the subsequent
compilers.! 100 ]
3.0 Medieval Mineralogy! 101 )
The dethroning of the last Roman emperor
Romulus Augustulus in 476 C.E. marked a
political end to the age of antiquity. From the
scientific viewpoint however, a definitive border
between the Classical Age and the Middle Ages
can not readily be drawn because the literature
between the periods is indistinguishable. In
particular, studies related to mineralogical
questions are usually short, sometimes being
only mere mentions, and commonly contained
in longer, more general literary works. The
classical authorities such as Aristotle and
Theophrastus dominate the era with their
ideas reworked time and again throughout
the age. Nevertheless the studies carried on
from the Classical period and nurtured during
[100] Meyer, Geschichte der Botanik, 1855, 2, p. 249-252.
• Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science 1 1927, 1, p.
341. ■ Claude de Saumaise., Plinianae Exercitabones in Solini
Polyhistora. Paris, 1629 (also 1689). [Contains a criticism
of Solinus.] • Schanz, Geschichte der romischen Litteratur,
1904, 4, 1. • Teuffel, History of Roman literature, 1892, p.
389.
II The development of mineralogy in the Middle
Ages has been treated in several interesting essays:
Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological Sciences,
1938, chap. 4. • Evans, Magical Jewels, 1922. • Friess,
Edelsteine im Mittelalter, 1980. • Christel Meier, Gemma
spiritalis. Teil I. Miinchen, Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1977.
542, [2] p., biblio. • Karl Mieleitner., "Zur Geschichte der
Mineralogie. Geschichte der Mineralogie im Altertum und
im Mittelalter," Fortschritte der Mineralogie, 7 (1922), 427-
480. • J.U. Nef., "Mining and metallurgy in Medieval
civilization" (2, pp. 430-492) in: Cambridge economic history
of Europe. Cambridge [Eng.]; New York, The University
Press, 1952.
27
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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3.1 Islamic Influences
the Middle Ages would lay the foundation of
mineral science that would begin to flourish in
the Renaissance.
3.1 Islamic Influences
At the end of the Classical age, eastern
Europe and most notably Alexandria were
the center of scientific activity; however, this
predominance would soon be destroyed by the
rise of a new and at first persecuted sect of
Christians.! 102 ] In 389 C.E. the Serapion
of Alexandria was burned, and its library
destroyed or scattered under an edict calling
for the destruction of all pagan temples within
the Empire — an order administrated with great
enthusiasm and severe cruelty. In the same
year, important schools at Edessa were closed,
with the banished teachers taking refuge in
Asia Minor. The Museum of Alexandria,
actually a university, maintained an uncertain
existence until 415 C.E. when the Christians
incited riots that caused the last remnants
of the Alexandrian schools of philosophy and
science to be swept from Europe, thus tossing
the region into an intellectual pallor.
With the suppression of the schools and
the teachers of the ancient science scattered,
scientific achievement in the Christian coun-
tries stagnated for centuries. Ancient Greek
thought with its foundation in logic became al-
most forgotten. What speculation there was on
nature was centered on harmonizing first hand
observations with the Scriptures or with pre-
vailing Church doctrine. So devoid of any sci-
entific achievement were the early centuries of
Christian Europe, it is probable that the sci-
ence developed by the ancients, except for a few
of its practical applications, would have been
lost to western civilization had it not been pre-
served in the Near and Middle East.
hi contrast to Europe where the intellec-
tual activity was confined to the cloister of
the monastery, the Arabic schools founded at
Baghdad, Damascus, Alexandria, Cordova, and
Seville after the Moslem conquests of the Mid-
dle East, North Africa, and Spain provided a
true scientific light during this otherwise dark
[102] p or farther information, see: Sarton, Introduction to
the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. 11-11.
period. In these institutions the traditions
of the ancient pagan schools and their litera-
ture were maintained and cultivated especially
by the Syrian scholars who had taken refuge
in Persia after the closing of the Alexandrian
schools. Through these scholars, the classi-
cal works of Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus,
Galen, Dioscorides and others, were preserved
and translated into Syrian. Since these indi-
viduals also occupied influential positions as
astronomers, mathematicians, physicians and
engineers within the government, the manu-
scripts of Greek and Alexandrian authors were
subsequently translated into Arabic and Per-
sian. Thus Arabians and Persians became in
medieval times the best trained scholars in sci-
ence and medicine.
As the Mohammedan conquest swept west
along the African coast from Egypt to Spain,
the ancient books of Aristotle, Theophrastus,
Dioscrides, Galen, Pliny, Epiphanius, Homer,
Pythagoras, etc. followed. This preserved
wisdom had also been considerably augmented
by original Arabic research. Thus to the
forthcoming European Renaissance a large
body of apparently new scientific literature
became readily available, hi fact, so completely
had the original ancient writings disappeared
from the Europe of the Middle Ages that
at first these works were all thought to be
original Arabic texts rather than ancient Greek
writings transmitted by translation through the
centuries. In the history of mineralogical and
chemical science in Europe therefore, Arabian
influence is of importance because it was
through this channel that the ancient texts
were reintroduced to latinized Europe.
3.1.1 Islamic Mineralogy
The history of mineralogy in Islam has been
documented by a number of researchers, and it
is through their essays that the western world
has come to know the influence of the middle
east on western mineralogy. I 103 ! Many of
I 103 ! J. Clement-Mullet. Essai sur la MineraJogie Arabe ...
basee sur le traite de Teifaschi [al-TifashiJ (7-651/1253); Suivi
de: Recherches sur l'histoire naturelle ... chez les Arabes. Paris,
1868. • A. Mieli. La science arabe et son role dans revolution
scientiUque mondiale. Leiden, 1966. xix, 467 p. • al-Rawi,
M.M., "Geology and mineralogy," (4, pt. 2, pp. 405-424)
in: al-Hassan, A.Y., et al., editors, Science and Technology
28
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by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
3.1 Islamic Influences
those Islamic writings were never translated
into western languages, but because their
authors frequently quoted one another, those
mineralogical works that did make their way to
Europe had at their roots the ideas of many
Arab researchers.
Crystallographic properties were unknown
in the mineral studies of the Islamic Middle
Age. Instead common physical properties
were used to distinguish stones. These
characters included color, smell, taste, texture,
breakability, friability, malleability, solubility
in water, etc. Sometimes but particularly in
alchemical writings the behavior of a stone in
acid or fire was referenced. With respect to the
medical applications of stones the elementary
Aristotelian qualities of hot, cold, damp, and
dry were particularly important. As remedies,
stones were either laid on the patient or pieces
pulverized and the powder mixed with water,
milk or oil and the resulting mixture either
ingested by the patient or used as an ointment
applied to an infection or burn. Instances of
mineral powders used as makeup or as poisons
are also recorded.
Keeping with Aristotelian philosophy,
Islamic authors believed water, air, and earth
were components of all minerals, while fire was
the regulator of the other three. Plants and
animals it was also believed, contained these
same components in so far as their material
composition was concerned. Every mineral
contained earth as its body, water as the spirit,
and air as the soul, which are all combined
and balanced by fire. Using these principles
minerals were divided into seven classes:
1. Stoney, but fusible and solidifying on cooling.
in Islam. Beruit, 2001. • Ruska, J., "Die Mineralogie
in der arabischen Literatur," Isis, 1 (1913-14), 341-350.
• Steinscheider, M., "Arabische Lapidarien," Zeitschrift
deutscher morgenlandischer Gesellschaft, 49 (1895), 249-272.
• Steinscheider, M., "Lapidarien, ein culturgeschichtlicher
Versuch" (pp. 42-72) in: Kohut, G.A., ed., Semitic
studies in memory of Rev. Dr. Alexander Kohut. Berlin,
1897. • Ullmann, M., Die Natur- und Geheimwissenschaften
im Islam. Leiden, 1972. xiii, 500 p. • Wiedemann,
E., "Zur Mineralogie bei den Muslimen," Archiv fur die
Geschichte der Naturwissenschaften und der Technik, 1 (1909),
208-11. • Wiedemann, E., "Beitrage zur Geschichte der
Naturwissenschaften XXX. Zur Mineralogie in Islam,"
Sitzungsberichte der Physikalisch-medizinischen Sozietat in
Erlangen, 44 (1912), 205-256.
Examples include gold, silver, copper, iron, tin, lead,
glass, etc.
2. Stoney, but not fusible, included diamond, hyacinth,
cornelian, etc.
3. Earthy, soft, not fusible, but easily separated and
friable. Such as various salts, talc, vitriols, etc.
4. Watery and evaporating in fire defined quicksilver
(mercury).
5. Aerial or oily that is consumed by fire, includes sulfur,
arsenic, etc.
6. Vegetable-like, form like a plant and includes coral,
etc.
7. Animal-like, were derived from animals such as
pearls.
The common metals gold, silver, copper,
lead, tin, iron were thought of as minerals of
a special type. They are made up of the same
basic four elements but also included mercury
and sulfur in their composition. Differences
between the metals were thought to arise from
various proportions and purities of mercury and
sulfur in the metal. Because of their fusibility,
their ability on cooling to regain a solid state,
the fact that they could be melted together
to form other alloys, their malleability and
their adaptability to so many uses like jewelry,
coins, statues, tools it was thought that the
metals possessed a composition more alike to
each other than was the case with minerals in
general. However, there was no philosophical
distinction between minerals and metals. For
example, glass melts and resolidifies to a hard
mass, and when heated it is also malleable
and ductile, thus giving rise to the notion that
glass was another type of metal, which is the
reason why it is occasionally listed with them
by some medieval writers. Frequently electrum
and bronze or brass are described as separate
metals, even by authors who know they are
alloys of other metals. On the other hand,
mercury is usually not listed with the metals
eventhough it is known to alloy or amalgamate
with other metals.
From the 9th to the 17th centuries, many
Islamic authors touched upon mineralogical
subjects like precious stones or metallurgy. Few
of these works were ever translated or for that
matter printed, and exist to the current time
only in manuscript versions. Nonetheless, the
29
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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3.1 Islamic Influences
works listed below provide a substantial view
of these writings.
3.1.2 Jabir ibn Hayyan [Latin, Geber]
Abu MS sA Jabir ibn Hayyan al-AzdT
[Latin, Geber] (died 803 c.e.) is perhaps the
most famous alchemist of the Middle Ages. I 104 !
He practiced medicine and alchemy in Kufa,
Iraq, about 776 C.E., and established his
reputation as one of the leading scientists of
Islam. Supposedly, he is the author in Arabic
of a very extensive library of alchemical and
other scientific books, but by no means could
he be the author of all works attributed to
him. It is now recognized that many of the
writings are the work of a school rather than
an individual.! 105 ]
These alchemical works provide remark-
ably reasoned descriptions of the methods of
chemical research, and they show knowledge of
the usual chemical reactions such as calcina-
tion, crystallization, reduction, solution, sub-
limation, which are often described. There is
a statement of the sulfur/mercury theory of
[104] DSB; 7j 39.43 . Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature, ??,
11. ■ Encyclopedia of Islam, 2, 357-9. • Kraus, P., Jabir ibn
Hayyan: contribution a l'histoire des idees scientifiques dans
l'lslam. Jabir et la science grecque. Paris, Belles Lettres,
1986. xv, 406 p. [Originally published as vol. 2 of a 2
vol. work under same title, Le Caire, 1942.] • Sarton,
Introduction, 1928-52, 1, p. 532-534.
[105] Yi&q, S.N., Names, natures and things: the alchemist
Jabir ibn Hayyan and his Kitab al-Ahjar (Book of stones).
With a foreword by David E. Pingree. Dordrecht, Kluwer
academic publishers, 1994. xx, 284 p. [Published as:
Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, 158.] • Geber,
The works of Geber. London, 1678. Reprinted, London,
1928, with introduction by E.J. Holmyard and R. Russell.
Reprinted, Kessinger Publishing, 1990. • Berthelot, M., La
chimieau moyen Age. Paris, 1893. [Where vol. 3, L'alchimie
arabe, contains the Arabic text of a few of Jabir's writings
edited by Otave Houdas and a French translation, p. 126-
224.] • Darmstaedter, E., Die Alchemie des Geber. Berlin,
1922. [German translation of the Latin treatises ascribed
to Geber.] • Holmyard, E.J., "Arabic chemistry," Nature,
110 (1922), p. 573. * Holmyard, E.J., "Jabir ibn Hayyan,"
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, Historical
Section, 16 (1923), 46-57. [An elaborate study together
with a catalogue raisonne of Jair's texts.] • Kraus, P.,
"Studien zu Jabir ibn Hayyan," Jsis, 15 (1931), 7-30. •
Kraus, P., Jabir ibn Hayyan: contribution a l'histoire des idees
scientifiques dans l'lslam. Jabir et la science grecque. Paris,
Belles Lettres, 1986. xv, 406 p. [Originally published as
vol. 2 of a 2 vol. work under same title, Le Caire, 1942.]
• Mieli, La Science Arabe, 1966, p. 55-59. ■ Steinscheider,
Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 247. • Stillmann, Story of
Early Chemistry, 1924, p. 185-189.
metals and descriptions of the preparation of
a large number of chemical substances, includ-
ing basic lead carbonate and the reduction of
arsenic and antimony metal from their native
sulfides. The methods are practical and include
processes for the creation of steel and the re-
finement of the metals, or creating dyes and
varnishes. Coloring agents for glass are also in-
dicated. Jabir is credited with several discov-
eries including the manufacture of nitric acid,
sal amnionic, ammonium chloride, hydrochloric
acid, nitrate of silver, etc. But to the alchemists
and chemists of the Middle Ages, the descrip-
tions and illustrations of furnaces in Jabir's
books were probably of even greater value.
3.1.3 pseudo-Aristotle
The authority of Aristotle's name during the
Middle Ages was held in such great esteem
that many titles appeared that pretended to
be authentic books of the master, but were
in fact much later efforts. Two such pseudo
works that touched upon minerals appeared
in the ninth century. It has been shown that
both texts were originally written in Syriac and
subsequently translated into Latin and other
languages. Each in their own way would have
a significant impact on the mineral studies of
the Middle Ages.
With its origins anchored in traditional
6th century natural history texts like the
Physiologus,l 106 ^ the Lapidary of Aristotle
written no later than the 9th century is very
likely a compilation cast in a Greek framework
from Syriac and Persian sources (many of
the stone names are Iranian), rather than an
actual work of Aristotle. I 107 ! Because it
[106] Ahren, Karl, Das Buch der Naturgegenstande.
Herausgegeben und iibersetzt von K. Ahren. Kiel, C.F.
Haeseler, 1892. viii, 84 p.; 71, iii p. [Containing
a Syriac version of the Physiologus, with a German
translation. Sarton draws the conclusion that this is the
basic publication that led to the Lapidary of Aristotle] .
I 107 ! Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 1, 572. • Stillman,
Story of Early Chemistry, 1924, p. 111111 , Thorndike,
History of Magic, 1923-58, 2, 260ff. • Ullmann, M., "Der
literarisches Hintergrund des Steinbuches des Aristoteles,"
(pp. ??-??) in: Actas IV Congresso de Estudos Arabes
e Islamicos, Lisboa, 1968. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften
im Islam, 1972, p. 105-110. • Wellmann, M., "Aristoteles
de Lapidibus," Sitzungsberichten der Preussian Akademie
der Wissenschaften. Philosophie Klasse, 1924, 79-82. •
Wiedemann, Mineralogie in Islam, 1912, p. 206.
30
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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3.1 Islamic Influences
is one of the oldest authorities in Arabian
mineralogy, it was a dominate sourcebook in
its subject during the Middle Ages. Translated
by scholars at various times into Hebrew,
Arabic and Latin, the texts would serve either
directly or indirectly later writers, especially
the encyclopedists Bartholomaeus Anglicus,
Isidore and Vincent de Beauvis. The German
orientalist and mineralogist Julius Ruska, using
the Arabic translation supposedly prepared by
Serapion the Elder in the 9th century, prepared
a heavily commented German translation that
appeared in 1912. I 108 ! Previously, Valentin
Rose had published a Latin text preserved in
Liittich that was a 14th century copy of a
manuscript edited with additions by a pre- 12th
century Spanish- Arabian writer. I 109 !
The book, which catalogs 72 stones,
minerals and jewels, gives a summary of
their more obvious physical characteristics,
their medicinal values and their supposed
supernatural properties. This is of special
value as it gives a view into the mineralogy
of the Arabs of the time, which would
subsequently have an important influence on
the development of mineralogy.
The second work attributed to Aristotle
that first appeared by the 9th century was the
Kitdb Sirr al-Asrdr whose Latin translation
prepared by Roger Bacon in cl257 under the
title Secretum Secretorum became well known
in medieaval Europe. It is a compilation
from Persian, Syriac and Greek sources of the
late Antiquity, and it deals primarily with
the occult properties of various substances,
especially minerals.! 110 ] The work is fully
described under §3.5 Books of Secrets.
A very different work, the Lapidarius
of 1473 was the first lapidary printed after
the invention of mechanical printing. It is
sometimes attributed to Aristotle being called
[1U8J jj^g]^ j i? r) as Steinbuch des Aristoteles. Heidelberg,
Carl Winters Universitatsbuchhandlung, 1912. 214 p.
[109] T-^ ose ^ Y., "Aristoteles 'De lapidibus' und Arnoldus
Saxo," Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum und deutsche
Literatur, 18 (1875), 321-455.
I 110 ] Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, p. 1, p. 282
& Suppl. 1, p. 432. • Haskins, C.H., Studies in Medieval
Science, 1924, p. 137-140. * Sarton, Introduction, 1928-54, 1,
p. 556-557. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972,
p. 110-111.
the "Lapidarius et Liber de Physionomia de
Aristotle," I 111 ! but was composed long after he
lived because the text refers to authorities such
as al-RazT and Albertus Magnus. It is a work
entirely devoted to precious stones, "written in
honor of Wenzel II, King of the Bohemians"
(1266-1305). Furthermore, the manuscript is
preserved in Switzerland as a 15th century
anonomous physiognomy in the Public Library
at Bern (MS. 513), and is entirely different in
character from the texts published by Julius
Ruska and Valentin Rose.
3.1.4 al-Katib
One of the oldest known and still existing Mus-
lim lapidaries is by TJtarid ibn Muhammad
AL-Katib and has the title Kitdb mandfi c al-
ahjar or Kitdb al-jawdhir wa°l-ahjar (Book of
Different Jewels). I 112 ! Written in the 9th cen-
tury, it treats precious stones but apparently
has never been published in modern times or
critically studied.
3.1.5 Masawaih [Latin, Mesue the Elder]
The christian physician Abu ZakarTya
Yuhanna ibn Masawaih [Latin, Mesue
the Elder] (died 857/8)! 113 ] authored
a manuscript in Arabic on minerals and
gemstones under the title Kitab al-Jawdhir
wa-sifdtihd wa-sifat al-gawwdsin wa-t-tujjdr
(The Book of Precious Stones and their
Properties).! 114 ! It was one of the
earliest important Arabic works on these
subjects relied upon by al-Kindl and al-Blrum
in compiling their own books. Masawayh
gives descriptions of twenty-four minerals and
gemstones including some of their physical
properties such as color, hardness and lusture,
together with their localites and market value.
^ 1 Lapidarius. — Quomodo virtutes pretiosorum lapidum
augmentantur. — Physiognomia. Merseburg, [anonymous
printer, probably Lukas Brandis], 20 October 1473. 40 £.
1 1 Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1898, p. 1, p. 243.
• Levey, M., "Arabic mineralogy of the tenth century,"
Chymia, 12 (1967), p. 17. • Ritter, Orientalische Steinbiicher,
1935, p. 3. • Ruska, Grieschischen Planetendarstellungen,
1919, p. 24-26. • Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 1, 572. •
Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 249-250. ■
Steinschneider, Intorno ad Alcuni Passi d'Opere, 1871, p. 275.
I 113 ! Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 1, p. 574.
1 114 1 Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 248. •
Ullmann, Natuwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 114.
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3.1 Islamic Influences
Included in the descriptions are diamond, pearl,
quartz, amber, amethyst, ruby, garnet, agate
sulfur and turquoise. A modern study of this
work has been prepared. I 115 !
3.1.6 al-Kindl [Latin, Alkindus]
Ya c qub ibn IshAq al-KindT [Latin, Alkin-
dus] (died c870 C.E.) is the so-called "Philoso-
pher of the Arabs" being the first and per-
haps only great philosopher of that race. I 116 !
He was a polymath with considerable knowl-
edge of Aristotle and other Greek authorities,
and his tremendous intellect is readily displayed
by the diverse subjects on which he authorita-
tively wrote including mathematics, astrology,
physics, music, medicine, pharmacy, and geog-
raphy. However, few of the reported 270 books
he authored are extant. Many Arabic transla-
tions from Greek originals were also prepared
under his supervision.
In mineralogy, al-KindT contributed several
works. His four books that described the use
of Hindu minerals are now lost, and the two
works of his that have survived are only known
today from manuscript fragments and short
quotations in other mineralogical books. I 117 !
1. Risala ft Anwff al-jawahir at-tamina wa-
gairiha (Treatise on Various Types of Precious
Stones and Other Kinds of Stones).
2. Risala fi Anwff al-hijara wa-l-jawahir
wa-ma c adiniha wa-jaiyidiha wa-radfiha wa-
atmaniha (Treatise on Various Types of Stones
and Jewels).
3.1.7 al-Jahiz
Abu TJthmAn °amr ibn Bahr Al-JAhiz
(c776-868/9) was the author of over 200 works
on politics, religion, and science of which only
thirty have survived. I 118 ! His Kitab al-
[115] j^ a ^ A.S., Kitab al-Jawahir wa-sifatuha Youhanna
ben Masawaih. [Edited by:] Haqqaqahu wa- allaqa alayhi
Imad Abd al-Salam Ra uf. Abu Zaby, al-Majma al-
Thaqafi, c2001. 114 p.
I 116 ! DSB, 15, ??. • Encyclopedia of Mam, 5, 122-3.
I 117 ! Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 1, p. 559-560. •
Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 248. •
Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 114-115. •
Wiedemann, Mineralogie bei den Musliem, 1908, p. 209-210.
• Wiedemann, Mineralogie in Islam, 1912, p. 206.
[118] Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1898, p. 1, p. 246,
nr. 7. . DSB 7, 63-5. • Encyclopedia of Islam, 2, 385-7. •
Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 1, p. 597.
ma c ddin wa-l-qaul ft jawahir al-ard (Book of
Minerals and a Report concerning Precious
Stones of the Earth) written in 847 C.E. is
lost. However a short description of the work
is preserved. I 119 !
This book distinguishes the separate type
of ores and metals by their reaction in
fire. Information is provided on segregating
false gems from true and the basic physical
properties such as color to describe the
minerals.
3.1.8 ad-Dimisql
Abu l-Fadl Ja'far ibn c AlT ad-DimisqT
wrote the Kitab al-Isara ila mahasin at-tijara
wa-ma c rifat jayyid al-a c rad wa-radfiha wa-
gusus al-mudallisin fiha. The author probably
lived at the beginning of the 10th century
because the latest author he quotes from is
al-KindT. He describes the most important
of the commercial precious stones, citing their
characteristics and criteria for authenicating
true stones from fake ones as well as a pricing
guide. I 120 !
3.1.9 al-Dlnawarl
About the middle of the 10th century Nasr
IBN Ya c qub AL-DTnawarT wrote the Kitab al-
Jawahir (Book of Precious Stones) in Persian
a text that al-BTrum frequently cites. I 121 !
3.1.10 al-RazI [Latin, Rhazes]
Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn ZakarTyyA c al-
RAzT [Latin, Rhazes] (c854-925 or 935) was
the greatest practitioner of medical procedures
in Islam and perhaps in the whole of the Middle
Ages.! 122 ! He successfully combined his
extensive chemical knowledge with medicine,
writing almost 200 treatises in medicine,
science and philosophy. His enormous and
important medical encyclopedia, Kitab al-Hawi
[liyj Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 115.
[120] Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, Suppl. 1
p. 907. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p
115-6.
[121] Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, Suppl. 1 , p
433. • Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 1, p. 706. • Ullmann
Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 116.
I 122 l Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, 4, 280, nr. 2
* DSB, 11, 323-6. • Mieli, La Science Arabe, 1966, p. 131-3
• Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 1, p. 609-10.
32
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3.1 Islamic Influences
(Book of Medicine) contains besides his own
perceptive observations many extracts from
Greek and Hindu authors. A practical man,
he experimented with specific gravity using a
hydrostatic balance, and some of his chemical
works picture the furnaces and other apparatus
he relied upon in his experiments.
Apparently, al-RazT authored two works
that would impact on mineralogy. The first
is his famous alchemical treatise, Kitab al-
asrar (Book of Secrets), which was his major
opus on the subject. I 123 ! Although al-RazT
folows Jabir on many points such as dividing
the metals into seven species and in its time
the work was considered to be an alchemical
text, the treatise really is more concerned with
chemistry than alchemy. However, al-RazT is
the first to classifiy his substances into animal,
vegetable and mineral components, a structure
that was copies by virtually all later writers.
Al-RazT then provides very careful descriptions
of many chemical processes such as calcination,
Alteration, distillation, etc., which had been
written about by Jabir and others but were
especially well described by al-RazT. These
techniques would help later researchers perfect
their techniques in the analysis of minerals.
The second title that al-RazT wrote
appears to directly concern minerals. The
work is known under the titles, Kitab al-
Mudhal al-burhani (Introdution to the Proof
of Creation) or the c Ilal al-ma c adin (Treatise
of Minerals).! 124 ! The text is concerned
with the formation of spirits, bodies, stones
[123] Translation: Ruska, J., Al-Razis Buch Geheimnis der
Geheimnisse, mit Einleitung und Erlauterungen, in deutscher
Ubersetzung, von Julius Ruska. Mit fiinf Abbildungen.
Berlin, J. Springer, 1937. xiii, [2], 246 p., illus.
[Published as: Quellen und Studien zur Geschichte der
Naturwissenschaften und der Medizin, Bd. 6.] References:
Heym, G., "Al-RazT and alchemy," Ambix, 1 (1938), 184-
191. • Partington, P.R., "The chemistry of Razi," Ambix,
1 (1938), 192-6. • Ruska, J., "Al-BTrum's 'Steinbuch'
als Quelle einer Interpolation in RazT's 'Kitab sirr al-
asrar'," Islam. Zeitschrift fur Geschichte und Kultur des
islamischen Orients, 25 (1939), 191-3. • Ruska, J., "Al-Razi
als Chemiker," Zeitschrift fur Chemie, 1922, 719-22. • Ruska,
J., "Die Alchemie ar-RazT's," Islam. Zeitschrift fur Geschichte
und Kultur des islamischen Orients, 22 (1935), 281-319. •
Stapleton, H.E., et al., "Chemistry in Iraq and Persia in
the Tenth Century A.D," Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of
Bengal, 8 (1927), no. 6, pp. 317-418, 2 plates. [Text in
English and Arabic].
I 124 l Isis, 6 (1924), 302. [Reference from ULLMANN].
and minerals. Unfortunately, it has apparently
never been published or thoroughly researched,
and in fact may now be lost.
3.1.11 Ikhwan al-Safa 3 or "Brothers of
Purity"
The economic importance of minerals was
a reoccurring theme in Islamic mineral
studies. This was a focus of the writings
of the Ikhwan AL-Safa° or "Brothers of
Purity," who authored important works in
mathematics, ethics, philosophy, chemistry
and mineralogy.! 125 ] Founded about 950
C.E. in Basra, Iraq, this was a society of
Arabian scholars whose anonymous eclectic
writings based on Plato and Aristotle appeared
between 975 C.E. and 1000 C.E. Their tenth
century chemical and mineralogical writings are
particularly important because they summarize
the Arabian knowledge prior to the mingling
of Islamic and western ideas that occurred
with the Muslim conquests in the eleventh and
twelfth centuries. Based on the idea that the
four elements of Plato and Aristotle constitute
matter they are perhaps the truest statement of
the original Greek and Roman ideas from which
they are derived. In 1160 C.E. their works were
denounced by the Mohammedan church and
their manuscripts publicly burned in Bagdad.
The Ikhwan AL-Safa c dedicated the
18th Epistle of the Rasa^il Ikhwan al-Safa?
(Epistles of the Brethren of Purity) to
mineralogical matters. It is titled "On the
Formation of Minerals" and includes some
fundamental geological principles followed by
several chapters on minerals and gemstones.I 126 ]
The materials are classified according to their
types and origin together with full information
on their physical and rudimentary chemical
• Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 250. •
Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 117.
I 125 ! Encyclopedia of Islam, 3, 1071-6. • Mieli, La Science
Arabe, 1966, p. 128-130. • Nasr, Islamic Cosmological
Doctrines, 1964. • Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 1, p. 660-
661.
[126J Dieterici, F., Ubersetzt der mineralogischen Abschnitte
aus den Jliwan as-safa . Berlin, 1885. [German translation
of the relavent mineralogical passages. Reference from
Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften in Islam, 1972, p. 119.] •
Levey, M., "Arabic mineralogy of the tenth century,"
Chymia, 12 (1967), 15-26. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften
im Islam, 1972, p. 119-120.
33
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3.1 Islamic Influences
properites, as well as medical and mystical
uses. Gemstones are classified by Ikhwan into
three categories: (1) mineral gemstones that
are metallic, hard and melt when heated (gold
silver and copper), (2) stony gemstones are very
hard and melt only with extreme heat (agate,
ruby, sapphire, etc.), and (3) earthy gemstones
that are soft and break easily but do not melt
(talc). Other properties are used to classify
minerals such as aqueous that does not burn
(mercury), fatty that do burn (sulfur), botanic
that resemble plants (coral), zoological that are
derived from animals (pearls), etc. Ikhwan al-
Safa 3 believed that heat was the essence of the
formation of minerals as well as the cause for
minerals to change from one form to another.
3.1.12 Ibn Sina [Latin, Avicenna]
Abu c AlT al-Husayn ibn c abdallAh ibn
STnA [Latin, Avicenna] (980 C.E.-1037 c.E.)
was a famous encyclopaedist, philosopher,
physician, mathematician, and astronomer,
and is perhaps the most renowned scientist of
IslamJ 127 ! His great many writings in prose
and verse and Arabic represented a climax of
medieval philosophy, but Ibn Sina's legacy is
the clear method he had of expressing his views
in his writings. Readers develop an excellent
image of the ideas the author is conveying.! 128 ]
Ibn Sina's great medical and philosophi-
cal encyclopaedia the Kitab as-Sifff (The Book
[127\ Afnan, S.M., Avicenna, his life and works. London,
G. Allen & Unwin, [1958]. 298 p. • Ammar, S., Ibn
Sina Avicenne: la vie & l'oeuvre. [Tunis], L'Or du Temps,
cl992. 157 p. . DSB, 15, ??. [SUPPLEMENT!!!!] ■
Encyclopedia of Islam, 3, 941-3. • Goodman, L., Avicenna,
London, Routledge, 1992. [A useful introduction to central
features of Ibn Slnas philosophical theories.] • Mieli, La
Science Arabe, 1966, 102-104. • Nasr, Islamic Cosmological
Doctrines, 1964. • Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 1, 709-
713. • Wickens, G.M., Avicenna: scientist & philosopher, a
millenary symposium. London, Luzac, 1952. 128 p.
[128] Gutas, D.j Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition,
Introduction to Reading Avicennas Philosophical Works.
Leiden, Brill., 1988. [An excellent account of the
considerations that entered into the construction of Ibn
Slnas corpus, the book contains translations of a number of
smaller texts, a careful consideration of method and sharp
criticisms of, among other things, ascriptions of mysticism
to Ibn Sina. This is probably the most useful guide to an
engagement with the philosophers work currently available
in English.] • Janssens, J.L., An annotated bibliography
on Ibn Sina, including Arabic and Persian publications, and
Turkish and Russian references. Leuven University Press,
1991. xxvii, 358 p.
of Healing) was probably begun in 1014 C.E.
and completed by 1020 C.E. The text has an
implied classification of theoretical knowledge
subdivided, with regard to increasing abstrac-
tion, into physics, mathematics, and meta-
physics, and practical knowledge such as ethics,
economics, and politics. The ideas expressed
roughly represented the Aristotelian tradition
but are modified by Muslim theology and Neo-
platonic concepts. Buried within the text are
extensive discussions of his visionary ideas on
the nature of minerals, and his astonishingly
insightful view of geological phenomena includ-
ing the formation of stones, rocks, and moun-
tains. He also provides some ideas on how min-
erals should be classified, but is ruthless in de-
nouncing the alchemists and their attempts to
transmute base metals into precious ones.! 129 !
Because these concepts were scattered through
out the large Kitab as-Sifff, Ibn Sina's pene-
trating observations about mineralogical won-
ders went largely unrecognized as his invention
eventhough they did become available in me-
dieval Europe in Latin translation.
At the conclusion of the third book of the
Meteorologica, Aristotle promises to write a
book about mineral substances, nepi.8i.6wv, but
no Greek manuscript of this work existed in the
Middle Ages. However, some medieval Latin
versions of the Meteorologica had appended
to the Fourth Book an additional chapter
in three paragraphs under the title, "De
Miner alibus." I 130 ! In this section the subject is
masterly dealt with in a flavor very reminescent
of Aristotle's other writings; however, this
mineralogy was conclusively shown in 1924 to
be translations of the various passages from
Ibn Sina's Kitab as-Sifff and not the writing
of Aristotle.! 131 !
! 129 ] Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 122.
! ] First printed edition, Liber des mineralibus Aristotelis.
Bologna, 1501.
I 131 l Holmyard, E.J., and D.C. Mandeville, Avicennae De
Congelatione et Conglutinatione Lapidum. Paris, 1927. viii,
85 p. English translation of the passages relavent to
mineralogy and geology] • Duhem, P, "Le traite des
mineraux attribue a Avicenne," Etudes sur Leonard de
Vinci, 2 (1909), 302-309. • Holmyard, E.J., "Arabic text of
Avicennas Mineralia," Nature, 117 (1926), 305. [This text
printed in Manget's Bibliotheca Chemica Curiosa, Geneva,
1702, 1, 636 and elsewhere, is a translation of certain
sections of the Shifa.]
34
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3.1 Islamic Influences
3.1.13 al-Blrunl
In the 10th century Abu RayhAn Muhammad
ibn Ahmad al-Biruni (973-a/ter 1050) was
born a Persian and a ShiiteJ 132 ! He
had agnostic tendencies toward his religion
and his anti-Arabic feelings were strongly
held throughout his life. For a time he
lived in India where he became acquainted
with Hindu and Sanskrit literature. As
a mathematician, philosopher, astronomer,
geographer, and encyclopedist, al-Blrunl is
condsidered one of the greatest scientists of
Islam and perhaps one of the greatest of all
time.
He wrote, in Arabic, a large number of
books (est. 146) on geographical, mathemati-
cal, and astronomical subjects of which only
about two dozen have survived to the present
timeJ 133 ! His Kitab al-Jamahir ft mtfrifat al-
jawahir (Book on the Multitude of the Knowl-
edge of Precious Stones) is a book in which he
combined the mineralogical, physical, medical
and philosophical ideas and studied the sub-
ject from all these points of view. I 134 ! Written
[isz\ B r0 ckelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, Suppl. 1 , p.
902. • DSB, 2, 147-58. • Encyclopedia, of Islam, 1, 1236-8. •
Mohamed Yahia Haschimi., "Die grieschischen Quellen des
Steinbuches von al-Beruni," Les Annales Archeologiques de
Syrie, 15 (1965), no. 2, p. 21-56. * Mieli, La Science Arabe,
1966, p. 98-101. • Said, H.M. and Khan, A.Z., Al-Biruni
(his times, life and works). Pakistan, Hamhard Academy,
1981. xi, 244 p., map, photos, map, biblio., index. [Modern
biography of Arab scientist Abu Rayhan al-Biruni.] • Said,
H.M., ed., Al-Biruni Commemorative Volume, Proceedings of
the International Congress held in Pakistan on the occasion
of Millenary of Abu Raihan Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Biruni
(973-ca 1051 AD). Nov. 26, 1973, through Dec. 12, 1973.
Printed in Pakistan at the Times Press, Karachi, 1979. [4],
844 p., 10 plates. • Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 1, p. 707-
709.
[133J K nan ^ A.S., compiler, A bibliography of the works of
Abu'l-Raihan al-Biruni. New Delhi, Indian Natl. Science
Academy, 1982. 77 p. [A bibliography describing &
annotating 183 items.]
11 Modern edition: Al-BTrunT, Kitab al-jamahir FT ma rifat
al-jawahir. Edited by F. Krenkow. [Hydaradbad, Da irat
al-Ma c arif, 1936/37]. 273, 11, 4, 51 p. [Text in
Arabic]. Translation: Al-BTrunT, "The chapter on pearls
in the 'Book of precious stones. Translated by F.
Krenkow," Islamic Culture, 15 (1941), 399-421 and 16
(1942), 21-36. * Al-BTrunT, Die Einleitung zu al-BTruni's
Steinbuch. Mit Erlauterungen iibersetzt von TakT ed
Din al Hllali. Leipzig, Harrassowitz, 1941. xxi, 41 p.
[Published as: Sammlung Orientalistischer Arbeiten, 7.]
References: Bromehead, C.E.N., "Kitab al-jamahir fi
ma'rifat al jawahir or 'Book of the Manifold Knowledge
about 1000 C.E., this remarkable text, which
is several hundred pages in length is devoted
exclusively to gem materials, related minerals
and metals. The whole is divided into three
parts, the first is an untitled introduction, the
second describing precious and semiprecious
stones, and the third on metals. Using material
from Hellenistic, Roman, Syriac, Indian, and
Islamic sources, he supplements the text with
his own perceptions. Accounts are included of
the physical properties of the various minerals
and gems, with very extensive etymological dis-
cussions of the technical terminology in many
languages and dialects, and many illustrative
quotations from Arabic poetry. Locations of
the principal mines and sources of raw material
are listed and al-Blrum provides the relative
weights of metals in relationship to gold, and
provides tables showing the relative prices of
pearls and emeralds as a function of their size.
For example, under his description of emerald
he provides a description of the mines at an oa-
sis apparently near Mount Muqattam (which is
unknown today), as well as details about the
color grading of crystals, tips for spotting im-
itations, and prices per carat. Al-BTrunT uses
the same descriptions of minerals as al-KmdT
in this work; however, Al-BTrunT's work appears
to have been the major source for later Muslim
authors. His scientific mind set him apart from
his contemporaries in that he always attempted
to preform corroboration through experimenta-
tion.
This is clearly shown by the careful
measurements he makes of the specific gravity
of some gemstones and minerals that is al-
of Precious Stones,' by others simply called 'Gems',"
Proceedings of the Geological Association, 56 (1945), pt. 2,
pp. 89-134. • Datta, B., "Al-Biruni and the origin of the
Arabic numerals," Proceedings of the Benares Mathematical
Society, 7 (1928), 15 p. • Haschmi, M.J., Die Quellen des
Steinbuches des Beruni. Bonn, 1935. 48 p. [Dissertation,
Bonn University.] • Kahle, P., "Bergkristall, Glas und
Glasnirsse nach dem Steinbuch von El-Biruni," Zeitschrift
der Deutschen Morgenlandischen Gesellschaft, 90 (1936), 322-
56. • Nasr, Islamic Cosmological Doctrines, 1964. • Ruska,
J., "Al-BTrunT's 'Steinbuch' als Quelle einer Interpolation in
RazT's 'Kitab sirr al-asrar'," Islam. Zeitschrift fur Geschichte
und Kultur des islamischen Orients, 25 (1939), 191-3. •
Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 252-254. ■
Wiedemann, Mineralogie in Islam, 1912, p. 206. • On the
Kitab al- Jamahir, see, G.C. Anawati, "Kitab al-jamahir fi
ma'rifat al jawahir of al-Biruni," pp. 437-53, with biblio.
35
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3.1 Islamic Influences
BTrunT's most important contribution to the
sciences of mineralogy and gemology set forth
in the Kitab al-jamahir are the results of
specific gravity experiments with respect to
gems and metals. I 135 ! By using a receptacle of
a conical form, with an overfall at the superior
end. The receptacle was filled with water,
and a known weight of gold dropped in, after
having placed the scale of a balance under
it. In this manner, al-Biruni determined the
weight of the water displaced. He then repeated
the experiment with all types of metals,
minerals, gems and rocks. By application
of these hydrostatic principles by the method
of Archimedes, he records that the results
obtained depend upon the temperature and
purity of the water used, but he did recognize,
that the smaller the density, the greater the
quantity of the water displaced for the same
weight.! 136 ] His method was effective, and
the values he derived for the gemstones are
close to modern day values. For example, he
gives the specific gravity of red spinel as 3.58,
blue sapphire as 3.97 and ruby as 3.85. These
values do not deviate appreciably from today's
accepted values of 3.581 for spinel and 3.987
to 4.1 for corundum. The specific gravities
for a total of nine gems and nine metals are
tabulated. I 137 ! In effect, he was one of the
earliest practitioners of the scientific method.
3.1.14 al-Kamill
Mansur ibn Ba c ra al-KAmilTI 138 ! was
appointed to a commission to study and review
the mint and its operation in minting the
coinage of the realm. His Kitab Kasf al-asrar
al-ilmiya bi-dd addarb al-misriya written in
the 13th century is a manual in 17 chapters
[135] Wiedemann, E., "Arabische specifische Gewichtsbes-
timmnungen," Annalen der Physik, 20 (1883), 539-41. •
Wiedemann, E., "Uber das al-Berunische Gefass zur spezi-
fischen Gewichtsbestimmung," Verhandlungen der deutsche
physikalische Gesellschaft, 10 (1908), 339-43. • Wiede-
mann, E., "Verbreitung der Bestimmungen des spezifischen
Gewichtes nach al-Beruni," Beitrage 31, Sitzungsbericht Er-
langen, 45 (1914), 31-34.
I 136 ! Said, H.M., ed., Al-Biruni Commemorative Volume,
1979, p. 450.
I 137 ! Mieli, La Science Arabe, 1966, p. 101.
I 138 ! Holmyard, E.J., "Mansur al-Kamily," Arcbeion, 13
(1931), 187-90.
describing all aspects of minting.! 139 ] He
describes the production, cleaning, alloying of
gold and silver, assaying of the metals purity,
and construction of furnaces. It was a highly
scholarly work providing many technical terms
and is considered one of the best books of its
type.
3.1.15 al-Arabl
The 17th chapter of MuhyT AL-DTn ibn AL-
c ArabT's (died 1240) Kitab at-Tadbirat al-
ilahiya ft islah al-mamlaka al-insaniya de-
scribes the "human characteristics of stones."
He recounts the physical and mystical proper-
ties of a variety of stones including emerald,
sapphire, Hyazinth, etc. I 140 !
3.1.17 al-TifasI
Born in 1184, Abu l- c AbbAs Ahmad ibn
Yusut ibn Ahmad al-TifAsi (died 1253)! 141 !
first learned about precious and semiprecious
stones from his father, and increased his
knowledge by reading Aristotle, Theophrastus,
Pliny, and other Islamic authorities, as well as
seeking out first hand experience. Over the
course of his life he made repeated trips to
the localities where the stones were mined and
also to the most important gemstone trading
centers. In his old age he recorded all of this
accumulated knowledge in his Kitab Azhar al-
afkar ft jawahir al-ahjar (Best thoughts on the
Best of Stones). I 142 l In this work 25 stones
[139] uilmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 124.
[140] Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, 1, p. 441 &
Suppl. 1, p. 790. • Uilmann, Naturwissenscbaften im Islam,
1972, p. 124.
I 141 ! Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, 1, 652 &
Suppl. 1 , p. 904. • DSB, 13, ??.
[142] Translations: Rau, S.F.J., Specimen Arabicum
continens descriptionem et excerpta libri Acbmedis Teifascbii de
gemmis et lapidibus pretiosis, quod publice defendet Sebaldus
Fulco Ravius. Traiecti ad Rhenum, Apud Abrahamum
a Paddenburg, 1784. 103, [1] p. • Rainieri, A., Fior
di pensieri sulle pietre preziose di Abmed Teifascite opera
stampata nel suo originale Arabo, colla Traduzione Italiana
appresso, e diverse note di Antonio Rainieri. Firenze,
Nell'Imp. ER. Tipografia Orientale Mediceo-Laurenziana,
1818. [62], 118 p. [Reprinted by Count Camillo Rainei
Biscia, Bologna, L. Andreoli, 1906.] • Clement-Mullet,
J., Essai sur la Mineralogie Arabe ... basee sur le traite
de Teifaschi [al-Tifasbi] (7-651/1253); Suivi de: Recbercbes
sur l'bistoire naturelle ... cbez les Arabes. Paris, 1868. •
A modern translation of al-TifasT's book, Arab Roots of
Gemology: Ahmad ibn Yasuf Al Tifaschi's Best Thoughts on
36
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
3.1 Islamic Influences
are fully described by physical properties like
relative hardness, lusture and geometric form.
Speculation on the cause of gem formation
within the earth is given by al-TifasT as well as
descriptions of the "mother-rock" from which
the stones are extracted.
3.1.18 Naslr al-Dln al-TusT
Nasir AL-DTn al-TusT (died 1274)[ 143 1 au-
thored a very worthwhile work concerning pre-
cious stones and metals in the Persian lan-
guage, Tansuh-ndme-i ilhdni.l 144 } It is a
manuscript known it two distinctive recensions.
The first chapter handles 41 different precious
stones including sapphire, emerald, diamond,
ruby, turquoise, and jasper. The second chap-
ter provides descriptions of precious substances
of non-mineral origin including ivory, balsam,
and ebony. The third chapter provides infor-
mation on substances that emit odor includ-
ing ambra, aloe, sandlewood. The final section
describes the fusible minerals, which includes
gold, silver, copper, tin, lead and the like. This
work was designated the most useful and com-
prehensive work of its kind.
3.1.19 al-QazwInl
Abu YahyA ZakarTyA ibn Muhammad ibn
Mahmud AL-QazwTnT (c1203-1283) was a fa-
mous Arab cosmographer and georgrapher who
seems to have received a legal education.! 145 ]
the Best of Stones Ahmad ibn Yusuf Al Tifaschi, Ahmad ibn
Tifashi. [Translator:] Samar Najm Abul-Huda. New York,
Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 1997. 320 p. ISBN:
0810832941. References: Ruska, Steinbuch des Aristoteles 1
1912, p. 23-31. • Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895,
p. 254-6. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p.
125-6. • Wiedemann, Mineralogie in Islam, 1912, p. 206-7.
I 143 l DSB, 13, ??. ■ Wiedemann, E., "Uber die
Entstehung der Farben nach Naslr al-din al-TusT,"
Jahrbuch der Photographie und Reproduktionstechnik, 1908
(Halle), p. 86-89. • Wiedemann, E., "Zum Leben von
Naslr al Din al TusT," Sitzungsberichte der Physikalisch-
medizinischen Sozietat in Erlangen, 58/59 (1926-7), 58-59
and 363-79. [Published as: Beitrage zur Geschichte der
Naturwissenschaften, 75.] • Wiedemann, E., "Naslr al
Din al TusT," Sitzungsberichte der Physikalisch-medizinischen
Sozietat in Erlangen, 60 (1928), 289-316.
[144] Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 127.
[145] Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, 1, p. 405 &
Suppl. 1 , p. 924. * DSB, 11, ??. • Encyclopedia of Islam, 4,
865-7. • Ruska, J., "KazwTmstudien," Islam. Zeitschrift fur
Geschichte und Kultur des islamischen Orients, 4 (1913), I4-
86, 236-62. • Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 2, p. 868-870.
A Persian writing in Arabic, al-QazwfnT has jus-
tifiably been called the Medieval (or Muslim)
Pliny, a comparision made because of the depth
of his knowledge and the lack of critical temper
in his books. He authored two large compendi-
ums, which have sometimes been characterised
as two parts of the same work, but which are
in fact independent of each other.
The first of his books commonly called
the Cosmography has the title 'Ajcr'ib al-
Makhlukdt wa-jarcPib al-mawjuddt (Marvels of
Created Things and Miraculous Aspects of
Things Existing).! 146 ! This text is the
first systematic description of cosmography in
Islamic literature. That it enjoyed tremendous
popularity is shown by the large number of
surviving manuscripts that represent several
different recensions of the text as well as early
translations into Persian and Turkish. This
work is divided into two parts the first of which
treats celestial items and the other terrestrial
ones. In the first part al-Qazwfnf describes
the moon, sun, planets, stars, as well as the
inhabitants of heaven, angels. At the end of
this segment he provides an explanation and
chronology of the Arabic and Syrian calendars.
The second part starts with an essay on the four
Aristotelian elements, meteors and the winds.
The author then classifies the earth into seven
climates with descriptions of all of the known
seas and rivers. He explains the causes of
earthquakes and the formation of mountains
and wells. Al-QazwTnT then reviews the three
realms of nature: mineral, vegetable and
animal. However, the account of the animals
is preceded by a description of man, including
his character, anatomy and characteristics of
his tribes. The section dealing with minerals
was translated into German with a commentary
by the renowned orientalist Julius Ruska in
! 1 Modern edition: Ferdinand Wiistenfeld., Zakarija
Ben Muhammed Ben Mahmud) el-Cazwini's [al-Qazwini]
Kosmographie. Gottingen, Dieterich, 1848-1849. 2
parts. (I: Die Wunder der Schopfung. Aus den
Handschriften der Bibliotheken zu Berlin, Gotha, Dresden
und Hamburg. XII (German text), 452 (Arabic text) p.
II: Die Denkmaler der Lander. Aus den Handschriften
des Dr. Lee und den Bibliotheken zu Berlin, Gotha
und Leyden. X (German text), 418 (Arabic text) p.)
[Reprinted, Wiesbaden, Martin Sandig, 1967.] References:
Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 256-257. •
Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 127-8.
37
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
3.1 Islamic Influences
1895.I 147 !
Al-QazwTnT's second work, commonly
refered to as the Geography is known through
several manuscripts in two distinct recensions.
The first is dated 1262/3 and carries the
title, c Adj(fib al-buldan (Prodigies of the
Countries). The second, apparently a revised
version, carries the date 1275/6 and has
the title, Athar al-bilad wa-akhbar aFibad
(Monuments of the Countries and History of
their Inhabitants).! 148 ] Both versions contain
descriptions of the seven climates of the earth.
For each clime the separate cities, countries,
mountains, islands, lakes, rivers, etc., are listed
in alphabetical order. In other words, instead
of being one alphabetical dictionary, it is a
collection of seven dictionaries, one for each
climate. The description of each city and
country contains geographical and historical
facts along with biographical information on
famous personalities originating from them.
3.1.20 al-Qibjaql
Bailak ibn Muhammad al-QibjAqT (or al-
QabajaqT) dedicated to the prince of Hamat
al-Malik al-Mansur II, the son of the Malik
al-Muzaffar II, a work with the title of Kanz
at-tijdr ft ma c rifat al-ahjdr (A Treasure for
Merchants regarding the Knowledge of Stones)
written in 1282. I 149 ! The writing comprises
30 chapters and followed closely the book of
al-TlfasT. In the prologue al-Qibjaql lists 23
authors that he has cited including Aristotle,
Theophrastus, Ptolemy, and al-Blrum. The
magnetic compass is also mentioned.
3.1.21 As-SuwaidI
Tzz ad-DTn IbeAhTm ibn Muhammad as-
SuwaidT (died 1292) wrote the Kitab Hawass
al-ahjdr mina l-yawaqit wa-l-jawahirA 150 ^ In
1 1 Julius Ruska., Das Steinbuch aus der Kosmographie.
Ubersetzt und mit Anmerkungen Versehen von Julius
Ruska. Kirchhain, N.-L., Druck von M. Schmersow, cl895.
44 p. [Published as: Beilage zum Jahrsbericht 1895/6 der
prov. Oberrealschule, Heidelberg.}
I 148 l ADD REFERENCE HERE
[149] Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, 1, p. 652 &
Suppl. 1 , p. 904. • Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 2, p.
1072. • Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 256.
• Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 128.
1 I Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 257-
258. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 129.
this small writing 26 stones are treated, with
their descriptions derived from other Islamic
sources with no originality. Stress is placed on
the pharmaceutical uses of the stones that are
listed.
3.1.22 al-Qasanl
In 1301 in Tabriz, Persia Abu l-QAsim c Abd
AllAh ibn c AlT ibn Muhammad ibn abT
TAhir AL-QAsAnT wrote the Kitab c Ara?is al-
jawahir wa-nafa'is al-atayibA 151 ^ The book
treats precious stones giving descriptions of
their physical properties, with the final section
telling the use of stones in technology.
3.1.23 al-Dimasql
Shams al-dTn Abu c AbdallAh Muhammad
ibn abT TAlib al-AnsArT al-SufT al-
DimasqT (1256-1327) I 152 l devoted the second
chapter of his large Nukhbat al-dahr ft 'adjcPib
al-barr wa c l-bahr (Selection of the Age on the
Wonders of the Land and Sea) to minerals,
metals and stones. I 153 ! This cosmography,
written in the 14th century is the author's best
known work and is a compilation dealing with
geography in the widest sense that contains
a large amount of information to be found
no where else. The section on mineralogy
is divided into 11 sections. Seven metals
are treated in the first, with their physical
properties described, their origin in terms of
Aristotlian doctrine explained, their active and
passive virtues listed, and their relationship
with the planets discussed. Physical and
magical properties are indiscriminately mixed
together. The second portion treats the
origin of metals based on their content of
sulfur and mercury. Section three refutes
alchemy, while part four describes precious
stones in which approximately 20 items are
I 151 ! Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 129.
[152] DSB; ??; ??> . Encyclopedia of Islam, 2, p. 291. •
Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 3, p. 800-802.
[lbS\ Translation: Mehren, A.F., Manuel de la Cosmographie
du Moyen Age. Traduit de l'arabe "Nokhbet ed-
Dahr fi 'Adjaib-il-Birr wal-Bah'r" de Shems ed-Din
Abou-'Abdallah Moh'ammad de Damas, et accompagne
d'eclaircissements. Copenhagen, 1874. 468 p. [Reprinted,
1994 by Islamic Geography no. 204.; ISBN 3-8298-1192-6.]
References: Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1898, 2, p.
130 & 138. • Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p.
259. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 130.
38
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
3.1 Islamic Influences
listed and characterized. Section five treats the
less valuable stones like turquoise, carnelian,
chrysolith, onyx, jasper, etc. The magnet in
its various forms is described in the sixth part.
This part has been based almost completely
on the Lapidary of Aristotele. Part seven
describes beads of various types, while section
eight treats the remaining minerals like arsenic,
salts, borax, etc. In the ninth section other
less valuable stones are treated and include
malachite, obsidian, marcasite, etc. The tenth
portion concerns geological questions, and the
final part contains stories about imitation
jewels and how one detects them.
3.1.24 Ibn Abl Bakr Mustaufi al-QazwInl
The Persian historian and encyclopedist
Hamdallah ibn AbT Bakr MustaufT al-
QazwTnT (died after 1340)[ 154 1 wrote in
Persian his Nuzhat al-qulub (Delight of the
Heart) in an easily comprehensible style. It is
essentially a cosmographical and geographical
encyclopedia in which the first part describes
the three realms of nature including minerals
and stones.! 155 ! From ZakarTya
ibn Muhammad al-QazwTnf he copies the
organization of the minerals into metals, stones
and viscous materials and also the origins
of these minerals. Later in the work, the
geographical portion of the book discusses in
detail the places to find the seven metals as well
as the methods of extraction from the earth.
He also does the same for the precious stones
and for the viscous substances like petroleum,
naptha, bitumen, pitch, sulfur, mercury, etc.
3.1.25 al-Jildakl
hi the second part of the Al-ikhtisas wa-Durrat
al-gawwas ft asrar al-gawwas (Natural and
Occult Properties of Animals and Stones), I 156 !
the Muslim alchemist c Izz AD-DTn Aidamir
1 J Encyclopedia of Islam, 3, p. 122. • Sarton, Introduction,
1928-52, 3, p. 630-632.
1 J al-QazwTnl, The geographical part of his Nuzhat-al-
Qulub composed in 740 (1340). Leyden, Brill, 1915. 2
vols. [Vol 1 text edited by Guy le Strange.; Vol 2 English
translation with notes by Guy le Strange.; published as:
Gibb Memorial Series, 23, nrs. 1 and 2.] • Stephenson, J.,
"The zoological section of the 'Nuzhatu-1-qulub' ( a Persian
compendium of science, 1.340 A.D.)," Isis, 11 (1928), 285-
315. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 131.
I 156 ! Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, 2, p. 173-
ibn c AlT ibn Aidamir al-JildakT (died
1342/3) I 157 ! dedicates a long section to stones
and minerals. He begins with a discussion
of the theory of Aristotles that stones are
a mixture of the four primal elements that
have been consolidated by fire. Then in
five sections the minerals are systematically
treated. Section one contains 29 different types
of jewels together with many subspecies. Part
two treats the relative value and prices of
these stones. The third part describes the
common minerals, 19 in all. Section four
treats 17 varieties that are thought to possess
miraculous properties. The fifth portion is
dedicated to the stones that are found in
animals as well as magnets, altogether 1 1 pieces
are mentioned. Many times, al-JildakT provides
synomyms and linguistic explanations for the
names of the stones mentioned, but even so the
nomenclature is so disfigured it is difficult to
easily determine the actual species described.
3.1.26 al-Akfanl
The physician SAMS AD-DTn MUHAMMAD
ibn IbrAhTm al-AnsAri as-SahAwT al-
AkfAnTI 158 ! wrote a handbuch under the title
Nuhab addahffir ft ahwal al-jawahir (Selection
of Treasures concerning the Conditions of
Jewels).! 159 ! It is a short work written
in the 13th century in which fourteen of the
most important precious stones are treated.
Here their properties are listed, their localities
noted, their values estimated, and their magical
and theraputic properties enumerated. Al-
AkfanT has relied upon the previous works
of al-KindT, al-Blrunl, and the Lapidary of
Aristotle. A German translation was published
by Wiedemann in 1912. I 160 !
3.1.27 al-Majrltl
A stone book is attributed to the mathemati-
cian and alchemist Abu AL-QAsim Maslama
174. • Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 261. •
Ullmann, Natuwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 131-2.
I 157 l Holmyard, E.J. "Aidamir al-JildakT," Iraq, 4 (1937),
47-53, biblio.
I 158 l Sarton, Introduction, 1928-52, 3, p. 899-901.
I 159 l Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften imlslam, 1972, p. 132-3.
• Wiedemann, Mineralogie in Islam, 1912, p. 207.
[ISO] Wiedemann, Mineralogie in Islam, 1912, p. 211-229.
39
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
3.1 Islamic Influences
AL-MajrTtT (d«edcl006)[ 161 l that contains ci-
tations from al-JildakT. I 162 ! The text, known
in about ten manuscripts, concentrates on the
magical and marvelous properties of precious
stones, as well as giving information copied
from al-Birunl on the specific gravity of the va-
rieties.
3.1.28 Mansur
Muhammed ibn Mansur wrote a work in
Persian Gawdhir Ndmeh that deals with the
important precious stones. I 163 ! Included
is a discussion of the specific gravity of the
individual gems that has been repeated from
al-BTrum.
3.1.29 al-Jazaril
Contained in the encyclopedia of natural
science Tuhfat al- c ja'ib compiled by Ibn al-
AtTr AL-JazariT is a section on stones. I 164 !
He writes of the miraculous properties of stones
as well as their healing power. He describes
talismans, gold, silver, the natural magnet, and
minerals derived from the bodies of plants and
animals. The seven metals are described as are
the precious and semiprecious stones, vitriol,
various salts, mercury, sulfur, petroleum, and
pitch.
3.1.30 al-Gaffarl
A stone book written in Turkish that appeared
under the title Kitab Ydqutat al-mahdzin fi
Jawdhir al-ma c ddin comes from YahyA IBN
Muhammad al-GaffArTJ 165 ! Al-GaffarT
relies particularly on earlier Persian books. He
treats minerals and stones in four parts: (1)
subterranean substances that are needed for
the formation of metals, (2) the jewels, (3) the
metals and their alloys, and (4) perfumes.
3.1.31 al-MaqrlzI
Abu al- c AbbAs Ahmad ibn c lT TaqT al-
DTn AL-MaqrTzT (c1364-1442) authored in
[161] Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, 1, p. 281-
282 & Suppl. 1 , p. 431-432. * DSB, 9, ??.
I 162 ! Dunlop, Arabic Science in the West, 1958, p. 78.
• Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p. 251. •
Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 122-3.
[163] Wiedemann, Mineraiogie in Islam, 1912, p. 208.
[164] Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 133.
[165] ullmann, JVaturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 134.
1442 a small work on stones under the title,
Kitab al-Maqdsid as-saniya li-ma c rifat al-
ajsdm al-mcf diniya (Increasing the Knowledge
of Mineral Bodies). I 166 !
3.1.32 al-Wardl
The chapter on stones in the Harida of
c Umar ibn AL-WardT begins by discussing
colored magical stones. I 167 ! Their supposed
occult properties are described and the author
mentions especially antimony, vitriol, salt.
Altogether 41 stones are treated following
Aristotelian principles.
3.1.33 SlrazI
Muhammad ibn Mansur. STrAzT authored
in Persian for the Sultan Abu 1-Fath HalTl
Bahadur Han (reigned, 1478-1479) the work,
Risdla-i Jawdhir (Epistles on Jewels). I 168 ! It
depends heavily on the work of al-TifasT in
its description of about 40 stones. External
properties are primarily used to distinguish
species and medical uses are noted. The specific
gravities mentioned date back to al-Birunl.
Ornamental uses as well as technological
applications are also cited.
3.1.34 al-Baihaql
c AtA 3 ibn al-Husain ibn c AlT al-BaihaqT
wrote for the Yemen ruler Salah ad-Din c Amir
ibn c Abd al-Wahhab (1488-1517) the Kitab
Ma c din an-nawddir ji ma c rifat al- Jawdhir
(The Mine of the Precious Reference to the
Knowledge of Jewels). I 169 !
[166] Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, Suppl. 2 ,
p. 37, nr. K. • Lippmann, E.O. von, "Alchemistisches aus
Makrizi's 'Beschreibung Aegyptens'," Chemiker Zeitung, 54
(1930), 2. • Steinschneider, Arabische Lapidarien, 1895, p.
261. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 135.
• Wiedemann, E., "Zur Geschichte des Kompasses und zu
dem Inhalt eines Gefasses in verschieden Abstanden vom
Erdmittelpunkt," Zeitschrift fur Physik, 24 (1924), 166-268.
[Includes a description by al-Maqrizi of a magnetic fish for
determining directions at sea.]
[167] Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 135-
136.
I 168 ! Ruska, Steinbuch, 1912, p. 31-33. • Ullmann,
Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 136. • Wiedemann,
Mineralogie in Islam, 1912, p. 208.
[169] Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, 2, p. 213 &
Suppl. 2 , p. 253. • Ritter, Orientalische Steinbiicher, 1935,
p. 9-10. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p.
136-137.
40
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
3.2 LlTHOTHERAPY
3.1.35 al-Mubarak Qazwlnl
Muhammad ibn al-Mubarak QazwTnT
wrote in Persian for the Ottoman Sultan SelTm I
(1512-1520) the Risdla dar Ma c rifat-i Jawdhir
(Epistles on Metals and Jewels). I 170 ! It
contains an introduction and two parts. The
first section in 21 sections treats stones and the
second in 8 parts handles the metals.
3.1.36 al-Maghribl
ImAm Ahmad ibn Twad ibn Muhammad
AL-MaghribT authored a lapidary before the
17th century Kitdb Qatf al-azhdr ft hawdss
al-ma c ddin wa-l-ahjdr (Book of the Properties
and Characteristics of Minerals and Stones).
The book is derived from other Arabic works
on the properties of minerals. The author relies
heavily on the Cosmography of QazwTwT, the
Durra of al-JildakT and the Tadkira of Dawud
al-Antakl from which he gives quotations. I 171 !
This was the last of the major stone books
published by the Islamic authors.
3.2 Lithotherapy! 172 ]
The use of stones and minerals in medical
therapeutics has existed since the earliest
times. Their use has, however, been largely
overshadowed in the literature by the studies of
remedies based on plants and to a lesser extent
animals. Nevertheless, the term 'Lithotherapy'
was introduced in the sixteenth century to
define the use and preparation of mineral
substances in the medical welfare of patients.
I 170 ! Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 137.
[1 7 1J Brockelmann, Arabischen Literatur, 1943, Suppl. 2 , p.
713. • Ullmann, Naturwissenschaften im Islam, 1972, p. 137.
[172\ j^ f ew studies have appeared that provide a history
of stones in pharmacy and medicine: H.G. Fuhner,
Lithotherapie. Historische Studien fiber die medizinische
Verwendung der Edelsteine. Erweiterter Abdruck der
gleichnamigen Inaugural-Dissertation. Berlin, Verlag von
S. Calvary & Co., 1902. [6], 150 p. • Christel Meier,
Gemma spiritalis. Teil I. Munchen, Wilhelm Fink Verlag,
1977. 542, [2] p., biblio. [See p. 361-459]. * H.H.
Otten, "[Piedra de mijada, jade. A medico-historical
look at lithotherapy]", Medische Welt, 32 (May, 1981), p.
765-766. • U. Rath, Zur Geschichte der pharmazeutischen
Alineralogie. Braunschweig, Universitat Braunschweig,
1971. 273 p. [Published as: Pharmazeigeschichtlicher Seminar
der Technischen Universitat Braunschweig, vol. 12. Covers the
history of pharmaceutical mineralogy] • John M. Riddle,
"Lithotherapy in the Middle Ages. Lapidaries considered
as medical texts," Pharmacy in History, 12 (1970), p. 39-50.
In antiquity great belief was placed in the
use of gemstones and other mineral substances
as cures and remedies for a wide variety of
ailments. The treatment involved wearing
the stones as amulets, talismans, or rings or
in other instances pulverizing the stone for
mixture with other ingredients to form noxious
prescriptions. Dissemination of this knowledge
through the Medieval herbals, pharmacopoeias
and encyclopedias, as well as the very popular
type of book called a lapidary, clearly gave
authority for physicians to prescribe treatments
using substances that would today clearly be
classed as mineralogical. Such use of stones
in medicine, therefore, truly began to flourish
in the Middle Ages. In addition, many
times these prescriptions were formulated by
applying the astrological sign and the mystical
powers attached to the stone. For example,
diamond because of its unusual strength was
thought to ward of the effects of ingested
poisons, or wine drunk with dissolved pearls
a cure for intestinal distress. Later as alchemy
began to develop a universal remedy or catalyst
generally called the 'Philosopher's Stone' that
could work miracles for patients as well as
transmute lead to gold was theorized to exist.
It was not until the full development of modern
medical science, however, that the vital role
minerals play in health was shown. This
culminates today in the interesting fact that
virtually every pill or tablet prescribed has a
mineral component.
3.2.1 Lapidaries l 173 l
[lrdj p re vious studies of lapidaries, published texts, and
stone lore in general include: Alios Closs., "Die Stein-
bucher in kulturhistorischer Uberschau," Mitteilungsblatt -
Abteilung fiir Mineralogie am Landesmuseum Joanneum, Graz,
8 (1958), p. 1-34. [Overview of lapidary tradition in Eu-
rope, Islam and the Orient.] • Pierre Duhem., Etudes sur
Leonard de Vince. Paris, 1906-13. • Joan Evans., Magical
jewels of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Oxford, 1922.
264 p. • ibid, and Mary S. Serjeantson., English Mediaeval
Lapidaries. London, 1933. [Published as: English Text Soci-
ety, no. 190.] • Robert M. Garrett., Precious Stones in Old
English Literature. Leipzig, 1909. [Published as: Manchener
Beitrage zur romanischen and englischen Philologie.] • Hen-
drick Harpestraeng., Gamle danske urteb0ger, stenb0ger og
k0geb0ger. Kopenhagen, 1908-21. [Contains a history of
lapidaries.] • Urban T. Holmes., "Mediaeval gemstones,"
Speculum, 9 (1934), p. 195-204. • C.W. King., Antique gems:
Their origin, uses, and value. London, 1860. • George F.
Kunz., The curious lore of precious stones. Philadelphia and
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Citations to gemstones used as ornaments,
talismans, or amulets, and to other minerals
and stones used in medicine date back to at
least the writings of ancient Egypt and the
Near East. But the lapidary, a work that
described the healing properties of 'stones'
may be said to have been invented by the
ancient Greeks. These treatises, usually quite
short, deal exclusively with metals, stones,
and gems, with their medicinal and magical
characters particularly mentioned because at
the time of their appearance, stones were
generally believed to possess these properties
and were therefore looked upon with great
interest by the public. Physical properties and
the composition of the stones were generally
not mentioned.
That the lapidaries were very popular
not only among the educated classes of the
community but also among the middle classes,
is shown by the fact that there were many of
them and they were in great demand. They
were frequently written or translated into the
vernacular languages of many of the European
countries insuring their wide availability. The
goldsmiths and jewelers probably offered them
for sale together with their normal merchandise
as an aid to set forth the value of their wares,
and the customers bought the gems they wore
not only for purposes of adornment but for the
magical powers which they were supposed to
possess. How many of these lapidaries have
survived is unknown. Some of them were never
printed but are known to exist in the form of
manuscripts only, in one or other of the great
libraries of Europe. Furthermore, during the
Middle Ages, the encyclopediaists incorporated
sections of these traditional lapidaries into their
own work, sometimes with attribution, but
usually not, thus making the material even
more widely available.
London, 1913. • Fernand de Mely., Histoire des sciences
les lapidaires de l'antiquite et du moyen age. Ouvrage publie
sous les auspices du ministere de l'instruction publique et
de l'academie des sciences. Paris, Ernest Leroux, 1896-
1902. 3 vols. [An amazing compilation of ancient lap-
idaries, translations and commentary that was unfortu-
nately never completed.] • Paul Meyer., "Les plus anciens
lapidaires frangais," Romania, 38 (1909), p. 44-70, 254-552.
• Leopold Pannier., Les Lapidaries Francais. Paris, 1882.
• Paul Studer and Joan Evans., Anglo-Norman Lapidaries.
Paris, 1924.
Written in a seemingly endless variety
of formats and arrangements the European
lapidaries may be grouped into one of three
general types. I 174 !
1. The scientific lapidaries whose material is
derived from such classical writers as Theophrastus,
Dioscorides, Damigeron, and Galen.
2. The magical or astrological lapidaries,
sometimes also referred to as the Alexandrian
lapidaries, because best evidence shows they were
written in Egyptian Alexandria in the ninth century
C.E.
3. The Christian or Christian symbolic lapi-
daries that describes the twelve stones named in
the Bible as contained in Arron's breast plate in ei-
ther Exodus or in the Apocalyptic literature.
These categories although useful in group-
ing lapidaries of similar types, are in no way
absolute, because very often some of the de-
scriptions in one lapidary are derived from ti-
tles listed in the other groups.
3.2.1.1 Scientific Lapidaries
Some of the best knowledge of medieval
mineralogy is preserved in the scientific
lapidaries. These are works that carried
forward the ancient traditions of mystical
and occult properties of precious stones, by
repeating the ideas presented in the ancient
works of Theophrastus, Pliny, and the like.
3.2.1.1.1 Marbode (1035-1123)
MARBODE, I 175 l Bishop of Rennes, composed
the Liber Lapidum seu de Gemmis (Book of
[174] This classification was developed by Joan Evans
(Magical Jewels, 1922, p. 38) and George Sarton
(Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. 764).
Recently, Halleux has made a further division, splitting the
????? into two, 11111 and 1111. For this study, the three
divisions are sufficient to present the material.
I 175 ! Marbode (Born: Angers, France, 1035; Died: Angers,
France, 11 September 1123), whose true name was 'de
Marboeuf,' received his early education at Angers. After
teaching some time at the cathedral school of Angers, he
was put at the head of the educational system of the city
and Diocese of Anvers in 1067. Later he became archdeacon
and in 1096 Urban II appointed him Bishop of Rennes. In
his youth he indulged in many excesses, but from the time
he became bishop his life was without reproach. In 1104
he was present at the Council of Tours, and in 1109 he was
made administrator of the Diocese of Angers. At the age
of eighty-eight he resigned his diocese and withdrew to the
Benedictine monastery of St. Aubin at Angers where he
died soon after.
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Stones or Gems) between 1061 and 1081. It is
by far the most important of the early medieval
lapidaries, being the first book of its type
written in Europe since the Classical Age, and
it is the one most widely quoted by the authors
that followed. Written between the years
1061 and 1081, the text was composed in 734
Latin hexameters that records the medical and
magical properties of some sixty stones. The
choice of writing the book in verse was made
so that those who referenced it might better
remember the content given in the book. I 176 !
It is a scientific lapidary, having derived
much of its information from the second
century C.E. Hellenistic lapidary, De Virtutibus
Lapidum, attributed to Damigeron. Marbode
begins his poem with the lines: "Evax, King
of the Arabs is said to have written to Nero,
Who after Augustus ruled next in the city, How
many species of stones, what name and what
colors, from what regions they came and how
great the power of each one." This reference
to Evax King of the Arabs is nearly a direct
quote from Damigeron's Hellenistic lapidary.
It is also the same Evax referred to by Pliny
in the twenty-fifth book of his Natural History
in the following words, "Evax a King of the
Arabians, wrote a book as touching the virtues
and operations of Simples, which he sent unto
the Emperor Nero." Nothing further, however,
is known the Evax so frequently mentioned
in the medieval lapidaries, and he may in
fact be a literary invention. In fact when
Marbode's authorship is omitted from the early
manuscripts the lapidary was usually referred
[17b] Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 144, 149-155. • C. W. King., Antique
Gems, 1860, p. 391-417. [Contains an English translation
of Marbode.] • Pannier, Les Lapidaires Francais, 1882, p.
1-81. • John M. Riddle., "Lithotherapy in the Middle
Ages. Lapidaries considered as medical texts," Pharmacy in
History, 12 (1970), 39-50. [Briefly describes the importance
of lapidaries in early medical history.] • ibid. , Marbode of
Rennes' De lapidibus considered as a medical treatise with text.
Commentary, and C.W. King's translation, together with
text and translation of Marbode's minor works on stones
by John M. Riddle. Wiesbaden, Steiner, 1977. xii, 144 p. •
Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. 764-
5. • Paul Studer and Joan Evans., Anglo-Norman Lapidaries.
Paris, 1924. 424 p. [Scientific edition, with abundant notes
and glossary, of a number of Anglo-Norman lapidaries, in
prose and verse, all derived from Marbode.] • Thorndike,
History of Magic, 1923, 1, p. 749-??.
to as the 'Lapidary of Evax'. For other sources,
Marbode rarely if ever uses Pliny directly, but
took some of his descriptions from Solinus and
from Isidore, who are derivative of that famous
Roman author.
Marbode then gives his description of some
sixty stones that in the early manuscripts
are listed without any internal order; it was
not until the later printed editions that the
verses are arranged alphabetically according to
the stone's name. Considering the author's
religious life, it is interesting to note that the
tone of the poem is distinctly pagan with little
concern for Christian symbolism. Marbode's
purpose in writing was, as he explains in
his Prologue, to reveal the secrets concerning
stones. There was a danger, he feared, that
revealing the secret powers of the stones to the
public would diminish their effectiveness, but
he nevertheless believed that the secrets needed
to be shared with his readers. He concerns
himself with describing the stones, giving their
locations and powers, and mentions how they
are best used in medicine. Constantly the
reader is reminded that the power of the stones
are there to be exploited by men who know the
secrets he is revealing. This believe was not
original to Marbode, and in fact came from
ancient sources, but the emphasis he placed
on the mystical and practical virtues of each
stone starts a line of thought that is followed
by virtually all other late medieval lapidarists.
Marbode created a unique book that was
the most widely read lapidary of the Middle
Ages. As Riddle comments:
There is a new spirit in his work, not seen in earlier
lapidaries, which emphasizes that the knowledge of stones
is useful and a means of power for men. Marbode's
lapidary then becomes the model for numerous subsequent
treatises. More important, the utility of the stone-lore,
however magical some of it may seem to moderns, was
a constant theme. This trend toward practicality makes
a study of De Lapidibus a revealing insight into the
formulation period of the 'Renaissance of the Twelfth
CenturyM 177 !
More than 140 manuscripts of this lapidary
are known, and before the advent of printing it
l 177 J John M. Riddle., Marbode of Rennes' De lapidibus
considered as a medical treatise with text, 1977, p. ix.
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was translated into French, Provencal, Danish,
Hebrew, and Spanish. After the invention of
printing, 14 edition's appeared between 1511
and 1740, with still other printings at later
dates. I 178 l
hi addition, Marbode also wrote three
other short lapidaries, one in verse and two in
prose, that are less well known. I 179 ! These
were works that dealt exclusively with the
twelve Christian stones mentioned in the
Bible, and their content is firmly anchored
in the symbolism of Christian doctrine. A
short ninety-nine line poem was written
as a prayer thanking God for the twelve
stones mentioned in The Apocalypses of St.
John the Apostle (21, 9-21) that are the
foundation of God's Heavenly City. Each
stone is described briefly, followed by Christian
symbolism. Any virtues mentioned are
supernatural. Marbode, also used the same
twelve stones in the same order as the subject
of his Christian Prose Lapidary. Just like
the verse version, Christian symbolism prevails,
but this time with scriptural references.
Finally, the Medical Prose Lapidary emphasizes
the medical qualities of the twelve stones,
but also includes Christian symbolism in the
summary. All three works, Riddle suggests,
were probably writing exercises for Marbode
as he accumulated information for his more
important Liber Lapidum.
3.2.1.1.2 Albertus Magnus (1193-1280)
Albertus Magnus! 180 ! set as his life's work
to place all of Aristotle's extant writings into
[1 < 8 J Libellus De Lapidibus Preciosis, first edition, Vienna,
1511, and other early editions of Rennes, 1524, Freiburg,
1531, Paris, 1531, Freiburg in Breisgau, 1531, Cologne,
1539, etc. Refs. Sinkankas, Gemology Bibliography, 1993,
nos. 4168-4193.
I 179 ! John M. Riddle., Marbode of Rennes' De lapidibus
considered as a medical treatise with text, 1977, p. 21-22.
L J Albertus Magnus (Born: Lauingen, Swabia, Ger-
many, 1193; Died: Cologne, Germany, 15 November 1280)
was one of the most famous authors of the High Middle
Ages. He was born to a wealthy and powerful family, "which
provided him "with a good Classical eduction. He studied
liberal arts at Padua, where he came under the influence
of Joranus of Saxony [7-1236], Master General of the Do-
minican Order. Against his family wishes, Albert vowed
to a life of poverty and entered the Order, eventually be-
ing ordained a priest. Around 1241, he was sent to the
University of Paris "where he quickly rose to the post of
Master of Theology. His devotion and knowledge soon lead
a coherent system and to reconcile the Greek
philosophies with those of the Christian world.
To attain this outcome, he scoured the libraries
of every monastery he visited for any writings
of the Ancients. In this quest he was rewarded
with the discovery of several ancient works
thought lost. These he had copied under
his own eyes, thus preserving them for the
future when they might not otherwise have
survived. However, Albert's diligence did
not locate any copy of what he thought was
Aristotle's Lapidary, and what is now known
to be a pseudo-Aristotelian work. He was
therefore forced to write his own work dealing
with minerals. The result is of remarkable
interest as it shows not only what the state of
mineralogy was in the 13th century, but what
Albert thought the science should be.
The De Mineralibus (Book of Miner-
als) I 181 ' is an reflection of the knowledge of
minerals in the 13th century structured in the
framework of ancient Greek doctrine. Follow-
ing basic Aristotelian philosophy and guided
only by the few lines devoted to mineral sub-
stances in Aristotle's Meteorologica, Albertus
draws heavily upon his own observations and
less so on other medieval and classical sources
to describe minerals. Various duties of his re-
ligious Order caused him to take frequent trips
throughout the territories of France, Germany
and Italy. Along the literally thousands of miles
traveled on foot by Albertus, he had many
encounters with mines, miners and minerals.
These impressions he retained in his memory
to his appointment to establish in Cologne a studium gen-
erate. This education center was to occupy and consume
Albertus for the remainder of his life; among his illustri-
ous students were Thomas Aquinas [1227-1274], Thomas
of Cantimpre [1201-after 1280] and Ulrich of Strassburg
and Giles [7-1278]. In 1260 the Pope appointed Albertus
Bishop of Regensburg, a post he resigned in 1262. The re-
mainder of his long life was devoted to preaching, teaching
and writing, primarily at Cologne. He was the most influen-
tial medieval educator of the Aristotelian philosphies, and
through his position as provost at Cologne, he introduced
Greek teachings to the curriculum — a practice soon copied
at other education centers. Albertus Magnus was canon-
ized in 1931 by Pope Pius XI, who declared him Saint to
all those who cultivate the natural sciences.
I 181 ] Bibliography ...
[ 1
[ Wanting 1
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until they were later recorded in this work.
Consequently, when reading Albertus' words,
there is no doubt as to the authority of his ci-
tations. One can only regret that the scope of
the project was so great as to preclude obser-
vations of many phenomena.
The De Mineralibus is divided into five
books, dealing with stones (Books I-II), metals
(Books III-IV), 'intermediates' (Book V),
which are neither stones nor metals, but have
characteristics of both. In books, I, III and
V the author follows classical philosophy by
discussing minerals based upon their causes.
This refers to the four causes distinguished by
Aristotle as material (the matter from which
minerals are made), efficient (the process by
which minerals are made), formal (the form
which minerals take, assumed by Albertus to be
based on biological propagation), and final (the
reason the mineral exists) . In books, II, IV and
V Albertus completes his plan by individually
naming stones, metals, and 'intermediates,' and
describing each in considerable detail. This
type of catalog, alphabetically arranged on the
name of the stone was popular in medieval
herbals and lapidaries and is a tradition that
dates back at least to Pliny. Yet Albertus'
De Mineralibus is not a simple lapidary. Even
though its background is based in medieval
thought, with many errors, the structure of the
text is recognizable in modern textbooks (i.e.,
the introduction of general principles giving
the origin, and physical properties of minerals,
followed by descriptions of individual minerals
including appearance, place of occurrence, uses,
etc.). With Albertus Magnus' mineralogy, the
study of minerals begins to emerge from its
embryonic period into a full fledged science.
The tradition of magical and curative powers in
gems still permeates the text, but one feels the
author fighting the superstitions of the ancient
beliefs, and seeing the world in a new, more
skeptical and practical view.
3.2.1.1.3 Bartholomaeus de Ripa Romea
Outside of Alfonoso's elaborate lapidary that
never enjoyed circulation outside of Spain,
apparently one of the most elaborate lapidaries
was produced in the mid-thirteenth century by
Bartholomaeus de Ripa Romea. It is a
discussion and analysis of 130 stones, gems and
minerals arranged in an alphabetical sequence.
Known in six unpublished and unstudied
manuscripts ranging from the thirteenth
through the fifteenth century this work deserves
further attention. Authorship is derived from
two of the manuscripts that state that they
were authored by one Bartholomaeus de Ripa
RomeaJ 183 !
3.2.1.1.4 Mandeville
John Mandeville! 183 ! wrote his Lap-
idairel 184 ^ in the French language, which first
appeared in manuscripts that date from the
middle fourteenth century. Pannier (1882) de-
scribes and compares several such manuscripts
that had come under his inspection, and con-
cludes that the text was probably not an au-
thentic work of Mandeville, but instead sug-
gests it to be the work of an unnamed jeweler.
The lapidary includes descriptions of the
most important precious stones plus many
others of a fantastic nature. It begins by
copying from MARBODE, the leading lapidary
of the period, descriptions of about two dozen
stones. Then are given descriptions of other
stones and minerals both imaginary and real
including pumice, mica, alabaster, and lapis
lazuli. Stones formed in the human body or the
bodies of animals are very prominent, as these
bezoar and eaglestones were believed to bestow
on their owner marvelous or supernatural
power.
3.2.1.1.5 Camillus Leonardus (1502)
REWORK: The Italian physician CAMILLUS
LeonardusI 185 ! wrote his popular lapidary
I 182 l John M. Riddle., "Lithotherapy in the Middle Ages.
Lapidaries considered as medical texts," Pharmacy in
History, 12 (1970), p. 39-50. • London, Wellcome Historical
Library. MSS 116 and 117.
I 183 l John Mandeville [cl300-1374] was probably a
pseudonym, for the author of the book generally known as
Travels of Sir John Mandeville, written in Norman French
between 1357 and 1371. Virtually nothing is known
of Mandeville. Much of the book was borrowed from
narratives written by several world travelers and compiled
into an entertaining first-person narrative, a compendium
of medieval knowledge and speculation concerning such
places as Jerusalem, India, and China.
[184] Leopold Pannier., Les Lapidaries Francais. Paris, 1882,
p. ??-??.
[185] c ar mii us Leonardus was born in Pesaro and
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Speculum Lapidum (Speculation on Stones) at
the beginning of the sixteenth century. I 186 ! It
is a work that in many aspects is a transition
from the older books about stones and gems
to a new scientific understanding that is not
mired in the dogma of the past. Dedicating
the work to Caesar Borgia, Leonardus divides
his subject into three books. The first
considers of the origin and nature of stones,
with respect to their beauty, color and occult
virtue. The second gives an alphabetical list of
279 minerals that are then formally described.
Leonardus compiled this list by including every
mineral mentioned by previous writers that he
was aware off, which gives this book special
interest to the historian of mineral studies.
However, many of these minerals are now
only known by their name alone, the actual
mineral having been lost to time. Others
are varieties of the same species, while still
others are simply fabulous invention. The
third book describes the ancient figures to
be engraved upon gems and other stones to
enhance the virtue of engraved stone, as well as
an interesting discussion as to how the stones
absorbed the influence of the planets and zodiac
constellations and why a stone with any of
the twelve zodiac signs is supposed to take on
the properties of that sign, as well as listing
what those properties are. He mentions that
the Israelites in the wilderness were the first
who distinguished themselves in this art of
engraving gems and that the Romans were the
greatest masters of it.
While Leonardus, as he himself states,
garnered his material from a succession of older
writers, he shows some indications of having
come under the influence of the newer methods
of study which were about to be advocated
flourished in the late 15th and early 16th centuries. He
seems to have been a physician and astrologer who worked
in Italy. He wrote a number of works, some of "which are
dedicated to his patron, Cesare Borgia [1475-1507]. Refs.
Thorndike, History of Magic, 19????, 6, p. 298.
^ 1 See Sinkankas, Gemology Bibliography, 1993, nos.
3891-3896. Speculum Lapidum, first edition, Venice, 1502;
also, Venice, 1516, Paris 1610, and Hamburg, 1717. An
English translation appeared in London, 1750. Other
information may be found in Adams, Birth and Development
of the Geological Sciences, 1938, p. 84, 149, 155-9. •
Thorndike, History of Magic, 19????, 6, p. 298-304.
by Agricola and his followers, in that he
treats of certain physical properties of minerals,
such as "Perspicuity and Opacity, Hardness or
Softness, Gravity and Lightness, Density and
Porosity" and of the importance of these for
the recognition of various stones. In fact the
Speculum, which was one of the most widely
read lapidaries of the time, in its successive
editions bridged over the transitional period
between the old and the new mineralogy. In his
lapidary Leonardus follows Albertus Magnus in
adopting the Aristotelian theory of the origin of
stones through the influences of the heavenly
bodies. Gimma, however, states that owing
to the inclusion in it of certain ideas and
certain statements drawn largely from Arabian
sources, the book fell under the condemnation
of the Church and was entered in the Index
Expurgtorius.
3.2.1.1.5.1 Ludovico Dolce (1508-1568)
REWORK: In 1565, Ludovico Dolce! 187 !
put his name on the Libri tre, ne i quali
si tratta delle dibersi sorte delle gemme that
upon publication was seen to be nothing
more than an Italian translation of Camillus
Leonardus' Speculum Lapidum. It brought
Dolce widespread condemnation as a plagerist
because no where in the text does he say
Leonardus was his source, let alone even
site that other work. There is not the
slightest suggestion in Dolce's version as to the
original source even though the plagiarism is
almost verbatim and the system of numbering
chapters, with some unnumbered, directly
traceable to that employed by Leonardo
Camillus. Adams, for example, in his Birth and
Depelopment of the Geological Sciences, p 155,
states "the book also figured in one of the most
shameless cases of piracy in the whole history
of letters, a well-known author Ludovico Dolce,
having made a literal translation of it into
Italian, which he published at Venice as his own
work, without making the slightest reference to
the fact that Leonardus was the author of the
[l 8 'J Ludovico Dolce, an Italian poset and translator,
was born in Venice to an old but impoverished family.
He studied literature and ancient languages, and to
support himself wrote many translations. Refs. Biographie
Universal, 11, 483-5.
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book, in fact on page 3 he refers to it as 'mia
fatica'."
In general, the text contains extracts from
the works of Aristotle, Pliny, Isidore, Dionysius
of Alexandria, Albertus Magnus, and others,
and emphasizes the curious rather than the
scientific. It treats the natural history of
gemstones, their properties which make them
desirable for wear, distinctions between true
and false gems, the colors displayed by gems,
an alphabetical listing of over 200 gemstones,
other stones, and some rocks, which have
been described by previous authorities, and
with brief statements as to their nature and
attributes. There is a "book" on engraved
gems with strong emphasis placed on the
mystical signs and symbols engraved thereon,
and which by mere presence were supposed
to confer magical powers. Also mentioned
here are the famous engravers of antiquity and
much curious lore as well as excerpts from the
works of Salomon, a famous magician, and
Hermes, a noted astrologer. Forgiving Dolce's
reprehensible conduct in passing off this work
as his own, this and the several versions below
served to make the excessively scarce Speculum
Lapidum more widely accessible, albeit in
disguise. Ferguson, Bibliotheca Cbemica, 2, 27;
Thorndike, Hist Magic, 6, 313; Gatterer 2, no
23.
3.2.1.1.6 Martin Steinpreis (cl510)
Martin StainpiesI 188 ! wrote the Lapidarium
Omni Voluptate Refertum, an interesting and
rare lapidary that although undated, is thought
to have been printed in Vienna after the year
1500, probably around 1510. The text is
divided into two parts. The first containing
the introductory material is composed of 13
I 188 l Martin Stainpies (Born: late 1450s; Died: Vienna,
Austria, 14 July 1527) matriculated at the University of
Vienna in April, 1476, gaining his medical degree in 1488
and his license to practice medicine on 23 September 1490.
He became professor of medicine at the Vienna Medical
School, and between 1496 and 1510 he was eight times
elected Dean of the medical faculty. By 1510 he was one
of the senior doctors at the medical school. In the plague
year of 1511, Stainpeis criticized colleagues who fled the
city, and was called before a committee investigating this
slander. After his refusal to appear, Stainpeis' faculty
privileges were revoked. He wrote several medical tracts,
the last of which is considered the first printed introduction
to the study of medicine.
chapters. At the outset the author states that
the purpose of this work is "first to give such
information concerning the various minerals as
will enable them to be recognized, and second
to set forth their origin, virtues and properties"
(Adams, 1938). A general description of the
particular virtues and properties is explained in
the first part of the book. Included are chapters
on how the properties manifest themselves,
how a weak virtue may be strengthened and
the differences between the mystical powers of
natural and artificial stones. Throughout, the
author denounces those who believe gems do
not possess heavenly powers as ignorant fools.
He supports this argument by reminding the
reader that great authorities such as Aristotle
and Plato recognized these qualities as inherent
to a stones existence.
The second part of the text is a descriptive
list of 117 stones in alphabetical order. Under
each name there is a commentary about the
individual properties and virtues attributed to
the stone. This commentary is largely based
upon the writings of Albertus Magnus, Pliny,
Evax, Avicenna and Serapion. In fact, many
of the notes are copied directly from Albertus
Magnus, although some stories of anecdotal
nature are also interspersed.
3.2.1.1.7 Erasmus Stella (1517)
Erasmus Stella I 189 ! wrote Interpraetamenti
Gemmarum Libellus that was first published
in Erfurt in 1517 and is one of the earliest
sixteenth century treatises on mineralogy and
precious stones. I 190 ! It is a different
type of lapidary than those that came before,
with its arrangement of gems and minerals
according to color rather than the typical
alphabetical sequence. The four color classes
Stella developed are white, green, red and blue
or black. Thus are classified:
I. De gemmis candidis, including diamond, rock
crystal, iris, ceraunia & astroite, pederote, asteria,
achate, draconite, allectorio, and margaritis.
I 189 ! Erasmus Stella (Born: cl450; Died: Zwickau,
Germany, 1521) was a German physician who studied
medicine at the Universities of Leipzig and Bologna,
from where he received his M.D. He was appointed town
physician of Zwickau in 1501, later becoming Burgomeister.
[190] Sinkankas, Gemology Bibliography, 1993, nos. 6331-
6333.
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II. De gemmis viridibus, including smaragdo (emerald),
beryllis, chrysoprasio, topatio, callaide, prasio,
heliotropio, jaspide.
III. De gemmis rubeis, including carbunculorum gener-
ibus, amthysto, hyacintho, sarda, sardonyce, anyce,
hematite, corallio, hephesite, chrysolito, electro, and
opalo.
IV. Gemmis coeruleis Si nigris, including cyaneo, saphiro,
calaide Si ceraunia, de moris gemmis, de gemmis ad
ectypam, etc.
In this manner thirty-three gems and
minerals are arranged, with some items
receiving extended description while others
are mentioned by name alone. The longer
commentaries give a fuller picture than many
previous lapidaries with little or no value
attributed to magical or supernatural virtues.
The most important facet of this work is,
however, that it attempts in some manner to
systematically arrange the minerals, which is
perhaps the first explicit attempt at a mineral
classification since the invention of printing.
Adams (1938) notes that the descriptions are
better than earlier works, although Thorndike
(1923-58) declares the work "little more than
a compilation from Greek and Latin writers,
above all, Pliny." I 191 !
3.2.1.2 Alexandrian Lapidaries! 192 !
In the early years of the Christian era in
the Egyptian city of Alexandria an important
intellectual center formed. All manner of
subjects were studied at the city's great library
and a full curriculum of learning was available
at the Serapion, a type of university. In this
environment many new books were written
including a small group of works dealing
with stones sometimes referred to as the
Alexandrian lapidaries.
These lapidaries were written in Greek and
describe the magical powers and occult virtues
attributed to precious and nonprecious stones.
These books became very popular. They
[191] Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 147-149. • Sinkankas, Gemology
Bibliography, 1993, nos. 6331-6333. • Thorndike, History
of Magic, 19????, 6, p. 302-303.
1 1 For further reading: Adams, Birth and Development
of the Geological Sciences, 1938, p. 28-32. • F. Susemihl.,
Geschichte der griechischen litteratur in der Alexandrinerzeit.
Leipzig, 1891. 2 vols. [p. 856-867].
derived there ideas from an eastern influence
of belief in magic which at that time was
creeping into western imagination. It was
further believed that a stone's power could
be enhanced by engraving upon its surface
specific symbols or astrological signs. This led
to a great demand for the engraved amulets
and charms worn by people to fend off evil
spirits or disease, or alternately, invite luck and
prosperity. The authors are mostly unknown,
and the texts make no real contribution to
mineralogy, but they do show how minerals and
gems were viewed and valued at the time.
3.2.1.2.1 KyranidesI 193 !
A Greek work dealing with the medical prop-
erties of natural objects is the Kyranides
(KotpamSeo), also sometimes called the Ko-
raides, whose uncertain authorship is some-
times attributed to Hermes Trismegistos. This
work probably of the second or third century
C.E. has an unmistakable relationship to the
Hermetic corpus and the Physiologos. It is a
composite work containing references to Greek
medicine and festivals, Mithraic rites, Babylo-
nian astrology, and Jewish religion, whose un-
doubted origin was the city of Alexandria, the
only commingled society of the time that would
nurture such a writing. It treats the magical
powers of plants, animals, and gemstone talis-
mans and left traces of its authority throughout
the scientific literature of the Middle Ages. For
example, the Kyranides is one of the sources
for the medieval tales of the fabled unicorn.
The division of the text within the
Kyranides is into four books. The first is on
magic, while the other three, which originally
formed a separate work, treat respectively,
animals, birds, and fish. In each of these
books the text is arranged alphabetically into
twenty-four chapters, that being the number
of characters in the Greek alphabet by which
it is organized. Under each letter of the
alphabet there is then listed the name of a
]193J other information may be found in: Adams, Birth and
Development of the Geological Sciences, 1938, p. ?? • Baisier,
The Lapidaire Chretien, 1936, p. 5. • Closs, Steinbiicher,
1958, p. 8-9. * Evans, Magical Jewels, 1922, p. 18-19. •
Mely, Les Lapidaires Grecs, 1898, 3, p. 33. • Partington,
History of Chemistry, 1971, 1, pt. 1, ??-??. • Thorndike,
History of Magic, 2, p. 229-235.
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plant and animal and sometimes a stone whose
name begins with that letter. The lapidary
portion consists of the description of how each
stone is to be engraved in order to enhance its
specific virtue or healing power. The influence
of two guiding principles, good and bad, is
recognized when creating the talismans. A
powerful amulet is then created when this
engraved stone is placed in a small bag with
other ingredients and worn by the patient. In
this way the virtues and merits of 52 stones
were discussed. I 194 l Of these 36 originate from
the earth while 16 are derived from animals.
All the stones are mentioned in the ancient
and medieval lapidaries. For example, of the
24 stones that represent the element of fire in
the first Cyranide, fifteen are found in Pliny's
Natural History and seventeen are found in
the medieval lapidary of LEONARDUS. Adams
(1938) gives a full account of the other stones.
3.2.1.2.2 cc-Plutarch
REWORK: To the Greco-Roman writer
Plutarch a work entitled Treatise on Rivers
and Mountains (llepi Tioxajico'u) is sometimes
attributed, it being sometimes included in the
printed collections of his writings; however,
it is now generally accepted that the work
is not genuine, and the author is referred to
as cc-Plutarch. The text probably dates from
the first quarter of the third century C.E.,
and is reminiscent of the Kyranides which is
also arranged in twenty-four chapters, that
number corresponding to number of letters in
the Greek alphabet. It is a magical and medical
treatise, originally arranged such that each
chapter described some plant or stone found
in a specific river or at the base of a mountain
and to the mythical ideas associated with it.
Woven into the descriptions are a wealth
of allegorical ideas, with charms for protecting
treasure, capturing tigers, putting demons
to flight, keeping dogs from barking, curing
leprosy, fevers, hemorrhages, and for a great
variety of other more or less useful purposes.
The author gives his authorities but it is
doubtful that any of the works he mentions
1 194 J Leo J. Henkin., "The Carbuncle in the Adder's
Head," Modern Language Notes, 58 (Jan., 1943), no. 1, p.
34-39.
existed since they are only referenced in this
work. The rivers and mountains are merely
mentioned as those where these plants or
stones possessing magical powers are to be
found or where certain mythological events
took place, from which in many cases the
river or mountain derives its name. There are
twenty-four stones mentioned in his Treatise
on Rivers and Mountains, some of them,
as for example beryl, asterites and sardonyx,
being well known; others are well-known
stones which here appear under new names,
as "cylinder," just mentioned as occurring
on Mount Cronius, which is the well known
Ceraunia or thunder-stone mentioned by Pliny
and found in most of the medieval lapidaries;
the Linurge is the Amianthus and the Collote
is the Chelidonius. Others bear new names
and cannot be identified, if indeed they are not
wholly mythical, such as Corybas, Sicyone and
MyndaJ 195 !
3.2.1.2.3 cc-Orpheus
Orpheus is given as the supposed author of a
later Grecian poem titled Lithica (AiBikcc)! 196 ]
composed in 768 verses that gives the virtues
of 27 gems with considerable allusion to their
magical properties, but with no mineralogical
information concerning them. Only fragments
of the original Greek text have survived, the
work having passed to the present through a
nearly complete, early Latin translation. The
authorship is uncertain because the poem is
supposed to have appeared soon after the prose
treatise written by Damigeron who lived in the
second century B.C.E. However, research shows
the medicinal and chirurgical powers attributed
to the stones in the Lithica are derived from
many later authors that extend down to Galen
who wrote in the second century C.E. The
content and the style of the poem also indicates
that the author actually lived long after
the birth of Christ, but before the Emperor
[195] Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 30-31. • Mely, Les Lapidaires Grecs, 1898-
1902, p. liv.
[196] Ljt n j caii first edition, Venice, 1517, other early
edtions: Florence, 1517, Paris, 1566, and Liege, 1576.
• Orphei Lithica, accedit Damigeron de lapidibus (Berlin,
1881) is a modern critical examination of the poem. Refs.
Sinkankas, Gemology Bibliography, 1993, nos. 4886-4899.
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Constantine. Based on this evidence the work
is now dated to the fourth century C.E., and the
actual author is unknown. Among the stones
included in the poem are quartz, diamond,
jasper, topaz, opal, chrysolite, magnet, coral,
agate, hematite, sardius, and emerald.
3.2.1.3 Christian Lapidaries! 197 !
The Christian lapidary was a persistently
popular form, especially during the Middle
Ages. Also sometimes called The Twelve
Stones, these books focused attention on the
stones mentioned in the Bible, especially two
(different) lists of 'twelve stones' — those in
the breastplate of the High Priest {Exodus,
xxviii, 17-21; xxxix, 10-14) and those in the
foundations of the New Jerusalem {Apocalypse,
xxi, 19-21). These books also reflect pagan
practices with respect to the magical properties
of stone, which was to legitimized by placing
[197] other historical information may be found in: Leon
Baisier., The lapidaire Chretien, its composition, its influence,
its sources. Thesis (Ph.D.). Catholic University of America,
1936. vii, 130 p. [The Catholic University of America.
Publications of the Department of Romance Languages and
Literatures, 14; reprinted by AMS Press, 1969.] • Edward
Clapton., The precious stones of the Bible — descriptive and
symbolical being a treatise on the breast plate of the high
priest, and the foundation of the New Jerusalem with a brief
history of each tribe and each Apostle. Second edition.
London, Simpkin, Marshall, Hamilton, Kent, 1899. xxxii,
231 p. • Charles William Cooper., The precious stones
of the Bible, with an account of the breastplate of the
high priest, the ephod and urim and thummim. London,
H.R. Allenson, limited, 1924. 127, [1] p., frontispiece.
[Bibliography, "Authorities quoted," p. 126-127.] • E.L.
Gilmore., "Gemstones of the First Biblical Breastplate?,"
Lapidary Journal, 22 (1968), p. 1130-4. • Samuel S.
Kottek., "Precious stones in Jewish and Christian medieval
literature: natural and/or occult sciences?" , Koroth, 16
(2002), p. 89-110. * Gisbert Kranz., Europas christliche
Literatur von 500 bis 1500. Paderborn, F. Schoningh, [1968].
525 p. [A history and criticism of Christian literature
from the year 500 to 1500. Continued by the author's
companion volume, Europas christliche Literatur von 1500
bis heute.} • ibid., Europas christliche Literatur von 1500 bis
heute. Zweite Auflage. Paderborn, F. Schoningh, 1968.
655 p. [A history and criticism of Christian literature
from the year 1500 to today. Continued by the author's
companion volume, Europas christliche Literatur von 500 bis
1500.] • R.V. Wright and R.L. Chadbourne. Gems and
minerals of the Bible. New York, Evanston and London,
Harper & Row, Publishers, 1970. xii, 148 p., illus., index.
• August Wiinsche., Die Bildersprache des Alten Testaments.
Ein Beitrag zur aesthetischen Wiirdigung des poetischen
Schrifttums im Alten Testament. Leipzig, Eduard Pfeiffer,
1906. v, 187 p. [Includes a discussion of minerals and gems
mentioned in the Bible.]
them under the umbrella of a commentary on
the Bible.
The ultimate source of the miraculous and
symbolical properties of the precious stones
is the Bible. There is a description of
the stones on the breastplate of the high
priest in Exodus xxviii: 17-20, and in the
Apocalypse xxi, 19-20 there is a description
of the foundations of the New Jerusalem Bede
and other lapidary authorities of the Middle
Ages discussed only the stones listed in Exodus
since the Hebrew names are not clear, the
Biblical translations vary among themselves in
identifying the stones. The main scientific
discussion of precious stones and minerals was
in Book 37 of Historia naturalis Pliny the
Elder, in which he makes a synthesis of all
that had been written before Saint Isidore of
Seville used this material in Book 16 of his
Etymologiae, in which he arranged the minerals
according to color During the Hellenistic period
there appeared at Alexandria stone books of a
magical and mystic sort, which were written
in Greek One of these, the Damigeron was
popular in Western Europe, and may have been
translated into Latin by the first century.
3.2.1.3.1 Epiphanius
About 400 c.e., Epiphanius, I 198 l Bishop
of Salamis, authored in Greek, Peri Tou
Lithon=On the Twelve Precious Stones (iJepi
Tffiv ipXiftoy) that identified and described the
twelve stones contained in the breastplate of
Aaron, the High Priest of the Jews. Appearing
in the fourth century C.E., this is one of the
earliest Christian lapidaries. Apparently, this
text was at an early date translated from Greek
into Latin as De Duodecim Gemmis, because
the only early copies known are in that later
L J Epiphanius (Born at Besanduk, near Eleutheropolis,
in Judea, after 310; died in 403), while very young, chose to
follow the monastic life in Egypt. On his return to Judea
he founded a monastery at Besanduk and was ordained
to the priesthood. In 367 his reputation for asceticism
and learning brought about his nomination as Bishop
of Constantia (Salamis) the metropolis of the Island of
Cyprus. For nearly forty years he fulfilled the duties of
the episcopate. He undertook many missions for the church
that involved much travel. He died during a return journey
to Cyprus. Refs. Xxx xxxxxx xx xxxx. Xxx xxxxxx xx
xxxx. Xxx xxxxxx xx xxxx. Xxx xxxxxx xx xxxx. Xxx
XXXXXX XX xxxx.
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3.2 LlTHOTHERAPY
language. In 1565, the book was printed for the
first time, perhaps being the first appearance
of any book on that subject to come off the
press. Besides its separate appearance, copies
of the book were bound up with several other
gem and mineral works as Conrad Gesner's De
Omni Rerum Fossilium (1565). I 1 "!
Using a common literary device of his
age, Epiphanius writes his text in the form
of a letter to his friend, Diodorus, Bishop of
Tyre. In it, he identifies and describes the
twelve stones set in the breast plate (Exodus,
28, 17-20) that in order are: sard, topaz,
emerald, carbuncle, sapphire, jasper, lyncurius,
agate, amethyst, chrysolite, beryl, and onyx.
Because of Epiphanius' authority as a high
official of the Catholic Church, this work
assumed great influence among later biblical
scholars. Biblical commentators exercised great
ingenuity in attempting to identify the ancient
stones, but also in assigning to them allegorical
or mystical meanings. Epiphanius was no
different. In spite of the absolute Christian
theme De Duodecim Gemmis, vestiges of the
magical virtues attributed to gems survive in
his text. For example, the medical properties of
agates against snake bite are recounted without
further explanation. P 00 !
3.2.1.3.2 Bedel 201 )
The earliest of Bede's biblical commentaries
was the Explanatio Apocalypsis (The Expla-
nation of the Apocalypse) probably composed
between 703 and 709 C.E.
Commentators of the Bible used great
ingenuity in attempting to identify the stones
mentioned in the Bible, but also in giving the
allegorical or mystical meanings. Bede in his
1 Bibliography ...
Wanting
[200] Evans, Magical Jewels, 1922, p. 29-30. • Sinkankas,
Gemology Bibliography, 1993, nos. ??-??.
[201] Possible references include: Peter Kitson., "Lapidary
Traditions in Anglo-Saxon England: Part 1, the back-
ground," Anglo-Saxon England, 7 (1978), 9-60; and ibid.,
"Lapidary traditions in Anglo-Saxon England: Part II,
Bede's 'Explanatio Apocalypsis' and related works," Anglo-
Saxon England, 12 (1983), 73-123. • Sarton, Introduction to
the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. 510-512.
Commentary of the Apocalypse represents a
good example of this type of literature.
By the Venerable Bede (Written about 710
-16)
This commentary on the Revelation of
John, which Bede himself called 'Expositio'
instead of the 'Explanatio' of the printed
version, is probably the earliest of his scriptural
commentaries. According to Laistner, 72
manuscripts are still in existence, with the
likelihood of another existing in Melk.
Bede's Commentary did not only enjoy a
certain popularity within his own time, but
his reputation spread into Europe and his
works were still widely used in the twelfth
and thirtheeth century. The large number of
surviving manuscripts stands witness for this
immense popularity.
In a letter to Eusebius, Bede describes
the seven sections into which he sees the Book
of Revelation divided and explains his own
structure into three books.
The translation cited here can be found in
Rev. Edward Marshall's book The Explanation
of the Apocalypse by Venerable Beda.
3.2.1.3.3 Volmar (cl252-1254)
The German poet, VOLMAR J 202 ! authored Ein
wahrhafftig buchlein gar niiczlich zu horen^ 203 ^
which is a short poetic lapidary. It was writ-
ten sometime between 1252 and 1254 and first
printed in Erfurt by Hans Sporer in 1498. It
describes 38 gemstones in 1008 verses, and in-
cludes the 12 stones of the Apocalypse. In-
formation about the stones is derived from
several unnamed sources. Described species
include: Almendein, Topasius, Smaragdus,
Karfunckel, Jochant, Cristall, Achat, Aman-
tist, Crisoleite, Onichilus, Jaspis, Dyemant,
Kappenstein, Carniol, Corall, Antite, Schwal-
wenstein, Zinen, Aldropi, Krottenstein, Mer-
ayte, Calcosan, Perlein, Mucros, Oytalias,
Ttirckis, Elyte, Calcedon, Sardius, Flammat,
Volmar
Biography Needed
Bibliography
Wanting
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Gamachw, Rubein, Balas, Crisoforas, Granat
and Jachant, Diacoda, Barill, Sarderein, Criso-
pras, Augstein, Ademast, Crisolitus, Topasius,
Gagatometus, and Domedus. I 204 !
3.2.1.3.9 Alfonso X (1221-1284)
The Spanish King, Alfonso X (1221-1284),
also called "El Sabio," was highly learned and a
poet. I 205 ! He set as a goal to have published a
series of books that would codify all knowledge.
To achieve this, his method was to gather
together a group of translators, compilers, and
writers, who were then supplied with all the
necessary materials in the four languages of
Hebrew, Arabic, Latin and Romance, and
they set to work. All available material on
the subject under study was compared and
accounts given in one manuscript were weighed
against accounts in others and decisions made
with all available knowledge and the advice
of experts. Once a manuscript was created a
committee would review the text and pass on
its content. Unfortunately, Alfonso's survey
of knowledge was never realized because his
later life was occupied with political intrique
and financial difficulties, ending in his defeat
at Seville.
One work that was the product of
Alfonso's project was the Lapidary of Alfonso
X, which is a beautifully illuminated lapidary
known in a single recorded manuscript that is
located in the Escurial Library in Spain. I 206 ! It
is said to be a Chaldean lapidary of unknown
date, which was translated into Arabic by
Abolays and from Arabic into Spanish by
Garci-Perez. This latter translation was
finished in 1278. The basis of classification
is color "Cast into the 12 signs of the
Zodiac." The treatment of the virtues and
powers of the stones as influenced by the
[204] Adams, Birth and Development, 1934, p. 146. • W.
Kleist., "Eine neue Handschrift von Volmars Steinbuch,"
Zeitschrift fur deutsche Altertum, 103 (1974), p. 185-192.
[205] DSB; ??; ?? , Sarton, Introduction to the History of
Science, 1927, 1, p. 834-842.
[206] Nunemaker, J.H., "Some mediaeval Spanish terms of
writing and illumination," Speculum, 5 1930, 420-4. [This
study is based on the Lapidary of Alfonso X.] • Nunemaker,
J.H., "An additional chapter on magic in mediaeval Spanish
literature," Speculum, 7 (1932), 556-64. • Nunemaker,
J.H., "In pursuit of the sources of Alfonsine lapidaries,"
Speculum, 14 (1939), 483-9.
stars and changing according to the position
of the planets indicates the complexity of the
connection made by Arabic science between
minerals and the celestial forces. Evans, who
gives an extended review of the work, states
that it deals with 360 "stones" among which are
included substances such as sulphur, soda and
even sponges. Meyerhoff and Foster say that
it describes 280 "stones," with brief references
to some of their physical properties, uses and
medicinal values.
3.2.1.4 Byzantine Mineralogy! 207 ]
Byzantine literature is not lacking in lapidaries.
These works almost always concentrated on the
magical and medical properties of the stones,
with little mineralogical content. Astrological
properties of stones are sometimes linked
with seasonal growth of herbs and other
spices, and Byzantine authors strove to make
connections with the growth of stones within
the earth. Although precious and semiprecious
stones are the chief object of study, other
'mined' materials such as coral, magnetite,
and amber increasingly drew the attention of
later writers, and information regarding the
astrological, alchemical, and pharmaceutical
uses was collected.! 208 ]
The best known precious stones descrip-
tions occur interspersed throughout the 3,062
verses of Meliteniotes' allegorical poem on Tem-
perance. In the Sothrosynm (Za)6pocuv(j.) more
than eighty lines are given over to cataloging
alphabetically 221 gemstones that were said to
decorate the bed of the virgin Temperance in
Paradise. I 209 ! Essentially, it is a mineralogical
[207] other general material may be found in: Karl
Krumbacher., Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur. 2
Auflage. Miinchen, 1897. 2 vols. [Reprinted, New York,
Burt Franklin, 1958.; History and criticism of Byzantine
literature.] • The Oxford dictionary of Byzantium. Edited
by Alexander P. Kazhdan, et al. New York, Oxford, 1991.
2 vols.
[208] jq Edmondson., "Mining in the later Roman
Empire and beyond," Journal of Roman Studies, 79 (1989),
p. 84-102. • J. Riddle., "Amber in ancient pharmacy,"
Pharmacy in History, 15 (1973), p. 3-17. • D. Samsaris.,
"Les mines et la metallurgie de fer et de cuivre dans la
province romaine de Macedoine," KJio, 69(1987), p. 152-
62. • S. Vryonis., "The question of the Byzantine mines,"
Speculum, 37 (1962), p. 1-17.
[209] doss, Steinbiicher in Kulturhistorischer, 1958, p. 7 •
Krumbacher, Geschichte Byzantinischen Litteratur, 1897, p.
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dictionary written in verse. Under the name
Zoroaster survive fragments of lapidaries that
are closely related to passages in the Greek
magical papyri. t 210 3
Michael Psellos, [ 211 1 of the eleventh
century C.E., was a tutor to Emperor Michael
Parapinaces and was perhaps the most learned
Greek of his timeJ 212 ! He authored a
small work in Greek on stones, Peri Lithon
(lle.pl A,i0aw).[ 213 l The twenty-four stones
it describes in order are diamond, haematite,
amethyst, carbuncle, aeschates, beryl, galac-
tites, amber, jasper, idaeus-dactylus, crystal,
lychnites, magnet, onyx, caprinus, sardonyx,
selenites, emerald, hyacinthus, chrysolithus,
chry select rus, chrysoprasus, chalazias, and
topazionJ 214 ^
782-786. • Mely, Les Lapidaires Grecs, 1898-1902, 2, p. 205-
208. • Terpening, Lapidary of 1'Intelligenza, 1973, p. 80.
[ 2 1 °] H . D . Betz , ed. , The Greek Magical Papyri in
Translation. Chicago, 1986, vol. 1. • J. Bidez and F.
Cumont., Les mages hellenises Zoroastre, Ostanes et Hystaspe.
Paris, 1938, 2, p. 197-206.
I- -I Michael Psellos or Psellus (Born: Constantinople,
Turkey, 1020; Died: Constantinople, Turkey, clllO) was a
Byzantine writer, philosopher, politician, and historian. He
was educated in Constantinople. He became an influential
political advisor to emperor Constantine IX Monomachos
(reigned 1042-1055). During the same time, he became
the leading professor at the newly founded academy of
Constantinople, bearing the honorary title of 'Consul of
the Philosophers'. Towards the end of Monomachos'
reign, Psellos found himself under political pressure and
retired. However, after Monomachos' death, he was soon
recalled to court by his successor. He remained active
in politics, serving as a high-ranking political advisor to
several successive emperors. Psellos wrote a number of
books, probably the best known is the Chronographia. It
is a history of the Byzantine emperors during the century
leading up to Psellos' own time. Refs. Internet search. •
Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, 1927, 1, p. 750-
751. • Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and
Mythology, 1849, 3, p. 562-563.
I- -I It was once thought that there were two Byzantine
writers of the name, Michael Psellos, both supposedly
authors of lapidaries. This belief was based on an
biographical entry in a medieval chronicle, but it is now
believed that the entry was the mistake of an ignorant
copyist.
[213] pj rs t Latin edition contained in: Plutarchi Libellus
de Quviorum et montium nomini bus ... P.J. Maussacus
recensuit, Latine vertit, et notis illustravit ... Pselli de lapidum
virtutibus libellus.) P. J. Maussaci appendix ad notas suas in
Harpocrationem. (Tolosse, 1615, and other editions).
[214\ doss, Steinbiicher in Kulturhistorischer, 1958, p. 7 •
Evans, Magical Jewels, 1922, p. 32. • King, Natural History
of Precious Stones, 1867, p. 13. • Marx, Geschichte der
Crystallkunde, 1825, p. 10. • Mely, Les Lapidaires Grecs,
Psellos' work carries on the Greek hermetic
tradition of Dioscorides by describing the
medical uses of the stones. All of the gems
are either worn as a talismans or crushed
and mixed with milk to be taken internally.
Strongly influenced by the Eastern philosophy
it pays special attention in its descriptions
to ophthalmia and other diseases of the eyes,
headaches, and fevers, t 215 ]
3.2.2 Herbals^ 16 ]
In a history of mineralogy, it would seem that
the merits of the early herbals would seem
limited, but the facts are quite different. As
a group, this type of book records the late
medieval view of the natural world in terms
of how nature could be used to benefit man.
Relationships and the uses of plants, animals
and minerals discussed in these texts offers
insight into the early development of medicine,
agriculture and pharmaceutical therapies for
1898-1902, p. 201-204. • Annibale Mottana., "Storia della
mineralogia antica. I. La mineralogia a bisanzio nel XI
secolo D.C.: I poteri insiti nelle pietre secondo Michele
Psello," Ren. Fis. Ace. Lincei, Ser. 9, 16 (2005), 227-295. [A
detailed history of Michelle Psello's lapidary of the eleventh
century] • Pierpaolo Galigani., JJ De Lapidum virtutibus
di Michele Psello: Introduzione, testo critico, traduzione e
commento. 121 p. [Published as: Quaderni delllstituto di
filologia classica Giorgio Pasquali dellUniversita degli studi di
Firenze] • M. Psello., Scripta minora. Herausgegeben E.
Kurtz und F. Drexl. Berlin, 1936-41. 2 vols. • R.H.
Terpening., "The lapidary of 'L'Intelligenza'. Its literary
background," Neophilologus: Modern Language Quarterly, 60
(1976), 75-88. • Steven A. Walton., "Theophrastus on
Lyngurium. Medieval and Renaissance Lore from the
Classical Lapidary Tradition," Annals of Science, 58 (2001),
no. 4, p. 357-79. • Wellmann, Gemmenbiicher der Antike,
1936, p. 97, 102-??.
t 215 ] Mely, Les Lapidaires Grecs, 1898-1902, "Les cachets
d'Oculistes et les lapidaires de l'antiquite e du haut moyen
age," Revue de Philologie, 16 (1893), p. 81-??. [Described the
role the ancient lapidaries played in treating the diseases
of the eye.]
I- -I Further historical information may be found in: F.J.
Anderson., An illustrated history of the herbals. New York,
Columbia University Press, 1997. xiv, [2], 270 p., illus. •
K. Becher., A catalogue of early herbals. Mostly from the
well-known library of Dr. Karl Becher, Karlsbad with an
Introduction by Dr. A. Klebs. Nyon Bulletin XII. Lugano,
L'Art Ancein S.A., 1925. 61 p., illus. [Bookseller catalog
describing the extensive collection of early herbals formed
by Dr. Becher.] • K.E. Heilmann., Krauterbiicher in Bild und
Geschichte, Munich, K. K61bl, 1966. 422 p., illus. [Heavily
illustrated history of the early herbals.] • A.C. Klebs.,
"Herbals of the fifteenth century. Incunubula lists I," Papers
of the Bibliographical Society of America, 11 (1917), nos. 3-4,
p. 75-92 & 12 (1918), nos. 1-2, p. 41-57.
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the common person. In short, the herbals
retain their relevancy to early mineral studies.
The early printed herbals are among the
most remarkable of the stream of books printed
in the incunabula period because they are
milestones in the history of printing and
scientific illustration. Although the name
implies a strictly botanical treatise, this class of
book refers to a practical medical text intended
for both physicians and the common folk. It
appeared in reaction against the expensive
apothecary, calling attention to a wide range of
easily available natural remedies derived from
plants, animals and minerals. In fact the
last section usually contains a good (for the
time) descriptive mineralogy which emphasised
the medical use of the described stone. In
their time, these volumes were a very popular
technical literature, and regularly relied upon
by their readers to provide cures for various
ailments.
This class of literature may be organized
into three broad categories, which were
frequently intermixed. Sections and entire
chapters were commonly copied into new
editions from earlier printings. Priority for
the Herbarius dates to the 1484 printing made
by Schoeffer, which contains 150 illustrated
chapters. Schoeffer's composed a second herbal
comprising 435 chapters, was published at
Mainz in 1485 and was termed generally Der
Gart. The third and final member of the
herbal triad consists of 1,066 chapters and
is referred to by the descriptor Hortus or
Hortus Santiatas. In the past, these three
distinct families have been confused, with some
researchers stating that they are translations of
each other, which is not possible. By relying on
the number of chapters within the text, 150,
435 and 1,066 respectively, it is possible to
determine if a specific herbal is derived from
the Herbarius, Der Gart and Hortus.
3.2.3 Pharmaceutical Mineralogy I 2 17 l
l- 17 J Other historical information may be found in: U.
Rath., Zur Geschichte der pharmazeutischen Mineralogie.
Braunschweig, Universitat Braunschweig, 1971. 273
p. [Published as: Pharmazeigeschichtlicher Seminar der
Technischen Universitat Braunschweig, vol. 12. Covers the
history of pharmaceutical mineralogy.] • Bernard E. Read
and Phu Chu-Ping Pak., "A compendium of minerals and
3.2.4 Mineral Poisons & Cures! 218 !
3.3 Encyclopedias! 219 )
Much information concerning medieval miner-
alogy is derived from the encyclopedias of the
period. It was impossible for everyone to at-
tend a university, therefore, some method of
distributing general knowledge was necessary.
The issue was resolved by compiling encyclo-
pedias that collected together facts, writings,
and anecdotal information from a wide swath
of sources. These works varied widely in ar-
rangement and completeness, both their focus
on education was always present. Encyclope-
dias were the textbooks and main references
for the learned class of scholars and well as
the clergy, and were especially important when
no library was available. In essence when they
were written these works intended to capture a
picture of the large palette of all human knowl-
edge.
The writers of encyclopedias compiled
their material by scouring other, usually older
writers, whose works in some cases have
since completely disappeared except for the
quotations preserved in the encyclopedias.
Thus, a large portion of the information they
stones used in Chinese medicine, from Pen Tshao Kang
Mu, Li-Shih-Chen, 1597 A. D.," Peking, Society of Natural
History Bulletin, 3 (1928), no. 2, vii, 120 p. [Revised and
reissued separately, French Bookstore, Peiping, 1936, 2nd
edition.] • Wolfgang Rudolph Reinbacher., Healing earths
the third leg of medicine. A history of minerals in medicine with
rare illustrations from 300 to 1000 years ago. [Bloomington,
IN, 1st Books Library], 2003. xiv, 244 p., illus. [ISBN
1-403-35096-5]. • John M. Riddle., "Lithotherapy in the
Middle Ages. Lapidaries considerded as medical texts,"
Pharmacy in History, 12 (1970), p. 39-50. [Briefly describes
the importance of lapidaries in early medical history.]
[21&\ Q enera i histories include: M. Amberger-Lahrmann
and D. Schmahl, eds., Gifte: Geschichte der Toxikologie.
Berlin; New York, Springer-Verlag, cl988. xi, 351 p.,
illus., portraits. Bibliography includes bibliographical
references and indexes. [A general history of poisons.] •
Dieter Martinetz., Poison: sorcery and science, friend and
foe. Translated from the German by Alistair and Alison
Wightman. [Leipzig,] Edition Leipzig, cl987. 175 p., illus.
[ISBN 3361001374]
[219\ j^ good general history is contained in: R.
Collison., Encyclopaedias: their history throughout the ages.
A bibliographical guide with extensive historical notes to the
general encyclopaedias issued throughout the world from 350
B.C. to the present day. Second Edition. New York and
London, Hafner Publishing Company, 1966. xvi, 334 p.,
illus., index.
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present about the natural world is derived
from the authors of the Classical age. This
is as it should be, because nature played an
important and vital role in life. Many of these
compendiums described animals, plants, and
stones, and because they were the writings
most easily available, they works became
the basis for most mediaeval natural studies,
including those attached to minerals. I 220 l
3.3.1 Isidore of Seville (6th Century)
Isidore of Seville! 221 ! was both a prolific
and versatile writer. His voluminous output is
said to be the beginning of Spanish literature.
He was not an original or independent writer,
however. Instead, he was a hard working
compiler who attempted to collect together all
existing knowledge. His best known writing, is
the comprehensive Etymologiae, or Origins of
Words as it is sometimes called. Written in
the sixth century, it appeared shortly before
Isidorus' death and is the culmination of a
lifetime of scholarship and research being a
vast warehouse of all the learning possessed
at the time, which Isidorus had gathered,
systematized, and condensed into a single large
work. For centuries it was the most used
textbook in educational institutions of the
Middle Ages. So highly was it regarded as a
depository of classical learning that in a great
measure, it superseded the use of the individual
works of the classics themselves. Not even the
Renaissance seemed to diminish its authority
with the text being printed at least ten times
between 1470 and 1529J 222 !
The authority of the Etymologiae was well
deserved. It furnishes abundant evidence that
the writer possessed an intimate knowledge of
the Greek and Latin authors, quoting in all
one hundred and fifty-four Christian and pagan
1 1 Zonta, M., "Mineralogy, botany and zoology
in medieval Hebrew encyclopedias: 'Descriptive' and
'theoretical' approaches to Arabic sources," Arabic Sciences
and Philosophy: A Historical Journal, 6 (1996), 263-315.
^ ' Isidore of Seville or Isidorus Hispaleisis (Born:
Cartagena, 570 C.E.; Died: Seville, Spain, 636 C.E.) was
for some thirty years Bishop of Seville. He "was canonized
I 222 ! Bibliography
Wanting
writers. Many of these he had read in their
original which is fortunate since several of the
works cited are no longer extant. He also writes
his entries in a clear and concise style that
is very admirable. This combined to build
the great popularity of Isidorus' work, which
in turn gave rise to many imitatitions, some
inferior, some excellent.
Isidore divided his material drawn from
all aspects of human knowledge into twenty
books. The science he covers is broad
and includes discussions of mathematics,
astronomy, medicine, anatomy, geography
(giving the first map of the world), zoology,
meteorology, botany, agriculture, geology, and
mineralogy. The various books of Isidorus are
as follows:
1. Grammar and metre of the written word.
2. Rhetoric.
3. Dialectic.
4. Medicine and libraries.
5. Law and chronology.
6. Ecclesiastical books and offices.
7. God and of the heavenly and earthly hierarchies.
8. Church and of the sects, of which latter he numbers
no less than sixty-eight.
9. Languages, peoples, kingdoms, and official titles.
10. Etymology.
11. Of man.
12. Of beasts and birds.
13. Of the world and its parts.
14. Of physical geography.
15. Of public buildings and road making.
16. Of stones and metals.
17. Of agriculture.
18. Of the terminology of war, of jurisprudence, and
public games.
19. Of ships, houses, and clothes.
20. Of victuals, domestic and agricultural tools, and
furniture.
In the sixteenth book, Isidore gives
information related to mineralogy. The
descriptions are copied largely from Julius
Solinus, which had been derived from Pliny,
and he devotes special attention to the
derivation of the names of the stones, minerals,
gems, and fossils described. They are for
the most part incorrect, and in some cases
fabulous, such as aurum (gold) that Isidore says
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is derived from aura (air) because it is by the
air that the splendor of the metal is reflected in
our eyes.! 223 !
3.3.2 Theophilus the Monk
Theophilus the Monk, to distinguish him
from Theophilus the Alchemist is thought to
have written his encyclopedia, Diversarum
Artium Schedula, probably towards the end
of the eleventh century or at the start of
the next. Based on incidental information
contained in the work, the author is presumed
to have also been German in origin. Nothing
else of the author is known for certain. His
work is a compendium of arts and crafts
taken primarily from Greek and Egyptian
sources, with traces of Byzantine and Arabic
influences. It is of considerable value to the
historian of technology and science, containing
full descriptions of the subjects it treats, which
in other works were only briefly described.! 224 ]
The Diversarum Artium Schedula is
divided into three major sections. The first
treats the manufacture, preparation, and use
of various paint pigments, as well as pottery
glazes. Accounts are given of the raw materials
required and the recipes used for making the
glazes and other pigmentation, together with
other techniques of chemical preparation that
had no parallel until the chemistry texts of the
fourteenth century. The second section gives a
full description of glass manufacture, describing
how various kinds of glass plates, flasks, and
colored glasses are made. Directions are also
given for painting and gilding glass articles,
by fusing the colors or gold to the glass in a
special furnace. Artificial colored gems and
their polishing are carefully described. The
final section describes the refining of metal and
various techniques in metal working that takes
up nearly half of the text. This part is of special
interest because it fully describes many ancient
and early medieval techniques that are only
vaguely described by other authors. It contains
[223] Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 138.
I 224 ! Bibliography ...
[ ]
[ Wanting 1
the earliest European account of bell founding,
and other procedures it described were not
bettered until the writings of Biringuccio and
Agricola of the sixteenth century.
Any mineralogical content is purely
incidental to the other material Theophilus
describes. Yet, there are numerous snippets
in the text. Gold is said to be obtained from
along the shores of the Rhine river, where the
sand of the beaches is placed on wooden tables
and water carefully and frequently poured over
it, to separate the metal. The preparation of
mercury from its native occurring cinnabar is
accomplished by placing the mineral in a flask,
which is then placed in a strong heat.
3.3.3 Alexander Neckam (1157-1217)
Another writer who deserves special mention
here is Alexander NeckamI 225 ! (1157-1227),
who was one of the most remarkable English
men of science of the twelfth century. In him
we have a curious link between the history of
science and ordinary secular history, for he was
the fosterbrother of King Richard the First
of England (Coeur-de-Lion). In a chronicle
formerly existing among the manuscripts of the
Earl of Arundel it is recorded that "In the
month of September 1157 there was born to the
King at Windsor a sone named Richard and
the same night was born Alexander Neckam
at St. Albans, whose mother gave suck to
Richard with her right breast and to Alexander
with her left breast." He received his early
education at the Abbey School of St. Albans
and later studied at the University of Paris,
where he became a professor in 1213. His
relation to the King who was a lover of learning
explains, in part at least, the brilliant position
which Neckam achieved in later life. While
still bound by a reverence for authority, he
sought for something more satisfactory than
the teaching of the schools and frequently shows
a leaning toward experimental science. Neckam
in his book has a long satirical discourse on the
logical teaching of the schools of the University
of Paris and especially on the quibbles and
[225] Alexander Neckam ...
[ ]
[ Biography Needed 1
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falsities into which, in the scholastic teaching,
logic continually degenerated. Wright who
edits Neckam's book and supplies an interesting
and valuable preface to the volume, remarks
that Neckam gives a number of examples of
this he shows how, by the train of reasoning
employed in the schools, a man-Sortes the
man of straw employed in the language of the
scholastic disputations-might be proved to be
a stone, or a rose, or a lily, or any other
object; how what Sortes or any other individual
said was at the same time true and false; how
Sortes at the same time knows something and
knows nothing; and a number of other similar
quibbles.
Reference ...I 226 !
Neckam's book' was intended to be a
manual of the scientific knowledge of the
time but has an additional interest from the
introduction of many contemporary stories
and anecdotes illustrating the conditions and
manners of the age. He draws from almost
every scientific fact which he mentions a moral
or religious lesson or application, although
these are often far fetched and their truth by
no means very apparent. His book abounds in
stories of animals and plants. He mentions the
metals briefly and refers to a dozen minerals or
stones but does not describe them. Concerning
mercury he remarks:
Quicksilver is necessary in gilding; at first
the substance of the gold appears to be totally
absorbed by the quicksilver, but afterward, by
the agency of fire, the quicksilver is consumed
and the colour of the gold comes out in all its
brightness. So the mind is not gilt with the
gold of wisdom without the agony of tribulation
and sometimes the beauty of wisdom appears
to have entirely disappeared in the tribulation
until it is submitted to the solace of the
Holy Ghost, represented by fire, and then the
strength of wisdom returns to its brightness.
Like most people in the Middle Ages,
Neckam believed that gems and precious stones
possessed extraordinary virtues. Thus in
referring to agate he repeats the statement
made by Marbodus, to the effect that the agate
[226J Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 138-40.
(achates) carried on the person rendered the
bearer amiable, eloquent and powerful, and he
explains the story of Aeneas having a faithful
companion named Achates by supposing that
he carried with him an agate stone whereby
he acquired the love of many people and was
rescued from many dangers.
3.3.4 Bartholomaeus Anglicus (cl200-1247)
BartholoMjEUS Anglicus! 227 ! While older
authorities give precedence to the Basel edition,
printed by Ruppel, it can now be stated
that this is the first printed edition of
Bartholomaeus, since the early manuscript
dates found in two Ruppel books have been
shown to be forgeries, and as it now seems that
Ruppel did not begin printing in Basel until
after 1472.
Reference ..J 228 !
Besides being the first printed edition, this
Cologne issue is important for its connection
to William Caxton. The Cologne city ledgers
record that Caxton arrived in the city in
July 1471 (Birch) to learn the process and
art of printing. In 1471, Johann Veldener
chose Bartholomaeus' encyclopedia as his first
project, and accepted Caxton as his pupil.
However, indications are that Caxton's role
was considerably more important as a financier.
The necessary capital is more likely to have
come from Caxton than Veldener who had
only recently achieved independence by the
establishment of his own printing office and
who therefore would have been close to the
limits of his financial capacity. Under these
circumstances, would he have dared on his own
to venture the publication of so large a book?
There is the further possibility that Veldener
got together the necessary funds by charging
the Englishman for instruction in the art of
printing (Corsten). Thus this edition is the
earliest example of Caxton's printing.
De Proprietatibus Rerum was the most
popular encyclopaedia of the thirteenth cen-
[227] Bartholomseus Anglicus ...
[ 1
[ Biography Needed ]
[ 1
[228J Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 140-1.
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tury, which has been called the age of en-
cyclopaedias. The intellectual renaissance of
the preceding century had stimulated a de-
sire for learning. It was impossible for a
large number of students to acquire first hand
knowledge of every science and the universities
could not accommodate all those who wished
to learn. Therefore some means of spread-
ing knowledge was required. The problem was
solved by writing encyclopaedias that collected
together the opinions of the best known author-
ities. These works varied in comprehensiveness
and arrangement, but the educational aim was
never forgotten. These books were to be used
as textbooks and works of references for the
preachers and scholars that did not have access
to a library and who could not afford to col-
lect one of their own. In fact, Bartholomaeus
wrote his compilation primarily for the student
of theology and for the preacher as he explains
in the Prohemium.
De Proprietatibus Rerum was written as
an ordered encyclopedia of all the sciences of
the time: theology, philosophy, medicine, as-
tronomy, chronology, zoology, botany, geogra-
phy, mineralogy, are the subjects treated in
this work. It is the first important encyclope-
dia written in the Middle Ages and the first in
which the works of Greek, Arabian, and Jewish
naturalists and medical writers, which had re-
cently been translated from Arabic into Latin,
were included as contributions. Aristotle, Hip-
pocrates, Theophrastus, the Jew Isaac Medi-
cus, the Arabian Haly, and other researchers
are frequently quoted. Even in the age before
mechanical printing, the De Proprietatibus Re-
rum enjoyed widespread popularity as is shown
by the many dozens of manuscripts still in ex-
istence. In manuscript form, it was translated
into five European languages: French, English,
Spanish, Provencal and Italian. Thus, it had
a widespread appeal to the general population
and had a great influence on the cirriculum of
the medieval university.
Bartholomaeus based the structure of his
book on the Etymologiarum Libri Duo written
by the learned theologian, Isidore of Seville
between 623 A.D. and 633 A.D. The 20 sections
found in Isidore are reduced and rearranged
to 19 by Bartholomaeus; however, he follows
his own method in compiling the observations
and adheres to the accepted medieval form
of quoting ancient authorities. Sprinkled
throughout the text are his own observations
that give the De Proprietatibus Rerum a unique
flavor.
The 19 books of Bartholomaeus' text are
ordered thusly:
1. God.
2. Angels and Demons.
3. Of the Soul and Reason.
4. Of the Body's Essences.
5. The Human Body and Each of its Parts.
6. The Ages of Man (Family Life and Household
Economy).
7. Of Infirmities and Medicines.
8. Of the World and the Heavenly Bodies (Cosmology
and Astrology).
9. Of Time and the Divisions of Time.
10. The Material, Form, and Properties of the Elements.
11. Of the Air and its Natural Phenomena (Meteorol-
ogy)-
12. Of Winged Creatures.
13. Of Waters and Fish.
14. Of the Earth and its Features.
15. Of its Provinces (Political and Economic Geogra-
phy).
16. Mineralogy, including precious and semiprecious
stones, sand, coal, Bezoar stones, etc.
17. On Plants and Trees (A Herbal).
18. Of Animals.
19. On Non-Essential Characteristics (i.e., Colors,
Tastes, Odors, etc.), and a Miscellany on Food,
Drink, Eggs, Weights and Measures, Music, and
Musical Instruments.
This ordering which can be classified
into four distinct sections suggests that
Bartholomaeus carefully planned his work.
The order of the De Proprietatibus Rerum
is founded on a medieval logic of progression.
The first three books form the first section
with God, as the supreme creator and the
prime moving force, with angles, demons and
the soul all occupying the first position. Next
comes the second part (books 4-7) devoted
to the important factors that affect the life
of man. The third section (books 8-18)
treats the universe and may be subdivided
into two parts. The first (books 8-13) has
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as its subject the world in general while
the second (books 14-18) describes the earth
in particular, including in book 16 metals,
stones and minerals. The fourth section is
composed solely of the nineteenth book in
which everything not previously discussed finds
a place including colors, odors, liquids, weighs,
measures, music, etc. Since this work was
intended as a reference to show mans place in
God's universe, the text provides examples of
good and bad conduct, and illustrates for him
the principals of Christianity.
Since the greatest importance was assigned
to theological matters, it became fairly simple
for Bartholomaeus to ignore the accuracy of
his descriptions. Hence we find him with no
clear idea of the locations of Egypt or India,
the latter being a vague term which medieval
men used to refer to the vast territory that
stretched beyond Arabia. Bartholomaeus' own
eyes would have told him that bees do not carry
small stones to weight them against the wind,
and that crabs do not employ stones to keep
oyster shells propped open while they dine on
the contents. It was as obvious then as now
that the legs of a fox are not shorter on the
right side, and that swiftly moving currents are
not the cause of oars becoming disjointed in
appearance when dipped under water. Yet we
cannot blame him for being a man of his time.
3.3.5 Thomas Cantimpre (1200-1270)
Thomas Cantimpre! 229 ] Thomas of Bra-
bant. Thomas Brabantinus, de Cantiprato,
Cantipratanus, Cantimpratensis. Flemish Do-
minican and encyclopaedist. Born in Brabant
c. 1186-1210 (probably nearer to the latter
date, c. 1204?); flourished in Chantimpre, near
Cambrai; studied in Li6ge; entered the Domini-
can Order in 1232; was in Paris in 1238; sub-
prior in Louvain, 1246; died, probably in Lou-
vain, c. 1271-1280. It is possible that he at-
tended some of Albert the Great's lectures, but
he can hardly be called the latter's disciple. His
two main works are (1) a popular encyclopae-
dia of science, De natura rerum, to the prepa-
[229] Thomas Cantimpre ...
[ ' ]
Biography Needed 1
ration of which he devoted some fifteen years
of study and which he completed between 1228
and 1244; (2) a collection of absurd stories for
the edification of the clergy, Bonum universale
de apibus, written late in life.
Reference ..J 230 !
Another writer whose work is but lit-
tle known is the Dominican Thomas Cantim-
pratensis, who was born at Brussels in 1201
and died between 1263 and 1280. He resided
for many years at Cambrai, from which place
he derives his name. His encyclopedic work en-
titled De Natura Rerum, was never printed, but
several manuscripts of it exist, one of the most
perfect being in the Staatsbiliothek in Munich.
He describes about 70 minerals, the number
varying somewhat in the different manuscripts,
and enlarges on the occult properties of the pre-
cious stones, but adds nothing to the work of
earlier authors from whom his information is
derived. According to Valentine Rose a num-
ber of the trade names for certain stones, as for
instance corneolus, granatus and rubinus, first
appear in this book.
It is interesting to observe that the
Dominican, Thomas of Cantimpre, and the
Franciscan, Bartholomew the Englishman,
were engaged in the same kind of undertaking
about the same time: The Properties of
things being completed c. 1230-1240, and the
Nature of things c. 1228-1244. Both works
were encyclopaedic in scope and divided into
nineteen books, but they were otherwise very
different, and in all probability independent.
Judging by the number of MSS., both works
were almost equally popular (if one takes into
account that there are many MSS. of Thomas'
work which do not bear his name); but with
regard to printed editions, Bar tholomew's
popularity was incomparably greater. Indeed
Thomas' encyclopaedia has not yet been
entirely published.
Thomas' main authorities were Aristotle,
Pliny, Solinus, Ambrose and Basil, Isidore,
Adelard of Bath (whom he does not mention),
James of Vitry, two lost works, Liber rerum
and Experimentator, which were probably
]230J Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 141.
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3.3 Encyclopedias
contemporary or at any rate recent, and a few
others to be quoted presently. The De natura
rerum is divided as follows:
1 The human body; anatomy, physiology, gynaecology,
derived from Galen, Cleopatra, Ibn Sina, William of
Conches.
2 The soul, mainly after Augustine.
3 Strange races of man, hermaphrodites, gym-
nosophists, Brahmans, etc. (a sort of anthropologi-
cal treatise).
4 Quadrupeds.
5 Birds.
6 Marine monsters, including an account of herring
fisheries.
7 Fishes.
8 Snakes.
9 "Worms," including amphibians, leeches, tortoises,
etc. (these 6 zoological books, 4 to 9, fill more than
half of the whole work).
10 Ordinary trees.
11 Aromatic and medicinal plants and trees.
12 Herbs (the main authority here is Matthaeus
Platearius).
13 Fountains and rivers.
14 Precious stones (mainly derived from Marbode);
includes the description of a mariner's compass of
the floating type.
15 Seven metals (gold, electrum, silver, copper, lead,
tin, iron); includes allusions to the transmutation of
metals and to the use of lead for plumbing.
16 Seven regions of the air and their humors.
17 The sphere and seven planets.
18 Meteorology.
19 Universe and four elements.
Some MSS. have an additional book (20)
De ornatu coeli et eclipsibus solis et lunae,
derived from William of Conches. The
structure of this work can be summed up
thus: (1-3) man; (4-9) animals; (10-12) plants;
(13) waters; (14-15) stones and metals; (16-
18) astronomy, astrology, meteorology; (19)
elements. A very logical plan, and extremely
different from that of Bartholomew.
3.3.6 Vincent of Beauvais (1190-1264)
Vincent of Beauvais! 231 ! Another of the
I 231 ! Vincent of Beauvais ...
[ ]
[ Biography Needed 1
great encyclopedias is the Speculum Mundi
by Vincent of Beauvais written between 1240
and 1264. In the general prologue he says
that there are a multitude of books and time
is short and furthermore man's mind cannot
gather in and retain all that the books set
forth, therefore he had determined to condense
all knowledge into one great work. It is
indeed a great compilation in which he quotes
from 450 writers by name, some of whom are
now known only by the "excerpts" which he
gives from their writings. In the brief portion
dealing with minerals and rocks he seems to
have added nothing to the observations of
former writers. The work went through many
editions: that in the Osier Library, which is
one of the earliest, was printed "not later than
1478." Among the writers whom he quotes
most frequently is the almost unknown writer
of a very early encyclopedia, Arnoldus Saxo,
[4] whose work De Finibus Rerum Naturalium
was written between 1220 and 1230. In it
the section on stones consists of an annotated
list in alphabetical order of 81 names, and is
in turn taken from Albertus Magnus, "Evax,"
Dioscorides and certain Arabic writers.
In the field of encyclopaedia-making,
Vincent of Beauvais's Speculum mains was
undoubtedly the outstanding achievement of
the Middle Ages. Vincent was born about i
tgo, became a Dominican at Paris by 1220,
was appointed a lector at the monastery of
Royaumont by Louis IX about 124.8, and
died at Beauvais in 1264. The Speculum,
a vast conspectus of the knowledge of the
Middle Ages, was the last major work of
its kind: after this, encyclopaedists began
to compile for a wider public than the very
limited world of religious communities, and it
would also be true to say that the latter no
longer retained the almost complete monopoly
in scholarship which had been responsible
for the theological framework within which
each devout and monastic encyclopaedist had
naturally felt obliged to work. It must be added
that Vincent relied heavily on the research
of his colleagues for many of his quotations
from the outstanding works of the past (such
as Adelard of Bath's Qgestiones naturales),
plagiarized Isidore of Seville at times, and
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imitated Bartholomaeus Anglicus.
Vincent's great work must not be confused
with his Speculum vel imago mundi which
he had written some time before, though it
is possible that he used the earlier work as
a starting-point. The Speculum maius was
first completed in 124.4, and was continually
subject to revision by Vincent until his
death. It comprises four books, of which the
last-the Speculum moray-was added early in
the fourteenth century by another, unnamed
author. The contents of the four books are:
I. SPECULUM NATURALE.
1. God, divinity, angels, devil.
2-8. The Creation: the first three days-used as a vehicle
for physics, geography, geology, agriculture, alchemy
9-14. Botany
15-22. The Creation: fourth to sixth daysastronomy,
weather, birds, fishes, animals (in the order in which
they appeared on earth according to the Book of
Genesis), and animal husbandry
23-28. Man: soul and body
29-31. God and man
32. A resume of the Speculum historiale
II. SPECULUM DOCTRINALE.
1-3. Language (including a glossary), grammar, logic,
rhetoric
4-10. Ethics, family life and economics, politics, law
11-12. Crafts, architecture, war, sports, navigation,
hunting, agriculture, applied medicine
13-17. Medicine, physics, mathematics, metaphysics,
theology.
III. SPECULUM HISTORIALE.
1. Summary of the Speculum naturale and of the
Speculum doctrinale
2-31. A world history to 1244, based mainly on Pierre le
Mangcor's Historia scholastica (c. i i 6o), covering
Biblical, secular and cultural matters.
IV. SPECULUM MORALE.
Ethics, astrology, and theology (based principally on
St Thomas Aquinas).
The Speculum doctrinale was originally
planned to form part of the Speculum naturale,
but the size of the work-and the demand for
copies of specific sections-convinced Vincent
that the formation of a separate division for
the arts and sciences was advisable. In
the same way, the inclusion of summaries of
3.3 Encyclopedias
the individual Specula in each other enabled
the requests for complete sets to be reduced
somewhat- Vincent even published a separate '
epitome of the Speculum historiale which he
called the Msmorialt:
The Speculum mains served as the world's
only major encyclopaedia for many years
afterwards, and even today it remains of
inestimable importance as the only repository
of excerpts from some works which no longer
survive, as a mirror, to the state of knowledge
during the thirteenth century, and-what is
equally important-as a record of the cultural
tastes and prejudices, of those times. It
was responsible for the introduction of many
quotations now in common use, and constituted
the main source of such classics as the Roman
de la rose, the Alexander romances, Colonna's
Liber de viris illustribus, and of the lives
of the saints as they are known, as well
as one of the many sources of Boccaccio's
Genealogia deomm, and The travels of Sir John
Mandeville. In addition, it is invaluable for the
history of Vincent's own lifetime.
Translations of parts of the Speculum
mains were made into French, Spanish,
German, Dutch and even Catalan, and
innumerable epitomes, borrowings, plagiarisms
and plunderings were its inevitable lot for the
next two centuries at least.
Johann Mentelin of Strasbourg and his
son-in-law Adolf Rusch (the 'R' printer),
printed the first editions about the years 1472
to 1476. Mentelin printed the first, third and
fourth Specula, while Rusch printed the first
three, complete sets being made up from the
combined products of the two printing-houses.
The Speculum historiale was also printed at
the monastery of Saints Ulrich and Afra at
Augsburg in 1474; the Speculum naturale by
the Printer of the Golden Legend at Strasbourg
about 1481; and the Speculum morale by
Winters at Cologne about 1477. The earliest
editions are best: during the next 150 years
the text became increasingly corrupt as the
scholars of the day amended-not always for the
bestthe excerpts from Vincent's ggo sources in
accordance with the contemporary editions of
these works.
Even so, the earliest printed editions are all
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based on a fourteenth-century manuscript and
there is need for a new critical edition which
is now being undertaken by Professor Berthold
Louis Ulman on behalf of the Mediaeval
Academy of America.
3.3.7 Lumen Animae (cl300)
A late 13th- or early 14th-century encyclopedic
work attributed to Berengarius de Landora and
sometimes wrongly attributed to the Viennese
Carmelite monk, Matthias Farinator [fl.
1477], who compiled the index and edited
the text. The Lumen Animae is a curious
handbook of illustrative sermons for preachers,
to explain the natural and moral world.
Collison gives the following descripton: "The
anonymous Lumen Animae, compiled about
1300, comprises two books of 75 titles and
267 chapters respectively. These chapters are
arranged in rough alphabetical order. The
materials collected in them are drawn chiefly
from patristic sources or moral writers, and
there are few items dealing with the natural
sciences." This first printing was the work of
Anton Sorg.
The anonymous Lumen animae, compiled
about 1300, comprises two books of 75 titles
and 267 chapters respectively. These chapters
are arranged in rough alphabetical order. The
materials collected in them are drawn chiefly
from patristic sources or moral writers, and
there are few items dealing with the natural
sciences. The 75 titles of the first book include
moral and didactic items, and some attention
is paid to scientific information. Some thirty
years were required for the compilation of this
encyclopaedic work which was addressed to
Pope John XXII. The editio princeps was issued
by Matthias Farinator, a Carmelite of Vienna,
under the title Light of the soul, or Book of the
moralities of great natural things (Augsburg,
Anton Sorg, 1477), and was reprinted in the
same year. Further editions were issued by
Michel Greyss (Reutlingen, 1479), and by the
Printer of Legenda Aurea (Salzburg, 1482).
3.3.8 Konrad von Megenberg (7-1374)
Konrad von Megenberg! 232 ! between
[232] Konrad von Megenberg (Born: Megenburg (or
Mainberg), near Schweinfurt, Germany, 2 February 1309;
1349 and 1351 composed his Das Buch der
Natur as a free translation of the De Natura
Rerum of Thomas Cantimpratensis or Thomas
of Cantimpre, although Konrad thought the
source text to be the product of Albertus
Magnus' youth. It also has material taken
from Aristotle and Galen, coming through
Arabian conduits. It is the first work of
natural history that appeared in the German
language, and was apparently a popular early
book around Augsburg, the city where all the
incunabula editions were published, the first
coming from the press of Johann Bamler, was
dated 1475. It states on the title page that it
was translated ( "transferiert" ) from the Latin
into German, probably a reference to the Latin
text of Thomas Cantimpratensis. The content
is reordered somewhat in this German version
with other original material added, making it a
book worthy of study because it presents a full
picture of the medieval notion of the natural
world. Megenberg, however, recognized that
some of the statements in his book were open
to doubt, eventhough they were considered to
be from sources of the highest authority, and
in many instances he states he does not believe
them.
Das Buch der Natur is divided into eight
sections, which has at the beginning of each
book is an introduction describing the various
classes.
1. Von dem Menschen in seiner gemainen Nature, 50
chapters, describes human anatomy, physiology and
interpretation of character from physical signs and
dreams.
2. Von den Himeln und von den siben Planeten, 33
chapters, descibes astronomy and meterology.
3. Von den Tiern in ainer Gemain describes animals in
Died: Regensburg, Bavaria, Germany, 14 April 1374) was
a German scientist, theologian and historian. The dates
of birth and death are not absolutely certain, and Konrad
himself calls his native place Megenberg. His father was
probably a bailiff or overseer in the old castle of Mainberg.
Conrad studied liberal arts in Erfurt, and then went to
Paris, where he became a magister and studied and taught
theology and philosophy. He remained in Paris from 1329
to 1337, then he "went to Vienna "where he was director of
the St. Stephan School. In 1342, he transvered to Ratisbon
(Regensburg), where he became a parish priest, then a
canon of the cathedral. He remained there until his death,
and is buried in the Benedictine nunery of Nieder-Miinster
in Regensburg.
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general, including 69 chapters on quadrepeds, 72 on
birds, 20 on the creatures of the sea (e.g., crocidile,
seal, dolphin, hippopotamus, sirens), 29 on fishes, 37
on snakes, 31 on 'worms' (i.e., insects, toads, frogs,
snails, leeches, spiders, earthworms).
4. Von den Paumen, 84 chapters, describes trees.
5. Von den Krautern, 89 chapters, describes plants and
herbs.
6. Von den edlen Stainen, 86 chapters, describes
precious stones.
7. Von dem Gesmaid, 10 chapters, on various metals,
including gold, silver, Gunderfai (electrum), copper,
tin, lead, and iron, quicksilver, orpiment, and
sulphur.
8. Von den wunderleichen Prunnen, describes the
wonderful properties of streams and waters and with
human monstrosities.
In the 6 th section of the book, "Von den
edlen Stainen," are treated the gems, their
color, their properties, both real and imagined,
together with suggestions on how to increase
their mystical powers. Eighty-six stones are
described, some of them being quite fabulous
as for instance the Terobolen, which are said to
be "Stones which come from the orient, some of
them presenting the form of a man and others
that of a beautiful young woman. If they are
brought near to one another they send forth
flames and fire."! 233 ! Also the Dyadochos,
a stone that when thrown into water causes
spirits to appear who will answer questions that
are asked of them. I 234 ! Animals and plants did
not escape Megenburg's attention and the book
contains many wonderful stories about them as
well, which helped make it very popular to the
general reader. Also enhancing the text are the
numerous and wonderful numerous woodcut
illustrations, which no doubt contributed to its
popularity.
3.3.9 Domenico Bandini (cl335-1418)
The humanist Domenico Bandini! 235 ] wrote
I 233 l Konrad von Megenburg., Buch der Natur. Stuttgart,
1861, p. 465.
[234] Konrad von Megenburg., Buch der Natur. Stuttgart,
1861, p. 444.
[235] Domenico Bandini (Born: Arezzo, Italy, cl335; Died:
1418) spent his life teaching at Florence, Bologna, and in
his native city. He came into close contact with the new
humanism during his years in Florence, and was in touch
with Coluccio Salutati, the leader of the movement.
his gigantic encyclopaedia, the Fons Memora-
bilium Universi by filling most of his leisure
time with the project until he died. It was
divided into five parts in honour of Christ's
wounds:
Part I. Theology.
1. God.
2. The angels.
3. The soul.
4. Hell, the Devil, and his demons (includes an added
treatise on the art of magic).
Part II. The Universe and Astronomy.
1. The world.
2. The heavens.
3. The stars and constellations (alphabetically ar-
ranged).
4. The planets (alphabetically arranged).
5. The seasons, and chronology.
Part III. The Elements.
1. The elements in general .
2. Fire.
3. Air.
4. Weather.
5. Birds; animal husbandry.
6. Seas and oceans.
7. Lakes, rivers, marshes, streams and fountains.
8. Fish.
Part IV. The Earth and its Geography.
1. Provinces and regions, including the theory of
politics and government
2. Islands
3. Cities and towns, ancient and modern
4. Notable buildings, and miscellaneous items
5. People and customs
6. Mountains
7. Trees and vines; wine-making
8. Herbs, vegetables, etc. g Quadrupeds
9. A tractate on the eating of flesh, fish and fowl
10. Reptiles and worms
11. Gems and precious stones
12. Metals (and an added treatise-in some copies-on
alchemy)
Part V. Man and his Conduct.
1. Famous and illustrious men
2. Philosophical sects-and a world chronicle to 1315
3. Theological and moral virtues and vices
4. Some medical remedies
5. Heresies and heretical sects 6 Famous women.
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Bandini's encyclopaedia is remarkable for
its numerous cross references, particularly
in the sections devoted to historysand .
geography It is possible that some of
the work may have been written by his
son and literary executor, Lorenzo Bandini.
This huge encyclopaedia of secular learning
was, designed: ';xo provide educated men who
lacked books with accurate information on any
subject, and with edifying lessons to guide
them in their lives. It was widely read in his
own country until the middle of the fifteenth;
century, but then fell into neglect for about
three hundred years.
The outstanding feature of the Fons is
Book i of Part V, the De viris clans virtuts nut
vitio, which is especially strong in information
on Latin authors. The majority of people
mentioned are in fact classical figures and their
lives are based on classical sources, but there
is some original material and much of interest
in the selection and treatment of the subjects.
It has been suggested that the De viris was
intended to be an epitome of the Foes. The
Fons has never been published-apart from brief
extracts-but many manuscripts have survived.
3.3.10 Gregor Reisch (cl467-1525)
Gr.egor Reisch! 236 ] and his Margarita
Philosophica published in Freiburg in 1503 is
a popular and much reprinted work, being
the first modern encyclopedia to appear in
print. Handled in the form of a dialog between
teacher and student, the book was written as
a textbook to be consumed in a university
curriculum, and provides an overview of many
subjects. Reisch divides the text into twelve
[236J G re gor Reisch (Born: Balingen, Wiirttemberg,
Germany, cl467; Died: Freiburg, Germany, 9 May 1525)
Reisch became a student at the University of Freiburg
in 1487 and received the degree of magister in 1489.
Then he entered the Carthusian Order. During the years
1500-1502 he was prior at Klein-Basel, and from 1503 to
shortly before his death he was prior at Freiburg. Reisch
was confessor of Maximilian I. He was also visitor for
the Rhenish province of his order. In this capacity he
made many exertions to combat Lutheranism. He became
friends of the most celebrated Humanists of the time,
e.g., Erasmus, Wimpfeling, Beatus, Rheananus, Udalricus
Zasius, and the celebrated preacher, Geiler of Kaisersberg.
Reisch developed a good reputation for adaptability and his
knowledge was so broad and profound he became regarded
as an 'oracle.'
books, each explaining one of the sciences:
1. Grammar.
2. Dialectic.
3. Rhetoric.
4. Arithmetic.
5. Music.
6. Geometry.
7. Astronomy.
8. Principles of Nature Philosophy (de principiis rerum
naturalium).
9. Origin of Natural Objects (de origine rerum
naturalium) containing references to minerals,
metals and mining.
10. Psychology.
11. Logic.
12. Ethics.
The twelve editions published in the 16th
century attest to its popularity. The book was
very sought after on account of its comparative
brevity and popular form, and was for a
long time a customary textbook of the higher
schools. Alexander von Humboldt said of it
that it had "for a half-century, aided in a
remarkable manner the spread of knowledge" .
The volume is notable for several other
reasons. It contains the first schematic
representation of the eye, and its plate of the
human brain, localizing psychological features
in specific regions of the brain, is demeaningly
discussed by Vesalius because it relates the
three ventricles of brain to three specific
functions. This diagram roughly shows the
convolutional pattern of the brain and depicts
the classic medieval representation of localized
psychology. The numerous woodcuts show
medical subjects, a mineral spring bath used by
both sexes, earthquakes, scenes from the lifes of
differenent professions, monsters, beasts, fishes,
comets, mining of metals and minerals. There
is also a depiction of an alchemist working in
his laboratory on the transmution of metals.
The large woodcut map of the world is
an interesting combination of fact and fancy,
mixing the Ptolemaic world with mideaval
belief. It has no border, but is surrounded by
twelve heads with inscriptions representing and
naming the different winds. It shows Europe,
Asia and Africa, whose coast line extends along
the bottom side of the map until it joins with
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Asia. Marks around the edge indicate longitude
and latidue. The New World is not shown,
although an inscription beneath the unfinished
continent of Africa indicates a knowledge of the
American discoveries. This map measures 300
x 411 mm. (11 x 16.5 inches) and is extremely
rare and often lacking from the book for the
obvious reason that it is to large to easily have
been bound up.
The Strassburg printer Schott [see note
below] was specially brought to Freiberg to
print this work. There he established a by-press
so that Reisch could oversee the publication of
his work.
3.3.11 Arnoldus Saxo (cl225)
Recognized as one of the first encyclopedists
of 13th century, Arnoldus Saxo! 237 ! At
the beginning of the Renaissance he was
a privileged witness to the transmission of
the Greek-Arabic works to classical Latin,
becoming a tool of that transmission himself.
Recent research places during the medieval
period the activity of Arnoldus Saxo as the
author of several works touching upon nat-
ural philosophy and morals in 13th century.
In an 1885 study, Emil Stange identified him
as the likely author of a small encyclopaedia
De Floribus Rerum JVatura7ium.[ 238 l Subse-
quently, Stange edited a critical edition of the
encyclopedia that was its first appearance in
print. P 39 l Consequently, Arnoldus is recog-
nized as one of the sources for natural science
of the thirteenth century.
Like his near contemporaries Albertus
Magnus, Vincent of Beauvais, Bartholomaeus
Anglicus and Thomas Cantimpre, Arnoldus
[237J Arnoldus Saxo (Arnold of Saxony or Arnoldus
Luca) [Rikmersdorf near Helmstadt, Germany, cl316;
Halberstadt, Germany, 8 July 1390] is a German naturalist,
probably a doctor and teacher, who was undoubtedly
widely read for his time. Refs. DBA, I 11, 206-211; II
16, 124, 124a, 125a-128. • DSB, 1, 93-95. • Mayerhofer,
Lexikon der Naturwissenschaften, p. 167-168. • NDB, 1, ??.
• Poggendorff, 1, col. 24. • Sarton, Introduction, 2, pt. 2,
592. • World Who's Who in Science, p. 24.
1-^>°J Emil Stange., Arnoldus Saxo, der alteste Encyklopadist
des XIII. Jahrhunderts. Dissertation. Halle, 1885. 67 p.
1-^> 9 J Emil Stange., Die Encyklopadie des Arnoldus Saxo zum
ersten Mai nach einem Erfurter Codex herausgeben. All three
parts appeared as Beilage to Jahresbericht of the Konigliches
Gymnasium in Erfurt. (I) "1905, Progr. Nr. 278," (II) "1906,
Progr. No. 289" and (III) "1907, Progr. Nr. 289."
used as his foundation a common corpus of
sources for his text. As an author however,
Arnoldus is especially useful in his description
of stones and minerals that constitutes the
most original part of the work since it is not
presented in the form of interlacing citations.
Except the studies of Stange, few studies
devoted to Arnoldus Saxo have appeared.
When it was studied interest in Arnoldus'
encyclopedia has usually been in connection
with its heavy use of quotations from Aristotle's
works on which about a one third of
its text is based. I 240 ! Another recent
study has recently thrown light on Arnoldus'
encyclopedic work.! 241 ! Otherwise, little
research has evolved since Stange 's critical
edition of the encyclopedia published in 1905-
1907.
The text of the encyclopedia is divided
into five parts. The first 'De celo and mundo'
is devoted to a study of cosmology, where
metaphysics is joined to physics in the structure
of the scale of the causes. Five books distribute
the subject respectively:
1. The first cause and the heart.
2. Stars and planets.
3. Elements and their distribution in the animal world
and vegetable.
4. Meteorology.
5. The mineral world.
The second part 'De naturis animalium'
describes the corruption and generation in
the animal world, in the order adopted by
the majority of earlier encyclopedists: man,
quadrupeds, birds, fish, reptiles.
The 'De virtutibus lapidum' as written
by Arnoldus presents in its first book an
alphabetical stone catalogue, accompanied by
descriptions of the stones properties and their
virtues with emphasis on their therapeutic or
prophylactic nature. The second book 'De
sigillis' the class according to sculptures' which
I 24 °] Thorndike, History of Magic, 2, 260, 431-432, and 469-
470.
[-41J jgabeUe Draelants., "Introduction a l'etude d'Arnold-
us Saxo et aux sources du De floribus rerum naturalium,"
(pp. 85-121), in: C. Meier, ed., Die Enzyklopadie im Wandel
vom Hochmittelalter zur fruhen Neuzeit. Internationales
Kolloquium des Teilprojekts D des SFB 231 der Univ.
Miinster, 04.-07.12.1996. Minister, 2002.
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3.3 Encyclopedias
confer the virtue of talismans to them. The
third book is very short and present in only a
few of the preserved manuscripts. This part
(De coloribus gemmarum) is devoted to the
colors of gemstones and provides information
similar to the material found in the works
of Speculum Naturale of Vincent of Beauvais,
book 8 and of the De Mineralibus, book 2,
of Albertus Magnus. In 1875, Valentine Rose
studied the book of the stones and compared
its descriptions to lapidaries supposed to
be the work of Aristotle. I 242 ! Besides
Aristotle, the text relies upon Dioscorides, the
Christian lapidaries and 'Evax' (i.e., Marbode)
for its descriptions of minerals and gems.
Arnoldus' work was probably used by Thomas
of Cantimpre, Albertus Magnus, and Vincent
of Beauvais, but was not quoted except by
the last named and by the anonymous author
of the Hortus Sanitatis. There is also an
anonymous Hebrew translation of it, Sefer ha-
abanim. Bartholomaeus Anglicus' lapidary is
more elaborate than Arnoldus' suggesting that
it was perpared at an earlier date.! 243 !
The fourth part 'De virtute universali'
describes the virtues resulting from the
universal force to form the whole of the animate
and inanimate world. The final part 'De
moralibus' defines the virtue, its divisions and
the places where it is exerted such as happiness,
time, life, death, eternity.
3.3.15 Hrabanus Maurus! 244 ]
Hrabanus Maurus (ca. 780-856), abbot of
Fulda and Archbishop of Mainz, was theological
and pedagogical writer. He was born at Mainz
about 776 (or possibly 784) and died near
there in 856. His name, which is spelled in
various ways (Hrabanus, Rabanus, Rhabanus,
Reabanus, Raban, Rabano), is connected
[z42\ Valentin Rose., "Aristoteles 'De lapidibus' und
Arnoldus Saxo," Zeitschrift fur deutsches Altertum und
deutsche Literatur, 18 (1875), 321-455.
I 243 ! Sarton, Introduction, 2, pt. 2, 592.
[244J Possible references include: The Jewish encyclopedia;
a descriptive record of the history, religion, literature, and
customs of the Jewish people from the earliest times to the
present day. Compiled by Isidore Singer and Cyrus Adler.
New York, London, Funk & Wagnalls Company, 1901-06.
12 vols. • Samuel S. Kottek., "Precious stones in Jewish
and Christian medieval literature: natural and/or occult
sciences?", Koroth, 16 (2002), p. 89-110. •
with Old High German hraban, " raven" ;
" Magnentius" , which sometimes appears before
his surname, Maurus, is probably related to his
residence in Mainz. At an early age he became
a Benedictine monk at Fulda. In 802 he went
to Tours to study theology and the liberal arts,
under the great scholar Alcuin, from who he
received the surname Maurus after the favorite
disciple of St. Benedict. After a year of study,
he was recalled to Fulda, where he taught at the
monastic school and eventually became head-
master. In 814 he was ordained as a priest; in
822 he became abbot of the monastery. Under
Abbot Hrabanus, the monastery flourished,
becoming a renowned seat of learning in the
Frankish kingdoms. Between 840 and 847
Hrabanus became embroiled in royal political
struggles, resigned as abbot, and fled from
Fulda. In 847, after a reconciliation with the
king, he was appointed Archbishop of Mainz.
Reference ..J 245 !
Hrabanus was said to be the most learned
man of his age. His knowledge of scripture,
patristics, canon law and liturgy was without
compare. The scope of his writing extended
over the entire field of sacred and profane
learning as then understood. He wrote
commentaries on nearly all the books of the Old
Testament, as well as the Gospel of Matthew
and the Pauline Epistles. He also wrote more
secular works such as De computo, a treatise
on numbers and the calendar; the Excerptio
de arte grammatica Prisciani, a treatise on
grammar and his famous encyclopedia, De
rerum naturis.
De Rerum Naturis (On the Nature of
Things), also known as De Universe*, is an
encyclopedia in 22 books, covering a large range
of subjects. It was written between 842 and
847. Hrabanus' stated intent was to compile
an encyclopedic handbook for preachers. He
drew on earlier sources for his information,
particularly the Etymologiae of Isidore of
Seville, but the organization of the material was
his own invention.
Rabanus Maurus's De Rerum Naturis (On
the Nature of Things), also known as De
[245J Adams, Birth and Development of the Geological
Sciences, 1938, p. 1.38.
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3.4 Books of Secrets
Universo, is an encyclopedic compilation which
he assembled between 842 and 846. The earliest
edition was edited and printed by Adolf Rusch
(the so-called "R-Printer") about 1466. This
edition was reprinted by George Colvener in
his collected edition of Rabanus's works in
1627, and again by J. -P. Migne in the series
Patrologia Latina in 1851.
The books and chapters of the De Rerum
Naturis are listed below (based on Schipper).
1. On God and angels.
2. On man, the patriarchs, the status of man.
3. ????????.
4. People of the New Testement, martyrs, clerics,
monastics, heretics.
5. ????????.
6. ????????.
7. ????????.
8. On animals.
9. On astronomy - the world and the heavens.
10. On time and the calendar.
11. On water - oceans, rivers, Roods.
12. On geography- the regions of the Earth, the globe,
paradise.
13. On geography - mountains, valleys, deserts.
14. On architecture and building.
15. On the liberal arts.
16. On language.
17. On geology - stones, minerals, gems, metals, De
pulueribus et glebis terra; De glebis et aquis; De
lapidibus vulgaribus; De lapidibus insignioribus; De
marmoribus; De ebore; De gemmis; De margaretis;
De christallis; De vitro; De metallis; De auro; De
aere; De auricalco; De electro; De stagno; De
plumbo; De ferro.
18. On number, music, medicine.
19. On agriculture.
20. ????????.
21. On textiles and clothing.
22. ????????.
3.4 Books of Secrets! 246 !
REWORK: The books of secrets tradition has
not been treated in any comprehensive fashion,
t ' Further historical information may be found in: J.
Ferguson., Bibliographical notes on histories of inventions and
books of secrets. London, Holland Press, 1981. 2 vols, in one.
• S.J. Williams., The secret of secrets: the scholarly career of a
pseudo-Aristotelian text in the Latin Middle Ages. Ann Arbor,
University of Michigan Press, c2003.
despite the fact that they were among the
most widely read works of the medieval and
Renaissance periods. Since the tradition it
treats contains a large number of texts and
fragments of texts (as well as, undoubtedly,
hitherto undiscovered texts), it can not be
described completely.
Although the literature of secrets was
present in the West from the 12th through
the 16th century and beyond, it did not at
any stage in its history have a place among
the official sciences. Secrets referred to two
types of phenomena: those which occurred
unexpectedly as a result of some unknown,
or occult cause; and those which occurred by
artificial rather than natural causes. Scientia,
on the other hand, aimed at revealing certainty
about the physical world as it existed by
nature. Secrets were idiosyncratic, in that
they were peculiar to a relatively narrow
class of phenomena, or could be affected only
by some special insight, skill, or cunning,
whether that be of the artisan or the magus.
For these reasons, knowledge of secrets was
restricted. They could be neither understood
nor explained according to the ordinary canons
of logic and natural philosophy. They occurred
spontaneously, without evident cause, and
hence lay outside the boundaries of official
science.
Nevertheless, the existence of a sizeable
literature on the subject tended at various
times to raise uncomfortable questions about
the limits of knowable and of scientia
itself. Medieval philosophers could not help
but notice, for example, that many secrets
attributed to known authors bore a striking
similarity to beliefs and superstitions held by
the ordinary folk. Normally, authority itself
provided the stamp of approval, distinguishing
truths based on established, written authorities
from false opinions circulating among the
people through an oral tradition. But the
professional activities of the physician or
craftsman often turned up events which could
be proved neither by reason nor authority. In
such instances, experience alone had to be one's
guide.
3.4.1 The Literature of "Secrets"
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3.4 Books of Secrets
REWORK: Books of secrets were not, perhaps,
what the term itself might conjure up in the
imagination. To the modern reader expecting
to encounter some mysterious, arcane wisdom,
these works are bound to be disappointing.
What was revealed, typically, was not the
lore of ancient sages or magi, but recipes,
formulae, and 'experiments,' often of a fairly
conventional sort, associated with one of the
crafts or with medicine: e.g., quenching
waters for hardening steel, recipes for dyes
and pigments, instructions for making drugs,
and 'practical alchemical' formulae such as
a jeweller or tinsmith might use. When a
medieval or sixteenth century writer claimed
to have discovered a 'secret,' he often had this
meaning in mind; and when a contemporary
library catalogue referred to a 'book of secrets,'
it usually indicated a compilation of such
recipes.
The connotation attached to books of
secrets was not completely neutral, however.
They were not regarded with the same
detachment that we would have, for example,
for a cookbook or formulary, the closest modern
equivalent of such a work. For one thing,
behind books of secrets stood a long tradition
of anonymous and pseudonymous writings that
purported to reveal the esoteric teachings
of famous philosophers. The best known
of these works was the pseudo-Aristotelian
Secretum Secretorum, an Arabic work that was
translated into Latin in the 12th century and
is found in about five hundred manuscripts
dating to the seventeenth century! The core
of this work is a handbook on statecraft in
the form of a letter from Aristotle, the prince
of philosophers, to Alexander the Great, the
prince of princes. By a process of accretion,
however, it gradually became an encyclopedic
work encompassing rules for the preservation
of health, medical diagnostics and recipes,
physiognomy, medical astrology, a herbal, a
lapidary, and an extended discussion of the
occult sciences. Insofar as this work can be
said to promote a philosophy, it was the view
that the secrets of nature are revealed only to
those worthy of them; and that with the aid
of this knowledge, all things are possible in the
material world.
The Secretum Secretorum was obviously
a medieval classic, but its influence on science
has yet to be fully evaluated. Roger. Bacon
edited the Latin text of the work and made
extensive notations, and may have caused him
to shift his interests from philosophy to scientia
experimentalis.
The popular tradition of secrets in
literature was written for the masses, not
scholarly persuit. Despite the scorn of
the scholars, however, the popular literature
capitalized on the prestige associated with
the great scholars of the past. Almost all
the ancient scholars have works spuriously
attributed to them. This is not suprising
when one realizes that the intellectual climate
constrained many scholars of the medieaval
age to cast their writings in the form of
commentaries on the works of the ancients. For
example, the whole of Albertus Magnus' vast
output was intended by the author to be a
commentary on Aristotle, though it ultimately
contained much original work from Albertus.
The Book of Secrets attributed to Albertus
Magnus was one of the most widely known
works in a literature that gained popularity
during the Middle Ages. The popularity of
this work is demonstrated by the survival of
a large number of manuscripts from as early
as the 12th century and by the fact that
several continued to be copied, anthologized,
translated, and printed well into the 17th
century.
As its Latin name, Liber Aggreationis, or
"book of collected items" , suggests, The Book
of Secrets is an anthology rather than a single
work. The treatment of the subject matter is
also sensational, reinforcing the popular myths
about nature. It is divided into sections
describing the marvellous properites of herbs,
stones, and beasts. However, within each
part the text is collected from a wide variety
of sources. The text may be divided into
these component parts: (1) On Herbs describes
16 herbs described in terms of their magical
properties, (2) On Stones repeats 45 entries
from Albertus Magnus' Mineralia, which is
followed by a single paragraph taken from
the 7th century encyclopedist, Isidore of
Seville, (3) On Beast, in which 18 beasts —
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4.1 Mining in Saxony
animals, birds and fish are described, and
(4) On the Astrological Influence of Planets
containing a treatise on the hours of the day
governed by the various planets. In later
editions another formerly independent treatise
describing "The Marvels of the World" is
sometimes appended.
Although the preface and a passage at the
end of the section dealing with beasts attribute
this as an original work of Albertus Magnus, it
is very different from the other known writings
of him. It was written, however, contemporary
with Albertus or shortly after he died; the
earliest surviving manuscripts are from the late
13th century, and Albertus died in 1279. It may
be that The Book of Secrets was written by
a follower of Albertus; certainly, as Thorndike
writes, "There can be little doubt that it
pretends to be a product of his experimental
school among the Dominicans at Cologne."
4.0 Agricola and his Time! 247 )
By the mid-point of the second millennium,
around 1500, nature and science came
under intense review by the intellectuals and
philosophers. The ancient explanations of
physical phenomena that had persevered for
centuries simply did not stand up against what
was being observed in the world. Church
dogma, an authority that had once been
absolute saw its power crumble as its doctrines
were shown to be flawed. Into the vacuum
created flowed new ideas and theories based
upon practical observation and presented in
scholarly books written by keen observers. It
was one of the most dynamic times in science.
^ ' Further historical information may be found in:
Walther Fischer., Mineralogie in Sachsen von Agricola bis
Werner. Die altere Geschichte des Staatlichen Museums fur
Mineralogie und Geologie zu Dresden (1560-1820). Dresden,
Verlagsbuchhandlung C. Heinrich, 1939. viii, 348 p., 24
plates. • Hans Prescher and Otfried Wagenbreth., Georgius
Agricola - seine Zeit und seine Spuren. Leipzig, Dt.Verlag fur
Grundstoffindustrie, 1994. 234 p., 94 illus. • Arthur J.
Wilson., The living rock. The story of metals since earliest
times and their impact on developing civilization. Cambridge,
England, Woodhead Pub., 1994. xix, 291 p., illus., maps,
portraits. [Published as a Festschrift in honor of the
quincentenary of the birth of Georgius Agricola, 1494-1555,
the 'Father of Mineralogy'.; ISBN 1855731541.]
4.1 Mining in Saxony! 248 !
The ancient lands occupied by the Celtic
peoples extended across all of Europe and
contained the territories of Eastern and
Western Europe, and the British Isles. They
were excellent workers of metals, especially
gold, as is known by the marvelous artifacts
that have been found in their graves. Raw
material was probably recovered from placer
deposits from all regions under their control,
including present day Hungary, which lies to
the southeast of Saxony. They also build up
extensive trade between their people and the
surrounding societies that brought in other
raw mineral material. Later, as the Romans
expanded their Empire into central Europe
they were continually looking for new sources
of metals, and actively created complex mining
technologies to extract mineral wealth from
the earth. This is well documented by the
discovery of ancient dewatering wheels at the
ancient Roman mines of Rio Tinto in Spain. I 249 !
Although the mineral wealth of Saxony were
not know until long after the Roman Empire
fell, the techniques they introduced to the
mining process remained. Vestiges of its
technologies remained through out its former
European domains. I 250 !
[248] pother historical information may be found in:
Anonymous., Studien zur Geschichte des Montanwesens in
Sachsen vom 16. bis 19. Jahrhundert. Leipzig, Deutsche!'
Verlag fur Grundstoffindustrie, cl989. 106 p., illus.
[History of mining in Saxony 1500 to 1900. Published
as: Freiberger Forsdimigsfrefte, D 194.; ISBN 3342009942.]
• Oliver Davies., Roman mines in Europe. Oxford, 1935.
xii, 291 p., 4 plates, illus., maps (3 folding). [Reprinted,
New York, Arno Press, 1979.] • J.C. Edmondson.,
"Mining in the later Roman Empire and beyond," Journal
of Roman Studies, 79 (1989), p. 84-102. • W. Liessmann.,
Historischer Bergbau im Harz: Kurzfiihrer. Koln, Sven von
Loga, 1992. 320 p., illus. [A history of mining in the
Harz Mountains of Germany. Published as: Schriften des
Mineralogischen Museums der Universitat Hamburg, vol. 1.;
ISBN 3873612429.]
[249] GD B j ones ; « The R oman Mines at Riotinto,"
Journal of Roman Studies, 70, (1980), p. 146-165. • T.A.
Rickard., "The mining of the Romans in Spain," Journal of
Roman Studies, 18 (1928), p. 129-143.
[250] p T Craddock., Early Mining and Metal Production.
Washington, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995. • O.
Davies., Roman Mines in Europe. Oxford, Clarendon Press,
1935. • J.C. Edmondson., "Mining in the later Roman
Empire and beyond," Journal of Roman Studies, 79 (1989),
p. 84-102. • R.J. Forbes., Studies in Ancient Technology.
Leiden, E.J. Brill 1963, vol. 7. * John F. Healy., Mining and
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4.1 Mining in Saxony
Thus it happened that during the Dark
Ages, the territory of Saxony came under
the control of the Germanic tribes. This
mountainous region in the southeast of modern
Germany is particularly rich in ores of several
useful metals such as tin, copper, and silver.
Mines in the Harz mountains of Saxony became
active in the time of Charlemagne (742-814
C.E.). Operations in the Saxon mines, just
as in those of the Greeks and Romans, were
carried out by slaves. With no power tools or
explosives, tunneling through the hard rock was
slow and difficult with daily progress probably
only inches per day. New mines were found
in neighboring areas, like the Erzgebirge range
separating Saxony and Bohemia. Eventually
these mines became the most prosperous in all
Europe.
Landowners opened their estates to
prospectors who had becme adept at looking
for minerals. Some of these prospectors were
former serfs. A prospector staking a claim
could sell the minerals he found after paying a
royalty to the landowner. Mine owners became
financiers and creditors of the royal courts of
Europe. Certainly, gold was recovered from
regions further south, in the ancient province
of Dacia (modern Transylvania and Hungary).
But Bohemia and Saxony appear to have only
minor mineral exploitation until the eighth
century.
Mining was established in Bohemia at
Pfibham and at Schemnitz by the eighth
century (probably around 750 C.E.). Gold
mining in the Tavern, which had been operated
for a long time before the Romans by the Celts
is again worked in 908 C.E.. In 930 C.E. ore
is discovered near Rammelsberg and Goslar
and mines are opened. Around 1000 the first
section of the "Kupferschiefer" (copper sheet)
is developed and mined, and in about 1100
tin and silver veins are discovered at Freiberg.
Albertus Magnus visited the silver mines there
doing his travels in the following century.
By the mid- fourteenth century mining
Metallurgy in the Greek and Roman World. London, Thames
and Hudson, 1978. • T.A. Rickard., "The mining of the
Romans in Spain," Journal of Roman Studies, 18 (1928), p.
129-143. • R. Shepherd., Ancient Mining. London, Elsevier
Applied Science, 1993.
Main area of Saxon mining
through out the region of Saxony was in
full blossom. It was the principal industry
of the area and was supported by ancillary
smelting and mining works. Surprisingly,
there appears to be no evidence of theoretical
speculation as to why so much mineral wealth
was concentrated in the area. It was taken
for granted that the mines would continue
to deliver minerals and metals to the Saxon
economy, as the area already had for centuries.
This nonspeculative attitude would change over
the next centuries, however, as new ideas took
hold.
The major change from the casual magical
attitude toward gems and minerals received its
most powerful impetus from the beginnings and
development of the great mining industry in the
Erzgebirge (Ore Mountains) of Saxony. This
range of mountains extended into Bohemia and,
as the Harz Mountains, was located west of
Saxony and east of this region, reaching into
Hungary.
In this comparatively small area mining
expanded and the region became one of the
most prosperous in all Europe. Families
grew rich from the mining operations and
this wealth brought great advances in the
technology of mining, the processes of ore
reduction and the refining of metal. The area
also developed a high order of literacy so that
a body of theoretical and practical information
and experience was gathered and interchanged.
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Here by the fourteenth century, metallurgy
and mineralogy attained true proportions as
sciences.
4.1.1 The Renaissance
In the 1200s the exceptional figures of Dante,
Roger Bacon, Vincent of Beauvais and Marco
Polo expanded the frontiers of knowledge of
their time. They initiated in Italy a revolution
in intellectual thought that spread to other
countries. The "Renaissance," adopted from
the French equivalent of the Italian word
"rinascita," meaning literally rebirth, describes
the radical and comprehensive shift that took
place across the social, political, cultural, and
scientific fabric of Europe during the next
centuries. This intellectual trend, also called
humanism, or studio, humanitatis, was at
the heart of development in literature, art,
and science, which was a fresh alternative
to the dark atmosphere of the Middle Ages.
It was a period when the first focus was
on the restoration of the natural knowledge
of the ancients followed by a period of
innovation. During this epoch there lived such
scientists as Leonardo Da Vinci [1452-1519], the
astronomers, Nicolaus Copernicus [1473-1543],
Giordano Bruno [1548-1600], Johannes Kepler
[1571-1630], Galileo Galilei [1564-1642], and the
anatomist Andreas Vesalius [1514-1564].
The astronomers placed the sun at the
center of the heliocentric system, which had
a tremendous impact on weakening church
authority in scientifc matters. The scientists
thus looked at the earth, and its animals,
plants, and minerals, from a fresh viewpoint.
Leonardo Da Vinci in his notebooks formulates
the idea of mountains being formed from
uplifted sedimentary rock and being destroyed
by weathering agents. He also speculates after
seeing the first maps of the Atlantic coast lines
of South America and Africa, that these land
masses were once joined (predating modern
plate tectonic theory by centuries) .
During the Renissance Aristotle's concept
of the round immobile world was fairly well
fixed in men's minds. Around the spherical
core of the world there rested, like mantles, the
three additional Aristotelian elements in order
of their weight. Upon the sphere of the earth
4.1 Mining in Saxony
flowed the mantle of water and over it rested
the air and, above this, the sphere of fire.
It was generally accepted that each planet
was the source of some great spiritual power
reigning over heaven and earth. Not only in
astrology but in many of the accepted practices
in agriculture, animal husbandry and in most
walks of life, the influence of the stars was
believed to be of primary importance in shaping
the lives of individuals and of nations. The
moon was considered the abode of the angels
and Mercury that of the archangels. Venus was
the seat of the principalities, the sun the center
of the powers; Mars was that of the virtues,
Jupiter of the dominations, Saturn the center
of the thrones, the fixed stars of the cherubim
and the Primum Mobile of the seraphim. At
birth, the life of a person was predestined by the
position and influence of the planets in the sky.
Calendars were prepared so that men might be
guided by the heavenly signs; astrologers were
consulted in the preparation of horoscopes.
This practice reached into mining and
metallurgy. The seven common metals were
related to the seven planets. Mercury and
its "mercurial" characteristics were related to
the quick-moving planet named after the swift
travelling messenger of the gods. Copper was
related to Venus, and gold shone with the
yellow warmth of the sun. Silver and the
silvery moon were thought of together, and
iron, essential to war and the "martial" spirit,
was associated with Mars. Jupiter (Jove) and
the "jovial" spirit were thought of as relating to
tin, and distant Saturn was associated with the
dull qualities of lead. The association of planet
and metal was carried to the point of using
common signs by astronomers and astrologers
in the designation of the planets and, later,
geologists adopted these signs to represent the
corresponding metals.
The ancients judged rocks, minerals
and gems entirely by their appearance, and
whatever classification was attempted was
based on their superficial resemblance. No
effort was made to determine the chemical
composition or crystallographic structure of
minerals. Color and transparency were of
primary consideration. Metals differed from
minerals in that the former were either fusible
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4.2 Technological Heritage
or malleable.
It was stated by Aristotle that the heat
and rays of the sun reaching the earth's
surface and interior caused exhalations which
penetrated the earth's crust, made possible
new combinations of elements, created metals
and minerals and formed the various kinds of
stones. This belief continued into the Dark and
Middle Ages and was explained by Albertus
Magnus in his De Mineralibus. This early
treatise on minerals and metals repeats the
essence of the celestial influences of the sun, the
stars and the planets in creating and changing
minerals, metals and stones. Therefore his
reiteration of the Aristotelian doctrine of the
creating of stones and metals thru celestial
influences on earth remained unchallenged until
the end of the 1500s.
Ancient views of the underworld continued
to dominate. Their speculation of the earth's
inside bore no evidence of being based on
actual observation, and are instead curious
ideas based upon myth and lore. The four
elements proposed by Aristotle remained the
accepted explanation from which the physical
world was build, and descriptions of nature
were based in those terms until the middle of
the eighteenth century.
The word "fossils" , as used in medieval
times, applied equally to rocks, minerals or
fossils. Its meaning stemmed from the Latin
word fossilis that described anything dug out
of the earth. As the arts and sciences of
mining and metallurgy advanced, distinctions
arose and three sub-sciences of mineralogy,
petrography and paleontology were applied
respectively to the specific science of inorganic
substances, the science concerned with the
description or classification of rocks, and
the science dealing with fossilized plants and
animals.
Metals constituted a distinctive part of
"fossils" because of their bright luster which
distinguished them from other stones and the
fact that they could be extracted from the
ores by means of fire. According to Aristotle,
a metal was a combination of the elements
of earth and water, as seen from the fluid
character of metals when heated and by their
malleability when hammered. The attempts
of Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas to
coordinate the teachings of Aristotle and those
of medieval theology carried the notion of the
celestial origin of metals and metallic ores into
the literature of scholastic philosophy. Because
of this, Aristotle's notions became an integral
part of scholastic literature down thru the
ages. The invention of printing in the 1450s
multiplied and distributed man's knowledge in
undreamed of numbers of books.
So recent is the science of geology that
the very word Geology or Geologia, used
approximately in its present sense, was first
used in literature as late as 1605. Similarly
the first reference to " geologia" appeared in an
English book in 1661.
4.2 Technological Heritage! 251 !
After the wave of Black Death swept across
Asia and Europe in the fourteenth century,
many events came to pass that had a profound
influence on civilization. During the social
upheaval, perhaps the most important was that
"when the plague was over, . . . everybody
was better off in gross terms, since those who
survived took what had belonged to those who
died." I 252 l With the rise in living standards,
more property began to be exchanged, which
meant larger quantities of documents were
prepared. This in turn created a heavy demand
for skilled scribes, who wrote virtually all of the
legal agreements of the period.
Since the plague is transmitted by a
bacteria that infects rats, places where close
contact with rodents was probable were the
places hardest hit by the Black Death.
Coincidentally, population centers, such as the
towns and monasteries of Europe were also the
residences of virtually all the learned men of the
time, including the scribes. As a result many of
the literate members of the community died in
the Plague, thereby allowing those scribes that
L J Further historical information may be found in:
Arthur J. Wilson., The living rock. The story of metals
since earliest times and their impact on developing civilization.
Cambridge, England, Woodhead Pub., 1994. xix, 291 p.,
illus., maps, portraits. [Published as a Festschrift in honor
of the quincentenary of the birth of Georgius Agricola,
1494-1555, the 'Father of Mineralogy'.; ISBN 1855731541.]
I 252 l J. Burke., Connections, 1978, p. 98.
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4.2 Technological Heritage
survived to command astronomically prices. To
further unsettle the situation, a cheap and easy
method of making paper had been established
by the end of the fourteenth century. Clearly,
there was a necessity to develop a cheaper
means to place writing upon the paper, and
this method must inevitably be some form of
mechanized writing.
Mechanical Printing
In Europe, an early form of mechanical printing
appears in several forms among which are decks
of playing cards and several small booklets
known as block books. These were created by
carving a mirror image of what was wanted on
the paper into a block of wood, and then using
this block to transfer the inked image to the
paper. The technique required a great amount
of time to carve the block (gross mistakes
caused the carver to start over from scratch),
which because it was wood, was relatively soft
and tended to wear away quickly during the
printing process.
A German goldsmith from Mainz is
generally regarded as the person who brought
great leaps of technology to printing. He was
Johann Gansfleisch, but is better known by
his mother's maiden name - which he adopted
- GUTENBURG. He learned the goldsmith
trade through his father, who had officiated
at the Mainz mint, and his knowledge of how
to work metals played a great role in his
development of a new method of printing. The
principal component missing from developing a
true mechanical printing was the invention of
a moveable type, and for this Gutenburg had
two great assets. He knew how to work metals,
and the German alphabet of his time contained
only twenty-three letters (no j, v, or w).
Gutenburg recognized the problem was to
develop a reusable type that was uniform in
size, that could be set side by side to print
an even line of text, and that would be made
of materials not easily worn down during the
printing process. To solve the problem every
letter had to be cast into an identical mold, and
this is where his knowledge of metals became
a necessity. The material from which the
mold was made had to have a higher melting
temperature than the metal used to make
the casting. Additionally, the stem for each
letter must be the same height and dimensions,
regardless of what letter it represented. The
problem was that after the casting had cooled
inside the mold, it had to be extracted without
breaking the mold. The solution required
genius to create the intricate three piece mold
that was undoubtedly developed over a period
of years. The three pieces slid together like a
puzzle and are held together by a large curved
spring. After casting the letter, the pieces of
the mold could slide apart to extract the cast
letter, and then be put back together again to
cast another identical letter. It satisfied the
requirement that the stems of every letter be
the same size. Thus one letter could easily be
interchanged with any other in a given line of
type, which is what makes moveable type an
efficient technology.
Very quickly after Gutenburg introduced
his invention, publishing houses appeared in
most of the major European cities. The first
subjects to be published were by and large the
writings of the classical authors or theological
books, but as the sixteenth century came, texts
of a more practical nature appeared. The
printing press made it possible for cheap hand
books to be prepared, I 253 l and the vast
amount of practical knowledge concerning all
manner of technologies that had been built up
over the centuries, and passed from master to
apprentice was ripe for dissemination to the
eagar reading public. There began to appear
at the beginning of the century a new class of
literature, used by its practitioners and those
aspiring to enter technical professions. It was a
literature devoted to the practical application
of knowledge with illustrative examples, with
essentially no theoretical discussions. These
technical booklets were designed to give useful
information as to how to accomplish specific
tasks. They were apparently widely popular,
especially in the German communities, as
is indicated by the large number of titles
published on a wide selection of subjects and
of which numerous editions appeared. These
books were also apparently much read as the
[253] p ar tington, History of Chemistry, 1964-71, 2, p. 32-
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4.2 Technological Heritage
few surviving copies show tremendous wear
from their years of service.
4.2.1 Bergbiichlein (cl505)[ 254 l
The Bergbiichlein (Little Book on Ores)
that appeared about 1505 is the first in a
long series of printed books, dedicated to
the mining arts. It is a practical handbook
designed for beginners rather than experts in
the field of mining, and as an introduction
to mining geology, which means that it was
not addressed to the practicing expert but was
intended to rouse the interest of beginners in
the various aspects of a future vocation. The
booklet comprises instructions from Daniel,
a skilled miner, to Knappius, 'his mining
boy'. In ten chapters, the work contains
an introduction to mining geology, touches
on some theories of the generation of ores,
which is of mineralogical interest, introduces
and defines many of the important technical
terms of the profession, discusses the ores of
the seven most important metals, and how to
prospect for them. Not all the information
contained in its pages is based on fact or
even first hand knowledge of the author but
enough of the material was sufficiently practical
for Agricola to have used it as a reference
book and even copied certain passages verbatim
in writing his more comprehensive work. It
touches on the theories of the generation of
ores, introduces and defines some of the most
frequently encountered technical terms of the
profession, and indicates what knowledge and
tools are required for successful prospecting
and mining. It also describes the ores of
t ' Further historical information may be found in:
Ernst Darmstadter., Berg-. Probir- und Kunst-Biichlein.
Miinchen, 1926. Ill p. [Published as: Miinchener
Beitrage zur Geschichte und Literatur der Naturwissenschaften
und Medicine (Heft 2-3). The bibliography describes 80
early books related to mining and assaying.] • A.G.
Sisco and C.S. Smith, Bergwerk- und Probirbiichlein. New
York, 1949. 196 p., illus., biblio. [A translation of two
sixteenth century works on mining (Bergbuchlein, 1518)
and assaying (Probierbuchlein, 1534), the earliest printed
books on the subjects. With technical annotations and
historical notes, bibliography of known editions, etc.] •
H. Wilsdorf, Praludien zu Agricola. I. Das Joachimstahler
Bergbuchlein des Hans Rudhart 1523. II. Die Cosmography
des Sebastian Munster 1544. Berlin, Akademie, 1954. 224 p.,
illus. [Published as: Freiberger Forschungshefte, Kultur und
Technik, D-5.]
the seven most important metals. For those
parts that deal with theory the author accepted
uncritically the traditional teachings of the
alchemists and the astrologers; his hints on
where to find promising ores are based partly
on superstition; but there is enough factual,
practical information, for example, on veins
and their differences, on the occurrence of a
metal in different ores, and on the association of
a specific ore with others or with certain gangue
materials, so that even a scholar like Agricola
used the Bergbuchlein as a reference book.
Actual authorship of the Bergbuchlein is
unknown, but based on circumstantial evidence
is attributed to 'Calbus of Freiberg, a well-
known doctor', i.e., Ulrich Rulein von
Calw.I 255 ! Indeed Rulein is accepted
by present-day scholarship as the author,
although most editions of the Bergbuchlein
were published anonymously.
4.2.2 Probirbiichlein (cl510)[ 256 l
The Probierbuchlein (Little Book on Assaying)
that appeared about 1510 is the first printed
work on any aspect of assaying, displaying
the art fully developed as it applied to gold
and silver, and to a lesser degree copper
and lead. It is a treatise very important
for the history of the development of mineral
chemistry. It contained much detailed and
accurate information concerning the methods
of separating gold and silver from other metals
and from one another by so-called cementation
processes, but contained no reference to
methods depending on the use of the mineral
[255] ui ric h Rulein von Calw (or Kalbe) (Born: cl467;
Died: Leipzig, Germany, 1523) was appointed the health
officer of Freiberg in 1497, before being elected a member
of the city council in 1509 and mayor in 1514 and
1519. He is thought to have worked as a mine surveryor,
mathematician, astronomer and physician.
[256J pother historical information may be found in:
Ernst Darmstadter., Berg-, Probir- und Kunst-Biichlein.
Miinchen, 1926. Ill p. [Published as: Miinchener Beitrage
zur Geschichte und Literatur der Naturwissenschaften und
Medicine (Heft 2-3). The bibliography describes 80 early
books related to mining and assaying.] • A.G. Sisco
and C.S. Smith, Bergwerk- und Probirbiichlein. New York,
1949. 196 p., illus., biblio. [A translation of two sixteenth
century works on mining (Bergbuchlein, 1518) and assaying
(Probierbuchlein, 1534), the earliest printed books on the
subjects. With technical annotations and historical notes,
bibliography of known editions, etc.]
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4.3 Georgius Agricola
acids. It was intended to be used as a practical
guide for the assayer, and is a compilation of
the accepted practices and recipes that must
have been developed over a long period.
This little book provides many detailed di-
rections describing the apparatus and furnaces
used in preparing the ores, separation of one
metal from another, and other processes re-
lated to metallurgy and assaying. It covers ev-
erything from making touch needles, furnaces,
crucibles, cupels, and weights to compounding
fluxes and reagents and prescriptions for their
use. Also of interest is the fact that the man-
ufacture of various balances for the laboratory
seems to have been well developed, because the
text refers to the importance of accurate weigh-
ing. In fact a later edition of the Probierbiich-
lein (1533) gives woodcut illustrations of these
balances.
4.2.3 Biringuccio (1540) P 57 l
In this new era metallurgical works were further
developed in central Europe. Innovative
techniques were tried, and the results published
in widely circulated books. Popular handbooks
on mining and assaying began to appear. The
interest in metallurgy is reflected in the work
of Vannoccio Biringuccio. In his 1540
Pirotechnia^ 25 ^ that consists of ten sections,
Biringuccio describes the different metals and
their ores, deriving much about the theory
of their origin that is derived from Aristotle,
methods of locating ores, and their properties,
including comments about sulfides, the action
of sulfur, alum, oxides, halite, and many other
substances. He fully describes methods of
ore processing, melting and refining of metals,
glass manufacture, separation of silver from
gold, and preparation of nitric acid. He
gives many practical procedures, that were well
adopted to metallurgical operations, and gives
descriptions of the various apparatus necessary
[257J Further historical information may be found in: O,
Johannsen., "Biringuccio und seine 'Pirotechnia'," Beitrage
zur Geschichte Technische Industrie, 16 (1926), p. 153-61. •
James R. Partington., "Biringuccio and Agricola," Jsis, 26
(1936), p. 37-8. • C.S. Smith., "Biringuccio's 'Pirotechnia'
— a neglected Italian metallurgical classic," Mining <fe
Metallurgy, 21 (1940), p. 189-192.
[258J Vannoccio Biringuccio., De la Pirotechnia Libri X.
Venetia, 1540.
including furnaces, bellows, balances, and the
like. Biringuccio also comments on the increase
in a metals weight during calcination (i.e.,
forming an oxide).
4.3 Georgius Agricola! 259 !
The time was ripening for an intelligent man,
with an inquisitive and practical nature to
bring a new, fresh insight toscientific views of
the geological world. On March 24th, 1494,
at Glauchau, Germany, just such a man in the
person of Georg Bauer was born to a local
dryer and woolen draper. However, in writings
of later years, he would Latinze his name to
Georgius Agricola, by which he is today
best remembered. In his youth he attended
various primary schools in Glauchau, Zwickau,
and Magdeburg, and in 1514 he matriculated
at Leipzig University, hi 1515 he received his
first degree, and stayed at the university as
lecturer in elementary Greek. In 1517, he took
a position at Zwickau, where he taught Latin
and Greek in several schools.
Zwickau, as a center of the Lutheran
Reformation, caused Agricola to evaluate his
religious belief. He came to believe that a
reformation was necessary, but did not care
for the revolution championed by the Lutheran
supporters and remained catholic. Therefore,
in 1523 he returned to the more moderate
Leipzig to study medicine and in 1524 he
travelled to Italy for additional studies in
philosophy, medicine and the natural sciences
at the ancient universities at Bologna, Padua
and Ferrara, finally taking his degree in
medicine at one of them. About this time
l- 5y J Further historical information may be found in: Bern
Dibner., Agricola on metals. Norwalk, Conn., Burndy
Library, 1958. 128 p., illus. [Published as Burndy Library,
no. 15.] • Walther Fischer., Mineralogie in Sachsen von
Agricola bis Werner. Die altere Geschichte des Staatlichen
Museums fur Mineralogie und Geologie zu Dresden (1560-1820).
Dresden, Verlagsbuchhandlung C. Heinrich, 1939. viii,
348 p., 24 plates. • ibid., "Zum 450. Geburtstag Agricolas,
des "Vaters der Mineralogie," Neues Jahrbuch Mineralogie,
Geologie und Palaenotologie, Series A, 1944, nos. 7-9, p. 113-
225, 42 figs., one table. • ibid., "Dr. Georg Agricola,"
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft, 96 (1944),
pts. 1-3, p. 124-8, one fig. • ibid., "Johannes Mathesius zu
St. Joachimsthal (1504-1565)," Der Aufschluss, 11 (1965), p.
267-91. • Hans Prescher and Otfried Wagenbreth., Georgius
Agricola - seine Zeit und seine Spuren. Leipzig, Dt.Verlag fur
Grundstoffindustrie, 1994. 234 p., 94 illus.
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4.3 Georgius Agricola
he was befriended by the famous humanist
Erasmus, who Agricola met during a visit to
Basel. It was Erasmus, who recommended that
he be appointed to the editorial staff for the
Aldina editions of Galen and Hippocrates.
In 1526, Agricola traveled through the
mining districts of Carinthia, Styria, and the
Tyrol, returning to Germany in the fall. The
following spring he opened an apothecary in St.
Joachimsthal (now Jachymov), Slovakia, and
was subsequently elected town physician. Here
he continued to study the pharmaceutical use
of minerals and smelting by-products, with a
view to compiling a commentary on the medical
texts of Galen and Hippocrates. At the time,
St. Joachimsthal was one of the most important
mining centers in Europe. The diseases that
afflicted the miners and smelters of the region
became Agricola's focus of study. Day after
day, he visited the mines and refineries, and
soon developed a deep knowledge of mining and
metallurgy. It was a confluence of man and
moment.
There was a great need for a practical
mind to organize the techniques and processes
employed in the mining technology of the time.
The economic activity which came with the
Renaissance made it possible for a man like
Agricola to enter the mines, to study the
structure of the earth's crust and to organize
his observations into a logical pattern which
evolved into the sciences of mineralogy and
geology. It was based on these observations, he
recorded his observations in the first of his great
mining works, Bermannus sive de re Metallica
Dialogus, published in 1530. The success of this
pioneering work on mining and metallurgy was
assured by Erasmus, who contributed a letter of
recommendation. The publication of this small
book by Froben, one of the foremost printers of
the time, was followed in 1533 by another book
also by Froben and also at Basel. This was
the De Mensuris et Ponderibus, a discussion
of Greek and Roman weights and measures. It
was also at this time that Agricola began to
organize and gather the material for his later
work De Re Metallica, which took some 20
years to write and an additional five years for
printing. But after his initial books, Agricola
was now a well-known author, and to build on
that reputation he needed to make a change.
There were too many demands on his
time in St. Joachimsthal, and Agricola made
the decision to move to the smaller, quieter
mining town of Chemnitz, where he became
town physician. Chemnitz was a copper
producer that had a smelter which was also
used to extract silver from the ore. Agricola's
knowledge of minerals and mining enabled
him to make profitable investments in the
local mining operations. His partnerships were
almost always successful, and by 1542 he was
one of the town's richest inhabitants.
Beginning in 1546 he published a series
of six works on mining, metallurgy, geology
and animals used in mining. Continuing his
friendship with Erasmus, Agricola remained
loyal to the Catholic faith, tho he was
surrounded by men who sided strongly with the
Reformation. In addition to his metallurgical
works, Agricola also published studies in
medical, religious, political and historical
subjects. These reflect his many interests and
a dedicated professional attitude.
His success enabled Agricola to work on
what is considered his greatest achievement in
science, although this had to take a subordinate
postion to diplomatic missions he took on for
the court of Saxony. For three years, he was a
councillor of Moritz Duke of Saxony, and was
one of the few Roman Catholic representatives
in the Protestant court. Finally in 1548, he
was able to return to his scientific writings, and
new books began to appear in the next year:
De animantibus subterraneis (1549) and an
enlarged edition of De mensuris et ponderibus
(1550).
In 1550, he had with him the finished text
of his chief work, De Re Metallica Libri XII,
begun twenty years before in St. Joachimsthal.
He then found in St. Joachimsthal an expert
designer Blasius Weffring, who spent the next
three years creating woodblock to illustrate the
text.
When the plague spread through Saxony
in 1552-1553, Agricola worked day and night,
attempting to alleviate the suffering of those
afflicted. Notes and observations during this
time led him to publish his description of the
disease in 1554 as his De Peste Libri III.
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4.4 The Influence of Agricola
In November of 1556, Agricola fell ill
and died. Four months after his death, De
Re Metallica Libri XII, illustrated with 292
woodcuts, appeared. A year later a German
translation by the physician Philippus Bech
was published using the same woodcuts. The
importance of De Re Metallica can be shown
by its immediate translation into German
and Italian and its subsequent reissue in ten
editions. It remained the leading textbook
for miners and metallurgists for nearly two
centuries. At a time when most industrial
processes were held secret by families, guilds or
towns, Agricola saw fit to publish every practice
and improvement that he considered of value,
and to use Latin to gain the widest circulation
in his homeland and abroad. He had little
to draw on from earlier sources that had any
practical value except possibly Biringuccio.
4.4 The Influence of Agricola! 260 !
The period into which Georgius Agricola
was born was a remarkable time in human
achievement. It was the height of the
Renaissance, and Columbus had discovered
America just two years before he was born.
Luther and Diirer were Agricola's countrymen
and contemporaries, and Copernicus and
Vesalius had just transformed the universe and
dissected man, its most interesting inhabitant.
A slumbering world had awakened and Agricola
added his voice to acclaim its rebirth.
Agricola to his credit, abandoned induc-
tive speculation in favor of the results of obser-
vation. In this respect he was one of the first to
prescribe to the theory. This helps explain why
1-60J Further historical information may be found in: Ernst
Darmstadter., "Georg Agricola, 1494-1555. Leben und
Werk," Miinchener Beitrage zur Geschichte und Literatur
der Naturwissenschaften und Medicine, pt. 1 (1926), 96 p.,
portrait. • Walther Fischer., "Zum 450. Geburtstag
Agricolas, des "Vaters der Mineralogie," Neues Jahrbuch
Mineralogie, Geologie und Palaenotologie, Series A, 1944, nos.
7-9, p. 113-225, 42 figs., one table. • H. Hirai., Le concept
de semence dans Jes theories de la matiere a la Renaissance:
de Marsile Ficin a Pierre Gassendi. (doctoral dissertation),
University of Lille 3, 1999. [Contains: Agricola, pp. 81-98;
Cardan, pp. 99-115; Cesalpin, pp. 116-130; Paracelse, pp.
132-161; Palissy, pp. 247-262; Boece de Boodt, pp. 282-
300; de Clave, pp. 305-326.] • Hans Prescher and Otfried
Wagenbreth., Georgius Agricola - seine Zeit und seine Spuren.
Leipzig, Dt.Verlag fur Grundstofhndustrie, 1994. 234 p.,
94 illus.
so much of his text is devoted to refutation of
the many ancient and deep-rooted beliefs of the
Scholastics. To Agricola we owe the first ade-
quate declaration of the part played by erosion
in the shaping of mountain masses. Similarly
no predecessor gave a clearer interpretation of
the origin of ore than did Agricola, because in
experience and penetrating observation he was
among the most gifted in his time. To him also
goes the credit for accuracy and clarity in main-
taining that ore channels filled the interstices in
rocks by the process of deposition from circu-
lating solutions. This was an enunciation of
a fundamental modern theory and constitutes
one of his greatest contributions to geology and
metallurgy.
In mineralogy, the contributions of Agri-
cola were mainly in classifying minerals on the
basis of the properties of solubility and homo-
geneity in addition to those of color and hard-
ness. This was still a long way from the radical
changes that followed chemical and crystallo-
graphic analysis of the late 1700s. He also was
the first to add bismuth and antimony to the
list of true primary metals. Similarly, to the
60 actual mineral species known in his time,
Agricola added 20 new ones, thus increasing the
original number by a third.
The rewards of mining technology and
the broad interest in mineralogy attracted
alert and inventive minds to the field in
which Agricola worked. They gathered data
and tried to relate it to broad principles.
For example, Christoph Entzelt (Latin,
Encelius) published a small book on metals
in 1551. Buth Agricola's authority was such
that his chief selling point was that he claimed
to record information not to be found in
Agricola! I 261 !
Conrad Gesner, another contemporary
of Agricola, was born and lived mainly in
Zurich in Switzerland, where he, like Agricola,
was the city physician (Stadtarzt). He was
a prolific writer on plants and animals and
his book De Rerum Fossilium Lapidum et
Gemmarum was printed in 1565, the year
of his death, a victim of the plague. It
[261] Christoph Entzelt., De Re Metallica, Francofurti,
1551. [16], 271, [1] p., 5 woodcuts.
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4.4 The Influence of Agricola
was, with a minor exception, the first book
devoted entirely to this subject which was
illustrated by woodcuts and figures. Stressing
the importance of the figures contained in
his book, Gesner changed from the classic
system oi alphabetically listing minerals by
the initial letter of their Latin names; he
grouped his "fossils" in accordance with the
form of the stone, gem or fossil. He arranged
his illustrations in an order of increasing
complexity from the simple spherical stones to
true fossil complexes. Since the book could
not readily be printed in colors, this additional
means of identification was largely neglected.
Not only was this an improvement over the
classic listing by alphabetical arrangement, but
Gesner also avoided reference to the magic and
miraculous properties of minerals. Although he
stated that his book was essentially prepared
to stimulate an interest in stones, fossils and
minerals and that it was prepared as a work
of recreation rather than as a profound study,
Gesner reflected the new point of view created
by Agricola from whom he borrowed heavily.
Another Swiss native, Theophrastus
Bombast von Hohenheim [1493-1541], who
called himself PARACELSUS I 262 ! initiated
substantial changes in the development of
chemistry of the time by helping to transform
the old alchemy into the science of chemistry
recognized today. Trained as a physician,
he looked skeptically at the alchemists,
but recognized that chemistry could play
a useful role in medicine. He introduced
"iatrochemistry" (from the Greek, 'iatro',
meaning doctor), which marks the begining
of chemisty as an independent science.
His Ettliche Tractat Philippi Theophrasti
Paracelsi ... von naturlichen Dingen (1570) is
his most direct statement on mineralogy that
includes descriptions all types of natural things
including turpentine, salt, magnets, sulfur,
vitriol, alum, arsenic, the metals, and various
1 1 Johann E. Hiller., "Die Mineralogie des Paracelsus,"
Philosophia Naturalis. Archiv fur Naturphilosophie, 2 (1952),
p. 293-331 and 435-478. * Joachim Schroeter., "Die Stel-
lung des Paracelsus in der Mineralogie des 16. Jahrhun-
derts," Schweizerische mineralogische und petrographische
Mitteilungen, 21 (1941), p. 313-331. [A study of the Swiss
native Paracelsus' influence in sixteenth century mineral-
ogy-]
minerals. His chemistry revolved around
minerals because they are naturally chemical
compounds; however, his ideas about the orgin
of minerals are charactistic of the period giving
fantastic speculation. Following the Arabic
authors, for example, he believed that the
seven planets influenced the creation inside the
earth of the various minerals and metals (DSB;
Partington, 1961-70).
The direct influence of Agricola in the
realm of metallurgy is also reflected in
the activities of Lazarus Ercker and the
publication, in 1574, of his treatise on ores
and assaying. This was basically a textbook
for the practicing assayer. Ercker, chief
superintendent of mines and comptroller of the
Holy Roman Empire and Kingdom of Bohemia,
stressed the economic and commercial aspects
of his craft, rather than the theoretical.
He amplified the descriptions by Agricola of
separating precious metals from copper by
liquidation with lead, the smelting of tin, and
the production of saltpeter. Ercker, with
Biringuccio and Agricola, together represented
the published metallurgical knowledge of the
1500s. The instructions and descriptions which
they prepared were so factual and accurate that
they continued as handbooks for nearly two
centuries.
Lazarus Ercker Beschreibung Aller-
furnemisten Mineralischen Ertzt vnnd Berck-
wercksarten (1574) Together with Agr.ICOLA's
De Re Metallica (1st ed., Basel, 1556), Ercker's
treatise is the most authoritative and practical
work on 16th century metallurgy and assaying.
He provides a systematic review of methods
of testing alloys and minerals and of obtaining
and refining various metals. Also described are
procedures for manufacturing acids, salts and
other chemical compounds, including saltpeter
and vitriol. Apparatus and laboratory equip-
ment used in metallurgy and assaying as well
as detailed accounts of laboratory procedures,
all of which had been used by Ercker in his ev-
eryday work as inspector of mines.
Ercker was an accurate recorder of facts,
not a builder of theoretical systems. He
writes with amazing clarity, with completely
realistic descriptions of the apparatus used
and straightforward instructions for various
78
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5.0 Physical Properties
laboratory operations. His treatment of the
subject is basically the same as found in any
modern treatise on fire assaying, and in fact
his work remained the standard text for several
centuries after its first appearance.
In five books Ercker defines assaying and
what knowledge the practicing assayer should
possess. The first book deals with silver ores,
how to distinguish them and the apparatus
required to perform accurate tests, and refine
the resultant metal. Book two describes
the same for gold and its ores, while book
three covers copper. Book four concerns lead,
bismuth, tin, antimony, mercury, iron and
lodestone. Book five describes the preparation
of saltpeter and the assay of vitriol from pyrite
and alum in the ores of alum.
Georg Meyer Bergwercks Geschopff
und wunderbare Eigenschaften der Metall-
fruchte (1595-7) Only edition. Among the
books on mining published in the sixteenth cen-
tury, the one by Georg Meyer is one of the
rarest. In contrast to the works by Agricola,
Entzelt. Matthesius, and Ercker, it hardly ever
appears on the market. The book is dedicated
to the Emperor Rudolph II, the patron of Ty-
cho Brahe and Kepler who was a strong sup-
porter of alchemy. At the beginning is a 4 1/2
page poem in praise of miners. The text is then
divided into thirteen chapters dealing with ores,
metals, minerals, antimony, mercury, bismuth,
sulphur, salt, and saltpeter, with a short sec-
tion on glassmaking in the last chapter.
Georg Engelhard von Lohneyss
Bericht vom Bergkwerck (1617) Printed at
the author's own press, this work, which
ranks with Agricola, is among the rarest of
the early mining books. It was the first
and only book printed at Zellerfeld, due to
the destruction of the press and most of
the first edition during the thirty years war.
Lohneysen designed the plates, woodcuts and
initials, employing as engraver of the cuts the
German Moses Thym. The plates illustrate the
construction, machinery and work in the mines,
the processes of metallurgy, etc. Especially
valuable for giving an accurate description of
German mining and metallurgical methods at
the beginning of the XVII century.
As the mineral resources of the ancient
mining centers became exhausted, activity
moved northward into Saxon, Norman and
Swedish mining centers. In Saxony, the work of
Agricola helped establish at Freiberg a central
source of mining and metallurgical knowledge
and information, later formalized into a definite
curriculum. Emphasis on observation and
the sharing of information began to replace
the secretiveness and mysticism of the earlier
craftsmen and writers. Agricola's legacy was
to bring in his many writings a new openess
that was based upon practical observation,
with little or no emphasis placed on mystical
qualities. All writers on geological and
mineralogical subjects after him, in some
measure, followed or ignored his example.
5.0 Physical Properties! 263 )
Minerals are physical objects, formed through
complex processes with in the earth. Each
mineral species has its own set of physical
properties that define its existence. For
example, every species has a standard hardness
or density that is a physical manifestation of
its internal crystal-chemical structure. From
the earliest times these properties were used
to successfully extract minerals and metals
from their host rock. As science developed,
minerals became objects of formal study. In
an effort to describe their objects, authors
frequently would mention a minerals physical
look and feel. Eventually, researches got the
idea that each mineral species had a set of these
characteristics that were different from other
minerals, and in fact could be used to identify
one mineral type from another. An active effort
began to test and record the characteristics
of each mineral type, in order to identify the
mineral represented in an actual specimen.
Soon, tables of these relative values of these
characteristics developed, which in turn led to
elaborate printed descriptions of the mineral
species. Mineralogists were trying to place their
study on a foundation of accuracy. Over a
succession of trials, they began to develop new,
ingenious methods to derive the values placed
[2bS\ puj-thgj. historical information may be found in:
Werner, Von den ausserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien, 1774,
p. ??-?? [Introduction].
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5.1 Color
in their identification tables. Instruments
were invented to make repeated tests on
minerals, and from all the experimentation, not
unexpectedly, new properties were discovered
to even more accurately define a mineral
species. These were, therefore, folded into the
list of properties that could be used in mineral
identification.
5.1 Color I 264 l
REWORK: The most obvious property of
any mineral species is its color. Sometimes
extremely vibrant as with red crocoite or blue
azurite, and other times dull, a mineral's
color can be a key indicator to identifying its
species. As a property, color was probably
the first distinguishing characteristic used in
mineralogy. It is of course a manifestation of
the interaction between wavelengths of visible
light with the crystal-chemical composition of
the mineral as detected by the human eye.
Because it requires a great deal of theory as
to how color manifests its presence, the earliest
studies simply list the color as a characteristic.
It was not until the nineteenth century, when
techniques in chemistry developed to develop
trace elements, that the actual mechanisim for
coloring could be described. In addition, the
discovery of radiation and its effect on minerals
t ' Further historical information may be found in:
Edmund Hoppe., Geschichte der Physik, 1926, p. 285-
291. • Albert Johannsen., Manual of petrographic methods,
1918, p. 309-312. * Christel Meier., Gemma spiritalis.
Teil I. Miinchen, Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1977. 542, [2] p.,
biblio. [Impressive study of theories and ideas about
gems from ancient times through the Middle Ages and
Renaissance.] • Kurt Nassau., The physics and chemistry
of color. Second edition. New York, 2001. [Describes
coloring factors in a large variety of natural objects
including minerals.; ISBN 0471391069.] • Ulrich Rath., Zur
Geschichte der pharmazeutischen Mineralogie. Braunschweig,
Universitat Braunschweig, 1971. 273 p. [Published as:
Pharmazeigeschichtlicher Seminar der Technischen Universitat
Braunschweig, vol. 12. Covers the history of pharmaceutical
mineralogy.] • Karl Simon., "Contributions to our
knowledge of the colors of minerals," Mineral Collector, 15
(1909), no. 11, 165-168 and no. 12, 177-181. [Condensed
translation by Edgar T. Wherry from the original article
published in Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Geologie und
Paleontologie, Beilage-Band, 26 (1908), 249-295.; it contains
an excellent review of color studies in the nineteenth
century] • Sigmund Skard., "The use of color in
literature. A survey of research," Proceedings of the
American Philosophical Society, 90 (1946), no. 3, p. 163-243.
and crystals led to a broader understanding of
how color happens in a mineral.
A reference to something early during the
Islamic science ...I 265 !
1728: Du Fay wrote on the the coloring of
artificial gems ( 1728)— (DSB).
Color was one of the most prominent phys-
ical characters used by the great ABRAHAM
Gottlob Werner in distinguishing one min-
eral from another. In his Von den dusser-
lichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien (1774), he
uses descriptive terms to differeniate the vari-
ous shades of color he means.! 266 ] He includes
a folding chart that lists his eight principal col-
ors together with their subdivisions. Words
only however can not always convey the color
meant. The approach was improved upon in
the works of Werner's students and supporters.
For example, in Henri Struve's Methode An-
alytique des Fossiles of 1797, the descriptions
are backed up with hand-colored plates illus-
trating the various colors described, together
with degrees of the various hues.
The colors of minerals are said to be
dilute or diffuse when the coloriug substance
is not recognizable as microscopic inclusions,
but is in a condition comparable with that of
a dye dissolved in a liquid. Van't HoffI 267 !
has introduced for this state of affairs the
conception of solid solutions, a view which has
received universal acceptance.
A number of the diffusely colored minerals
are characterized by the great sensitiveness of
the color toward high temperature, and even
toward daylight; here belonging smoky quartz,
amethyst, halite, fluorite, zircon, tourmaline,
topaz and others.
As to the chemical character of the
coloring substances there exists a wide
difference of opinion.
The early attempts at explanation were for
the most part only conjectures being supported
by few experiments. The great difficulty of
[265] g Wiedemann., "Uber die Entstehung der Farben
nach NasTr al-dln al-TusT," Jahrbuch der Photographie und
Reproduktionstechnik (Halle), 1908, p. 86-89.
[2bb\ \\r ernel ^ Von den ausserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien,
1774, p. 97-128.
I 267 ] Van't Hoff, "?????," Zeitschrift fur Physkalische
Chemie, 1892.
80
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by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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5.1 Color
proving the existence of inorganic substances
as the coloring principles by analysis led to the
view that these consisted of unstable organic
compounds. Schneider.! 268 ] was the first
to ascribe the colors of the precious stones to
hydrocarbons, and in 1855 he claimed to have
established this in the case of colored quartz.
SENAR MONTI 269 ! artificial coloration of
strontium nitrate by an extract of logwood
and other similar experiments appear to have
promoted the opinion that a large number
of mineral colors were produced by organic
substances.
Proceeding from this view-point, Levy! 270 !
ascribed the green color of emerald to
hydrocarbons, having proved the existence of
.09% of carbon and .05% of hydrogen in
the mineral. Later Fr.iedr.ich WohlerI 271 !
showed that the color is to be attributed
to minute traces of chromium oxide, and
Hautefeuille and PerreyI 272 ! used this
compound with success as a coloring agent in
the artificial production of emeralds.
1860: Fr.iedr.ich EisenlohrI 273 !
Sandber.gerJ 274 ] obtained in the
decomposition of dark zircon a distinct
test for copper, and considered the oxide
of this metal as the coloring substance.
Further investigations were carried on by
WyronboffI 275 ! In his work "On the
coloring substances of fluorite," he showed that
colored fluorspar, on heating, besides showing
phosphorescence, suffered a loss of weight, and
that small amounts of carbon dioxide and water
could be detected. From this he likewise
concluded that an organic substance was the
[268] Schneider, "?????," Annalen der Physik und Chemie,
96 (1855), p. 282.
I 269 ! Senarmont, "???," Compt. Rend., 38 (1854?), p. 101.;
ibid., Annales des Physique., 91 (1854), p. 491.
[27u\ L eV y 5 "???," Annales des Chemie et Physique, 55
(1858), p. 5
[271] priedrich Wohler, "???," Annales des Physique, 122
(1864), p. 492
I 272 ] Hautefeuille and Perrey, "???," Compt. Rend., 106
(1888), p. 1800
[273] p_ Eisenlohr., "Erklar. des Farbenzerstr. A d.
Verhaltens d. Lichts in Krystallen," Annalen der Physik,
109 (1860), 28 p.
I 274 l Sandberger, "???," Neues Jahrbuch, 1881, p. 258.
[275] Wyronboff; "???," Bull. Soc. Chim., 5 (1866), p. 334.
coloring principle. On the other hand Low! 276 !
and Moissan and Becquerel! 277 ] found in
specimens from Wolsendorf and in other deep
blue varieties free fluorine.
Henri Becquerel! 278 ] further succeeded
in coloring previously decolorized fluorite and
halite, violet and brown upon the surface by
exposure to cathode rays. This phenomenon
could certainly not be explained by the theory
of organic coloring matter. ForsterJ 279 !
arrived at results similar to those of Wyronboff;
upon heating smoky quartz he obtained a liquid
with empyrenmatic odor and a carbonaceous
coating, the quartz being decolorized Otto
Lehmann,! 280 ! Retgers,! 281 ] and
RosenbuschI 282 ! extended our knowledge of
organic and inorganic salts diffusely colored
by organic substances. These studies showed
that only in exceptional cases are inorganic
salts colored by organic compounds. Retgers
believing, however that organic substances
are to be generally regarded as the causes
of the colors, with few exceptions. A
totally different standpoint was taken by
WeinschenkJ 283 ! He endeavored to piove the
universally inorganic character of the coloring
agents, assuming, as in glasses colored by
metallic oxides, higher or lower, and in part
hypothetical, oxides for the natural colors.
hi opposition, L. Wohler and Kraatz-
KoschlanI 284 ! energetically maintained
the organic character of the pigments in
a number of minerals. They proved both
qualitatively and quantitatively the presence
I 276 ] Low, "???," Bericht. d. d. Ch. Ges., 14 (1881), p.
1114.
[277] Mcl ssan and Becquerel., "???," Compt. Rend., Ill
(1890), p. 669.
I 278 ] Becquerel., "???," Compt. Rend., 101 (1885), p. 205
[279] porster., "???," Annales des Physique, 143 (1871), p.
171.
I 28 °] Otto Lehmann., "???," Zeitschrift fur Physikalische
Chemie, 8 (1891), p. 543.
I 281 l Retgers., "???," Zeitschrift fur Physikalische Chemie, 12
(1893), p. 600.
I 282 l Rosenbusch., "???," Mikrok. Physiogr. d. Mill., 1892,
p. 210.
[283] Weinschenk., "???," Zeitschrift fur Anorganische
Chemie, 12 (1896), p. 375.
[284] Wohler and Kraatz-Koschlan., "???," Mill, und Petr.
Mitth., 18 (1899), p. 304, 447.
81
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5.1 Color
of carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen in zircon,
smoky quartz, amethyst, celestite, fluorite,
apatite, barite, halite, calcite, microcliue
and topaz, considering the preseuce of an
organic coloring matter established when the
mineral on heating yielded an empyreumatic
odor, gave carbon; dioxide in a current of
oxygen, and showed phosphorescence during
the coloration. SpeziaP 85 ! attributed the
color of brown zircon to a trace of iron an
inorganic substance at the same time admitting
the presence of hydrocarbons, and in a second
paper brought! 286 ] forward further proof of
the inorganic character of the coloring matter,
while WeinschenkI 287 ! also adhered to his
previous views. Wohler and Kraatz Koschlau
were also opposed by NABL,I 288 1 who had
suggested iron sulphocyauatc as the coloring
agent in amethyst; by extended analyses he
had established the preseuce of sulphur and
nitrogen.
A very voluminous literature exists on the
subject of blue halite. It has been collected
with a fair degree of completeness by Focke
aud BruckmoserJ 289 ! Even in this
mineral opinions vary as to the organic or
inorganic character of the coloring matter.
The fact that the blue color can be produced
artificially in several different ways has further
led to different views of the constitution of the
pigment. Various investigators have succeeded
in turning salt blue either by sodium vapor or
by exposure to cathode rays, and this has been
by some attributed to subhaloides, by others to
colloidal solutions of the metal.
Wohler and KasaruowskyI 290 ! have
defended the view that naturally blue halite
contains an organic coloring matter. They
sought for distinctions between the natural and
I 285 ! Spezia., "???," Neues Jahrbuch, 1877, p. 304.
I 286 ! Spezia., "???," Neues Jahrbuch, 1900, (2) 344.
[ 287 1 Weinschenk., "???," Mill, und Petr. Mirth., 19 (1900),
p. 144.
I 288 l Nabl., "???," Sitz-Ber. Akad Wiss Wien, 2 (1899); ibid.,
"???," Mill, und Petr. Mirth., 19 (1900), p. 273.
I 289 l Focke aud Bruckmoser., "???," Mill, und Petr. Mirth.,
25 (1906), p. 43.
[290] Wohler and Kasaruowsky., "???," Zeitschrift fur
Anorganische Chemie, 47 (1905), p. 353.; ibid., "???," Mineral
Collector, 13 (1906), p. 120.
artificially colored salt, and called particular
attention to the difference in the temperature
at which decolorization occurs. Further
indications of the inorganic character of the
color were, however, soon brought forward, and
SlEDENTOPFl 291 ] finally succeeded in deciding
the uncertainty as to whether it was subhalide
or metal, in favor of the latter. With the
aid of a very powerful microscope he found in
both natural and artificially colored halite the
same arrangement and optical character of the
pigment.
J. KonigsbergerI 292 ! repeated the
experiments of Wohler and Kraatz. Koschlau
upon smoky quartz. He established the
presence of minute quantities of carbon dioxide
and water, but obtained only one-tenth the
loss of weight they had found, and attributes
their higher figures to mechanically held
moisture. The coloring substance he considered
as nonvolatile, and therefore thought it by
no means certain that it was a hydrocarbon.
He further cited the work of Lenard and
Klatt,! 293 ! from which it follows that
thermoluminescence is merely phosphorescence
accelerated by heat, and can in no case be
considered a sign of the presence of organic
matter.
Finally Ernst Anton WulfingI 294 ! was
able to reduce the loss of weight during
the decolonization of the smoky quartz by
ignition to .0003 per cent, showing thereby that
isolation of the coloring matter by distillation
is not to be thought of. His most exact
measurements showed, moreover, that the
optical constants were not noticably influenced
by the pigments.
In later years the action of Roentgen,
cathode, and radium rays upon minerals have
been extensively investigated. Kunz and
I 291 ! Siedentopf., "???," Ber. d. deut. Phys. Ges., 3 (1906),
p. 268.
I 292 l J. Konigsberger., "???," Mill, mid Petr. Mirth., 19
(1900), p. 148.
I 293 l Lenard and Klatt., "???," Annaies des Phys., 15.
[294] E rns t Anton Wulfing., "Einiges iiber Mineralpig-
mente," Festschrift H. Rosenbusch, 1906, p. 49-67.
82
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5.1 Color
BaskervilleI 295 ! andLocKHARTl 296 ! studied
the resulting luminescence. MlETHEl 297 !
examined the color changes in precious
stones produced by radium preparations.
CrookesI 298 ! observed that the color of a
diamond embedded in radium bromide changed
to bluish green He considered possible a
superficial change into graphite, and a further
alteration of the color of the entire stone by
the radiation. In the opinion of the author
the color change is probably secondary, arising
from the fluorescence vibrations ptoduced by
the radium.
Furthermore at high temperatures decol-
orized minerals when exposed to radium re-
sume their color, and it is similar to the orig-
inal color only-thus zircon treated in this way
returns brown, amethyst, violet, smoky quartz,
brown, red, tourmaline, red, rose-topaz, oran-
gered. This returned color, superinduced by
the radium rays, disappears in the same way as
the natural original color, and such recoloring
is independent of the gas in which the mineral
may be immersed: finally the nature and state
of the coloring substance is not known.
BerthelotI 2 "] showed that amethyst
decolorized by heating, regains its violet color
on exposure to radium rays. Quartz and
glass containing small amounts of manganese
behaved similarly, and on this account he
referred the color of the amethyst to a slight
manganese-content. The color of smoky quartz,
green fluorite and emerald, not being restored
by these radiations, he considered the coloring
agents of these minerals to be organic.
Observations of the chemical action of
radium and its decomposition products will no
doubt contribute toward the explanation of the
mineral colors at some future date, but yet they
are not established with sufficient certainty to
be of use in this connection.
[z9b\ k u11z anc j Baskerville., "???," Science, new series, 18
(1903), p. 769.; ibid., "???," Mineral Collector, 11 (1904).
[ 1 Lockhart., "???," American Journal of Science, 4th
series, 8 (1905), p. 95.
[297] Miethe., "???," Anuales des Phys., 19 (1906), p. 633,
1906.
[298] Crookes., "???," Zeitschrift fur Krystallographie, 42
(1907), p. 315.
[299] Berthelot., "???," Compt. Rend., 143 (1906), p. 477.
A paper by KARL Simon! 300 ! offered
in 1908 a contribution to the knowledge of
the colors of minerals, contained a variety of
instructive observations. Cornelio Doelter.
wrote an entire monograph on the subject
of color in precious stones, I 301 ! which was
an enlargement of an article he authored on
mineral coloring agents in general. I 302 !
hi the 19th century the colour of
minerals was studied from only two points
of view, namely the absorption of light
and polychroism. Since then, advances in
crystallography have made it possible to relate
the optical properties of minerals to their
crystallochemical properties. A.E. Fer.SMAN
(1937) introduced a distinction between:
1. Idiochromatism, in which the color of the mineral
depends on its chemical composition and the nature
of the atomic bonds in the crystal lattice.
2. Allochromatism, in which the colour of the
mineral is due to the replacement of certain atoms
or ions in the lattice by other atoms or ions of
similar dimensions, or else to the spread of inclusions
through the lattice.
3. Pseudochromatism, in which the colour of the
mineral is due to the dispersion of light by the crystal.
Coloration may vary slightly with the tem-
perature of crystallization and the presence of
foreign substances in the mother liquid. It may
also change when powerful electrical influences
(cathode rays, radio activity, ultraviolet rays)
act upon crystal atoms and ions, to create new
absorption bands. The resulting colors have
been the object of many experimental studies,
particularly by V. Przibram (1927-1953).
Literature
1862 H. Rose., "Ueber blaues Steinsalz" , Zeitschr. d.
deutsch, geol. Gesell, 14 (1862), p. 4-5.
[300J K ar | Simon., "Contributions to our knowledge of
the colors of minerals," Mineral Collector, 15 (1909), no.
11, 165-168 and no. 12, 177-181. [Condensed translation
by Edgar T. Wherry from the original article: "Beitrage
zur Kenntniss der Mineralfarben," Neues Jahrbuch fur
Mineralogie, Geologie und Paleontologie, Beilage-Band, 26
(1908), 249-295.]
[301j Cornelio Doelter., Die Farben der Mineralien insbeson-
dere der Edelsteine. Braunschweig, Sammlung Vieweg, 1915,
96 p., 2 illus. [Reprinted, 1987.]
[3v2\ Cornelius August Doelter. Uber die Natur der Mineral-
farben. Wien, 1915. 15 p. [Reprinted from Sitzungsberichte
der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Mathematisch-
Naturwissenschaftliche Classe (Wien).]
83
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by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
5.1 Color
1866 E. Reichert., "Das Steinsalzbergwerk Stassfurt und
die Vorkommnisse in demselben" , Neues Jahrb., 1866,
321-350.
1866 G. Wyrouboff., "Sur les substances colorantes des
fluorines", Bull. Soc. Chim. Paris, 5 (1866), 334-347.
1871 A. Forster., "Studien fiber die Farbung der
Rauchquarze oder sogenannten Rauchtopase" , Pogg.
Ann., 143 (1871), 173-194.
1881 Otto Low., "Freies Fluor im Flussspath von Wolsen-
dorf," Berichte der deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft,
14 (1881), p. 1144-1146.
1885 Edm. Becquerel., "Etude spectrale des corps rendus
phosphorescents par Paction de la lumiere ou par les
dicharges ilectriques" , Comptes Rendus, 101 (1885),
205-210.
1890 Henri Becquerel et Henri Moissan., "Etude de la
fluorine de Quinc" , Comptes Rendus, 111 (1890), 660-
672.
1891 O. Lehmann., "Ueber kiinstliche Farbung ton
Krystallen", Zeitschr. f phys. Chemie., 8 (1891), 543-
553.
1896 E. Weinschenk., "Die Farbung der Mineralien",
Zeitschrift der deutsches geologischen Gesellschaft, 48
(1896), p. 704-712.
1896 A. Pelikan., "Ueber den Schichtenbau der Kryslalle" ,
T. M. P. M., 16 (1896-7), 1-64, in particular 46-50.
1898 K. v. Kraatz-Koschlau und Lothar Wohler., "Die
natiir lichen Farbungen der Mineralien", T. M. P. M. ,
18 (1898-99), 304-333, 447-468.
1899 J.G. Koenigsberger., "Ueber die farbende Substanz
im Rauchquarz" , Tschermaks mineralogische und
petrographische Mitteilungen, 19 (1899-1900), p. 148-
154.
1899 Arnold Nabl., "Natiirliche Farbung der Mineralien",
T. M. P. M., 19 (1899-1900), 273-276.
1899 Arnold Nabl., "Ueber farbende Bestandteile des
Amethysten, Citrins und gebrannten Amethysten" ,
Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien., 108 (1899), Abth. II, 48-57.
1899 E. Weinschenk., "Natiirliche Farbung der Miner-
alien", T. M. P. M., 19 (1899-1900), p. 144-147.
1903 Carl Ochsenius., "Blaues Steinsalz" , Centralbl. f
Min., 1903, 381-383.
1904 Hans Dudenhausen., "Optische Untersuchungen an
Flussspath und Steinsalz", Neues Jahrb., 1904 (I), 8-
29.
1906 Ernst Anton Wulfing., "Einiges iiber Mineralpig-
mente" (pp. 49-67) in: Festschrift fur Harry Rosen-
busch. Stuttgart, 1906.
1906 Fr. Focke and Jos. Bruckmoser., "Ein Beitrag zur
Kenntniss des blaugefarbten Stein-salzes" , T. M. P.
M., 25 (1906), 43-60.
1910 C. Doelter., Das Radium und die Farben. Dresden,
1910, 133 p.
1911 R. Brauns., "Die Ursachen der Farbung dilut
gefarbter Mineralien und die Einfluss von Radi-
umstrahlen auf die Farbung", Fortschritte der Min.,
Kryst., und Petrog., 1 (1911), 129-140.
5.1.1 Streak! 303 !
REWORK: The streak, or the color of a
powedered mineral, is usually obtained by
scratching the mineral on an unglazed porcelain
streak plate. For some minerals the streak
and color are the same. For others, the streak
[303J purthgj- historical information may be found in: Ul-
rich Rath., Zur Geschichte der pharmazeutischen Mineralo-
gie. Braunschweig, Universitat Braunschweig, 1971. 273 p.
[Published as: Pharmazeigeschichtlicher Seminar der Technis-
chen Universitat Braunschweig, vol. 12. Covers the history of
pharmaceutical mineralogy]
may be quite different from the visible color, as
for example the red-brown streak of hematite,
which is often a gray to silver-gray mineral
in hand specimens. For some species, the
combination of luster, color, and streak are
enough to permit identification of the mineral.
In fact streak is a more reliable indication of the
intrinsic color of a mineral than is its general
appearance, being less influenced by impurities
than by the visible color of the mineral itself.
Apparently using the color of the powdered
mineral as a means of identification is a very old
technique, perhaps because powdered minerals
were used in cosmetics and medicine from a
very early time. The streak of graphite used
in modern pencils is, for example, a practical
application of mineral streak.
Moore notes that in Pliny's description
of Morochites that streak is used as a
diagnostic. I 304 ! Morochites described as
leek colored, but its streak white-for so the
words 'lacte sudat' seem by commentators
generally to be understood- was otherwise
called moroxus; and hence has Karsten derived
his name for asparagus stone, which he calls
moroxiteJ 305 ! This morochites or moroxus
we have already, when speaking of saline
substances, found occasion to consider.
Abraham Gottlob Werner in his
famous Von den dusserlichen Kennzeichen
der Fossilien (1774) uses streak as his
ninth diagnostic tool in his determinative
mineralogy.! 306 ] From Werner's time forward
streak is included in mineral descriptions when
it is appropiate. By the mid- 19 th century,
virtually every textbook of mineralogy gives a
description of the property. Suprisingly, only
a few studies on streak have apparently been
published in the scientific literature.
Other possible sources. Check Oxford En-
glish Dictionary and the Grimm Brothers Dic-
tionary (Strich) . I 307 !
Moore, Ancient Mineralogy, 1834, p. 183.
Pliny, Book 37, 63.
Werner, Von den ausserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien,
[304]
[305]
[306]
1774, §167
1 1 Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm., Deutsches
Worterbuch. Leipzig, S. Hirzel, 1962-70. 16 vols. [Extensive
entomological dictionary of the German language, this is a
84
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
5.2 Specific Gravity and Density
Literature
1901 Jacques Schroeder van der Kolk., "Ueber die Farbe
des ausgeriebenen Strichs des Bornits," Centralblatt
fur Mineralogie, 1901, p. 519. [A note on the streak
color of bornite.].
1901 Jacques Schroeder van der Kolk., "Der Strich
der sogenannt opaken Miner alien," Centralblatt fur
Mineralogie, 1901, p. 75-80. [A study on the streak
of the so-called opaque minerals.].
5.2 Specific Gravity and Density! 308 !
REWORK: Modern science defines the specific
gravity or density of a substance to be the
ratio of its weight in air to its weight in water
at 4° C. (39.2° F.). In other words, it is
the ratio of the weight of any fragment of a
substance to the weight of an equal amount
of water. The specific gravity of a mineral,
provided it is pure and free from inclusions
of solids, liquids, or gases, is a constant
quantity. In isomorphous series, or in minerals
whose chemical composition differs in different
specimens, there is, however, a variation, and
this serves as a means of separation.
Specific Gravity or density is a very useful
feature with which to distinquish minerals
of different types, and in fact is one of
the oldest to be used. If two minerals of
approximately the same size are hefted, it will
become quickly clear to the observer which of
them is heavier, and in this way the specific
gravity of the mineral is being roughly judged.
The density, or specific gravity, of a solid
depends, first, upon the nature of the chemical
substances which it contains, and, second,
upon the state of molecular aggregation. The
specific gravity of a mineral species is a
character of fundamental importance, and is
highly constant for different specimens of the
same species, if pure, free from cavities, solid
inclusions, etc., and if essentially constant in
composition. In the case of many species,
however, a greater or less variation exists in the
chemical composition, and this at once causes a
variation in specific gravity The different kinds
reprint of the original 1854-1959 edition, with the original
title pages.]
[30s] pother historical information may be found in:
R. Davies., "Tables of specific gravities", Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 45 (1748), p.
416-89. [A long list of specific gravities, with a history to
the mid-eighteenth century of the subject.] • E. Hoppe.,
Geschichte der Physik, 1926, p. 14-15.
of garnet illustrate this point; also the various
minerals intermediate between the tantalate of
iron (and manganese) and the niobate, varying
from G. = 73 to G. = 53.
The ancient mathematician and theorist,
Archimedes was once presented with a
problem to determine if an intricate crown was
made from pure gold or was alloyed with some
other lesser metal. At the time, the only way
known to determine if it was pure metal would
be to melt the object down and test the metal.
While taking a bath, he noticed that his mass
displaced a specific volume of water, and he
made the connection that knowing the exact
volume of an object in proportion to its weight
would decisively tell him if the crown was pure
gold. If it was in fact an alloy, the density
of the object would be less than that of pure
metal because the alloying material will have a
density less than that of gold. Legend records
that at the moment of discovery Archimedes
jumped from the tub and ran naked through
the streets shouting "Eureka!" (in Greek: it
is found!). Measurement of density became a
useful tool for determining purity.
In Book 33 of his Histoire Naturalis,
Pliny speaks of quicksilver (mercury) being
the heaviest of all substances, except for gold.
Using the principal of Archimides, Arabic gem
merchants of the Dark and Middle Ages relied
upon specific gravity to determine both the
type of gemstone (for example, distinguishing
between ruby and spinel), and uncovering
imitation stones. I 309 ! Al-BTrunT includes
careful measurements of the specific gravity of
the gemstones and minerals he describes.! 310 ]
In the seventeenth century specific gravity
was recorded for a large number of objects,
including minerals and gemstones. In 1603
Marinus Ghetaldus published a treatise
[309] Eilhard Wiedemann., "Beitrage zur Geschichte
der Naturwissenschaften VIII. Uber Bestimmung der
specifizischen Gewichte," Sitzungsberichte der Physikalisch-
medizinischen Sozietat in Erlangen, 11 (19??), p. 240-257.
[310J "Wiedemann, E., "Arabische specifische Gewichtsbes-
timmnungen," Annalen der Physik, 20 (1883), p. 539-541. ■
Wiedemann, E., "Uber das al-Berunische Gefass zur spez-
ifischen Gewichtsbestimmung," Verhandlungen der deutsche
physikalische Gesellschaft, 10 (1908), p. 339-343. • Wiede-
mann, E., "Verbreitung der Bestimmungen des spezifischen
Gewichtes nach al-Beruni," Beitrage 31, Sitzungsbericht Er-
langen, 45 (1914), p. 31-34.
85
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by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
5.2 Specific Gravity and Density
on the principal of Archimedes, Promotus
Archimedes I 311 ! that contains a comparision
that he made between the specific gravities of
water and eleven other substances.
The Jesuit, Johannes Baptista Villal-
PANDUS of Cordova, Spain published his Appa-
ratus Urbis et Templi Hierosoymitani (Rome,
1604), in which he exhibits a table of pro-
portional weights of the seven metals together
with some other substances. This table was
reprinted several times. I 312 ! In the col-
lected works of Francis Bacon a table of
specific gravities for 78 articles is given in his
"Tabula Coitionis et Expansionis Materiae" . It
was probably prepared about 1620, but was
not published until after its inclusion in his
works. I 313 ! He preformed his measurements
by comparing cubes of the measured substance
against the weight of a cube made of pure gold
of the same size.
GHETALDUS table was the basis for
several other researchers. Edmund Gunter
mentions the specific gravities of several metals,
quoting from Ghetaldus in his postumonous
Description and Use of the Sector (London,
1626), as does WILLIAM OuGHTRED in the
Circles of Proportion (1633) , and D. Henrion
his his Usage du Compas de Proportion (Paris,
1631).
Petitus' L'Usage ou le Moyen de
Pratiquer par une Regie toutes les Operations
du Compas de Proportion. Augmentees des
Tables de la Pesanteur et Grandeur des
Metaux (Paris, 16?????) gives the proportional
densities of the seven metals.
Marinus Mersennus gives a table of
specific gravities of the metals and some
other substances in his Cogitata Physico
Mathematica (Paris, 1644). He calculates pure
gold to be 100, with other materials given in
propotion to that number. For example, water
[311]
Title Needed
1 312 J Joh. Henr. Alstedius., Encyclopaedia Universa.
Herborn, 1630. 2 vols.; Henry Van Etten., Mathematical
Recreations. London, ????, which was itself copied into
other works.
[313] pj-ancjg Bacon., Historia Densi. London, 1741, 2, p.
69.
is given the value 5 1/3.
In 1670, Smethwick, an early member
of the Royal Society of London, communicated
the weights of a cubic inch of several different
substances that are indicated to have been
measured by a Mr. Reynolds in the Tower
of London. This seems to have been the
same Reynolds that published The Secrets of
the Goldsmith's Art (London, 1676), where
in several tables show the price of gold and
si l ver . [3i4]
The Philosophical Society at Oxford
conducted experiments into the specific gravity
of various materials using a hydrostatic
balance, the results from which were placed in
a table and published in the Transactions of
the Philosphical Society of LondonA 315 ^ A
supplement to this table appeared in 1693. I 316 !
Robert Boyle appended a table of
specific gravities of various bodies to his
Medicina Hydrostatica (1st ed., London, 1690).
He used a hydrostatic balance of his own design
in his experiments. Also, in other of his
works from time to time he makes reference
to densities he has measured. Boyle suspected
that stones contained metallic substances that
could not be seen, even with the most
powerful microscopes of the day. To prove
his hypothesis, he turned to determining the
specific gravity of various minerals. Boyle
choose a colorless rock crystal as his normal
precious stone, to which he would compare the
density of all other stones. He determined the
specific gravity by weighing a specimen both
in air and in water (=1.0), and found that
rock crystal, had a density 2 2/3 times that of
water. This result also drew Boyle's attention
to the long held theory that rock crystal was
actually some form of very hard ice. Boyle
believed that he shows conclusively from his
density measurement that because rock crystal,
which is harder than ice, is also much more
dense (rock crystal sinks in water while true
ice floats) that rock crystal was not some
form of ice. This conclusion also lead Boyle
I 314 ! Davies, p. 424-425.
[315J Musgrave, "???," Transactions of the Philosphical
Society of London, no. 169 (1684).
1 316 J John Caswell., "???," Transactions of the Philosphical
Society of London, no. 199 (1693).
86
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by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
5.2 Specific Gravity and Density
to the idea that the harder precious stones
contained metallic particles that might also act
as a coloring agent to the gem. He found
that garnets from America were four times
heavier then water. Thereby he precieved that
colored precious stones which did not exceed
the density of rock crystal, were nonetheless
colored from a metallic substance. Boyle then
observed that ice made from mineral water
were not preceptibly heavier than ordinary
water. Experimenting with opaque stones he
found similar differences in specific weight, and
calculated the density of jet at 1.22, white
marble to be 2.7, magnet at 4.6, hematite
at 5.7, etc. Atypical of his age, Boyle did
not entangle himself in the medical virtues
of stones; however, he did say, that of
the diamonds, rubies, and sapphires, that
were carried in rings, never has any medical
effect been noted, and that many downright
unbelievable stories have been told. I 317 '
In 1699, HOMBERG of the Royal Academy
of Sciences in Paris read a memoir that
showed that bodies expand when hot and
contract when cold. Thereafter, it was quickly
realized that the specific gravities of the same
body could change depending on whether the
measurement was made in summer or winter.
Homberg actually showed that this change did
occur by experimenting on several fluids and
using an insturment he called an Araeometer,
which consisted of a large vial with a long
and slender stem from which he could make
exact measurements. He filled the vial with the
fluids he wanted to measure and showed that
depending on the temperature the density of
the liquid changed. He appended a short table
to his memoire published that year. I 318 !
Appended at the end of John Freind's
PrtBlectiones ChymictE (London, 1709) are a
series of tables listing the specific gravities of
both solid and fluid bodies, made entirely from
the results of his own experimentation. Davies
(1748) considers his trials poorly conducted
with many errors.
The famous English geologist John
\i\l\ Robert Boyle., Essay about the Origine and Virtues of
Gems, London, 1672, p. 80-84.
[31oJ Homberg., Memoires de Academie des Sciences, 1699.
Woodward made a great number of experi-
ments on the specific gravities of minerals and
other solid bodies, but that remained unpub-
lished at his death in 1728. Only occassional
mentions of densities are made in his An At-
tempt Towards a Natural History of the Fos-
sils of England (London, 1729).
The Dutch physicist Peter van Muss-
CHENBROEK included a large table of spe-
cific gravities of solids and liquids in his Ele-
menta Physicce (Leyden, 1734). It was some-
what expanded in the French translation of the
work, Essai de Physique (Leyden, 1739). The
data for the tables was collected from previous
works, without naming the authors cited.
A Fellow of the Royal Society, John
Ellicott had an amazing opportunity in 1745
to weigh 14 large diamonds. Using the best
assay scales available, accurate to l/200th of
a grain, he took the specific gravities of those
stones. Four of them came from Brazil, while
the remaing ten were recovered from the East
Indies. Ellicott sent his results to the Royal
Society, where they were published in the
Transactions.^ 31 ^ Due to the large size of
the stones, and the quality of his equipment, it
was all the easier to calculate their densities at
3.51 as compared to the modern 3.511.
Richard Davies in his "Tables of Specific
Gravities" combines the results of about two
dozen authors into a short series of tables
together with a valuable history of experiments
on density prior to his paper. I 320 !
Abraham Gottlob Werner in his Von
den ausserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien
recommends an accurate determination of the
density when it can be obtained, but otherwise
generally divides the determination of specific
gravity into five divisions: 1. Supernatant, or
the mineral floats on water, 2. Light, 3. Not
remarkably heavy, 4. Heavy, and 5. Very
heavy. This gross determination he explains
is learned from long experience of weighing
specimens by hand.
The accomplishments of RICHARD KlR-
I 319 ! John Ellicott., "???," Transactions of the Royal Society,
1745, no. 476.
[32v\ Rj cnar d Davies., "Tables of specific gravities",
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 45
(1748), p. 416-489.
87
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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5.2 Specific Gravity and Density
WAN in eighteenth mineralogy were impor-
tant. In his important Elements of Mineralogy,
he concentrated on the physical and chemical
properties of a mineral to determine its place-
ment in his classification. Although he uti-
lized all properties available, he did not really
use crystal form saying: "The variation in the
forms of crystallized bodies I will not specifi-
cally examine, especially since I regard them as
very little details." I 321 ! Specific gravity Kir-
wan sought to determine exactly, believing that
it was one of the most accurate properties to
distinguish one mineral from another. For ref-
erence, he utilized the information published by
Mathurin Jacques Brisson in his important
Pesanteur Specifique des Corps (Paris, 1787),
which was considered complete and superior to
all other specific gravity studies. Kirwan in his
examination used a hydrometer of the form in-
vented by William Nicholson (see §14.3.2).
Rene Just Hauy had previously reported
on the usefulness of the instrument in
determining the density of minerals, even
publishing a report on the instrument. I 322 l He
also used an areometer based on Nicholson's
design in his evaluation of specfic gravities that
were incorporated into his mineralogical studies
and published in his Traite de Mineralogie
(1801).
Francois Sulpice Beudant used a
similar device in determing his densities, which
he published in his Traite Elementaire De
Mineralogie (1824). Beudant also published
a study on the measurement of specific
gravity. I 323 l He examines the fluctuations in
the measurements, especially when examining
varieties of mineral species, and attributes the
difference to minute cavities in the specimen.
He suggests grinding the mineral to a powder
[321] p^i c hard Kirwan., Elements of Mineralogy. London,
1794, 1, p. 38-42.
[S2z\ r j Hairy., "Exposition abregee de la theorie sur
la structure des cristaux," Journal d'Histoire Naturelle, 1
(1792), p. 159 ff..; ibid., "Exposition abregee de la theorie
sur la structure des cristaux," Journal de physique, 1793, p.
1.
^ J F.S. Beudant., "Notice sur la pesanteur specifique
des corps, consideree comme caractere mineralogique,"
Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 38, p. 398-411.; German
translation, "Ueber das specifische Gewicht der Korper,
als Kennzeichen der Mineralien," Annalen der Physik
(Poggendorff), 14 (1828), p. 474-484.
before measuring its density to eliminate air
cavities.
Other mineralogists of the nineteenth
century also focused attention on specific
gravity determination.
Wilhelm Haidinger (1825),[ 324 1
In earlier times used of Hessel for
the pumice stone suggested pulverizing the
material before making its specific gravity
determination, are (Leonhard's Taschenbuch
fur Mineralogie, 1825, II, p. 344), supplies in
some cases completely surprising, and anyhow
such results, the very close normal specific
Weight of the substance to represent would be
allowed to do.
Robert Hare (1826),[ 325 l
Although after OsANN and GlRARD that
influence of the capillaritiit small fluctuations
causes, depending on a larger or smaller
quantity of the cut up mineral is weighed.! 326 ]
Between 1841 and 1845 HERMANN Kopp
[??-??] apparently studied the specific gravity
of bodies with particular enthusiasm. He
authored papers on the subject of specific
gravity, I 327 ! as well as a book.! 328 !
T. SCHEERER (1846),[ 329 1
1848: One compares also Gustav Rose's
paper over the errors with that determination
of the specific weight of very finely ground
bodies from which he gives itself that
those much purify chemical precipitation, not
[324] Wilhelm Haidinger., "Account of the specific gravity
of several minerals," Edinburgh Journal of Science, 2 (1825),
p. 67-74.
[325] Robert Hare., "On specific gravity," American Journal
of Science, 11 (1826), p. 121-132.; ibid., "Opinion on
hydrometers," American Journal of Science, 11 (1826), p.
115-119.
[326J Osann and Girard., "???," Archiv fur Mineralogie,
Geognosie, Bergbau und Hiittenkunde (Kastner), 1 (1829), p.
58 ff.
[327J j-[ Kopp., "Ueber die Verhaltnisse zwischen Atom-
gewicht und specifischen Gewicht bei festen und fliissi-
gen Korpern," Liebig, Annal, 40 (1841), p. 173-182.;
ibid., "Uebersicht der Resultate einiger Arbeiten, welche
Regelmaffigkeiten in den specifische Gewichten und den
Siedepuncten chemischer Verbindungen behandeln," Erdm.
Journ. Prak. Chem., 34 (1845), p. 1-36.
L J Hermann Kopp., Uber das spezifsche Gewicht der
chemischen Verbindungen. Frankfurt am Mainz, 1841.
[329J rp^ Scheerer., "Ueber die Bestimmung des specifisen
Gewichtes von Mineralien," Poggendorff 's Annalen, 67
(1846), 120.; idem., Journal, pr. Ch., 24 (1846), 139.
On the History of Mineralogy & Crystallography from Beginnings through 1919
by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
5.2 Specific Gravity and Density
however by mechanical cutting up represented
powders show a higher specifisches weight,
than such the concerned Conies to bodies in
the crystallization. Rose finds however, that
the specific gravity of the powdered mineral
is significantly different than the unground
mineral.! 330 ]
1852: Gustav Adolf KenngottI 331 !
1856: Kohlrauach, Praktische Regeln
zur genaueren Bestimmung des spezifischen
Gewichtes (Marburg, 1856).
1856: Uses one however by Miller in
the years 1856 indicated improvement of this
apparatus, so giebt giebt-er more exact results;
the Modification of the same suggested by
REGNAULT is still more appropriate.
1856: Also Jenzsch describes in an
apparatus and a method for more exact
determination the specific weight. I 332 l
1858: Hugo Schiff [1834-????] gave
occasionally remarks over the influence of
mechanical cutting up of the mass on the
large one the specific weight, and it found
by attempts that the latter fills out usually
more highly, if the mass is finely ground. He
believes the cause of this feature in one, by
the attraction of mass caused compression of
the water at the surface to be able to find the
weighed body. He described his own method
for determining specific gravity. I 333 l
Specific gravity of powdered substances
was investigated at the end of the 18th century.
Leslie suggested determing the specific gravity
by measuring the powdered substance. But
actually SAY had already described the
procedure and invented apparatus to make the
[SSu\ Q us t av R ose , "Ueber die Fehler, welche in der
Bestimmung des specifischen Gewichtes der Korper
entstehen, wenn man dieselben im Zustande der feinsten
Vertheilung wagt," Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff), 73
(1848), p. 403 & 75 (1848), p. 403.
[331] Q \ Kenngott., "Verhaltniss zwischen dem Atom-
gewichte, der Harte und dem specifischen Gewichte
isomorpher Minerale," Wien, Geol. Jahrb., 3 (1852), Heft
4, p. 104-116.
]332J Jenzsch., "Ueber die Bestimung der specifischen
Gewichte," Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff), 99 (1856), p.
151 ff.
[333J j-[ Schiff, "Uber die Bestimmung des specifisches
Gewicht," Annalen der Chemie und Pharmacie., 108 (1858),
p. 29.
measurement.! 334 ] In the paper he described
apparatus and gives a long exercise, but his
accuracy is never great. That is why KARSTEN
could not recommend the procedure. I 335 l
1859: Axel Gadolin indicated a simple
method, which substantially on application one
dares with divided daring bar been based, on
which the sample which can be balanced and
the weight to be shifted can! 336 !
1859: Good remarks over the more exact
determination of the specific weight gave
also Schroder in the introduction to his
paper: I 337 !
1859: Gottfried Wilhelm Osann
[1797-1866] gives a paper on a new method to
determine the weight. I 338 l
[ADD all before 1864: Raimondi, Eckfeld
and Dubois, A. Meyer]
1863: A similar procedure has Tscher-
MAK into that Sitzungsberichten der Kais.
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien, 1863,
suggested.! 339 !
1866: Methods and apparatuses for the
exact determination of specific weights is indi-
cated by Scheer er I 340 ! and Marchand. I 341 l
In 1868, Websky published a system
of mineral classification based principally on
the specific gravity of the mineral species. I 342 l
I 334 l Say., "???," Ann. de Chimie (33, 1797, p. 1
[335] Karsten., "???," Schweigger's Neuem Jahrbuch, 5,
1832, p. 408 f.
[336] a. Gadolin., "Eine einfache Methode zur Bestim-
mung des Specifischen Gewichte der Mineralien," Annalen
der Physik (Poggendorff), 106, 1859, p. 215 ff.; See also,
Sitzungsber. d. W. Ak., 47, p. 11-11.
[337J Schroder., "Neuere Beitrge zur Volumentheorie"
AnnaJen der Physik (Poggendorff), 106, 1859. p. 226 ff.; ibid.,
"Die Volumconstitution einiger Mineralien," Jahrbuch fur
Mineralogie, (1873), 561 & 932; ibid., (1874), 399, etc.
[338] q/\y_ Osann., "Uber Bestimmungen der specifisches
Gewicht fester Korper," Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff),
73, 1848, p. 11-11. ; ibid., "Neue Bestimmungsweise der
specifische Gewicht fester Korper," Annalen der Physik
(Poggendorff), 106, 1859, p. 334 ff.
]339J G U stav von Tschermak, "???," Sitzungsberichten der
Kais. Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Wien, 47 (1863), 292.
I 340 l Scheerer., "Ill," Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff), 67
(1866), p. 120.
I 341 ] Marchand., "???," Journal for prakt. Chemie, 24, p.
139.
[342] 77 Websky, Die Mineralien nach den fur das specifische
Gewicht derselben angenommenen und gefunden Werthen.
Breslau, 1868. 170 p.
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5.3 Cleavage
It never found wide acceptance, however,
and today remains a curious book in the
mineralogical literature.
1879: V. ThouletI 343 !
1880: PisaniI 344 !
1881: ThouletI 345 !
1881: C. Klein! 346 !
In his 1881 dissertation, Viktor Gold-
SCHMIDT mentions his procedure for obtaining
the specific gravity. I 347 !
In 1882 P. GlSEVlUS published a disserta-
tion on the subject of specific gravity and its
determination in minerals. I 348 l In 1885, Gise-
vius also published a further paper on the sub-
ject. I 349 !
Victor Goldschmidt (1886). I 350 !
1886-1888: R. Brauns, Uber die Verwend-
barkeit des Methylenjodids etc. N. Jahrb. f.
Min. 1886, II, 72; 1888, I, 263.
Dolter, Sitzungsber. d. W. Ak., Bd. 85,
S. 47.
In the twentieth century other mineralo-
gists studied mineral densities:
Earl Berkeley (1907), l 351 !
H.E. Merwin (1911),[ 352 1
[343] v Thoulet., "???," Bull, soc. min., 2 (1878), p. 189.
[344J p_ pisani.j "Neues Instrument fur Bestimmungen
der specifisches Gewicht," Zeitschrift fur Krystallographie, 3
(1880), p. 105.
[345] Thoulet., "Bestimmung der specifisches Gewichte
kleiner Mineralfragmenten," Zeitschrift fur Krystallographie,
4 (1881), p. 421.
[346] Klein ; " ???] " BuUi soc min ; 4 (1881), p. 149.
[347J v. Goldschmidt., Verwendbarkeit einer Kaliumquecksil-
ber-jodidlosung bei mineral. Untersuchungen. Dissertation,
Heidelberg 1881. Abstracted in, Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie,
1881, Beilageband I, p. 179 ff.
[34oJ p^ Gj sev j us ^ Beitrage nur Methode der Bestimmung des
specifisches Gewichts von Mineralien und der mechanischen
Trennung von Mineralgemengen. Inaug.-Dissertion, Bonn,
1882. 81 p. [Abstracted in Annalen der Physik, 7 (1883),
no. 5, p. 325-326, and in Ffesenius' Journal of Analytical
Chemistry, 23 (1884), no. 1, p. 51.
[349] p Gisevius., "Methode zur Bestimmung des specifis-
ches Gewicht," Zeitschrift fur Krystallographie, 8 (1885), p.
420.
[350] Victor Goldschmidt., "Ueber das specifische Gewicht
von Mineralien," Verhandlungen Geologischen Reichsanstalt
(Maybe Verhandlungen der Geologischen Bundesanstalt,
Wien, 1886, p. 439-445.
[ 351 J Earl Berkeley., "The more exact determination of
the densities of crystals," Journal of the Chemical Society,
London, 91 (1907), p. 56-62.
[352] pj g_ Merwin., "A method of determining the density
Friedrich Becke (1911), I 353 !
Maurice Billy (1913),[ 354 1
Edgar B. Wastell (1914)J 355 ]
A valuable list of the specific gravities of
minerals that gives minimum and maximum
values was given by Leonhard J. Spencer.
in 1927. I 356 !
5.3 Cleavage! 357 !
Of all the physical characters of a crystal, the
curious property known as "cleavage" is one
of the most easily observed. When struck
with a hammer or pressed with the blade of a
knife, many crystals separate along molecular
planes. For example, mica and gypsum may
be easily split into large sheets of any desired
thickness. Diamond which crystallizes in the
form of an octahedron may also be split or
"cleaved," parallel to each of its eight faces,
thus forming a smaller octahedron. These
cleavage planes, which in diamond are very
pronounced, are often perfectly smooth and
have a brilliance comparable to the natural
crystal faces. Noticed by the ancient Indian
jewelers cleavage was used effectively to help
shape natural diamond crystals into gemstones.
Cleavage is also pronounced in many other
minerals and was probably also known in
of minerals by means of Rohrbach's solution having a
standard refractive index," American Journal of Science,
Series 4, 32 (1911), p. 425-428.
[353] pj-jedrich Becke., "Das spezifisches Gewichte der
Tiefengesteine," Min. Petr. Mitt., Neue Folge, 30 (1911),
p. 475-478.
[354] Maurice Billy., "Methode simple pour determination
la densite des poudres minerales," C.R. Acad. Sci., 156
(1913), p. 1065-1067.
l 355 J Edgar B. Wastell., "Specific gravity differences,"
Chemical News London, 109 (1914), p. 58.
[356] Leonhard J. Spencer., "Specific gravities of minerals:
an index of some recent determinations," Mineralogical
Magazine, 21 (1927), p. 361-365.
[357] pother historical information may be found in:
A. Johnsen., "Die Struktureigenschaften der Kristalle,"
Fortschritte der Mineralogie, Kristallographie und Petrogra-
phie, 3 (1913), p. 93-140. [In this discussion of structural
properties of crystals, the section on cleavage begins with a
short historical introduction.] • M.D. Shappell., "Cleavage
of ionic minerals," American Mineralogist, 21 (1936), no. 2,
p. 75-102. [Contains an interesting history to the subject
in the late 19th and first decades of the 20th century] •
H. Tertsch., "Zur Frage der Spaltbarkeit," Tschermaks min-
eralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen, ?? (1986), p.
13-??.
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5.3 Cleavage
Europe during the Middle Ages, if not earlier.
Galena, a common ore of lead in central
Europe, can be easily split parallel to all its
three pairs of faces and may thus be subdivided
into small cleavage cubes and undoubtedly
would have been easily identified by the Middle
Age miners because of this property.
Starting in the 17 th century, cleavage
angles were measured by researchers, and
although they may have suspected that the
property occurred because of some internal
structure of the crystal, aparently all they
did was record their observations. Robert
Boyle compared the cleavage of diamond with
that of rock salt (halite), I 358 ! and Domenico
GUGLIELMINI recognized that the cleavage
angle of rock salt was always constant. I 359 l
Other minerals which showed a good
cleavage were soon discovered. Antonio
van Leeuwenhoek found that the interfacial
angle of the gypsum cleavage on face (111)
against (100) or (010) was constant at 68°
(compared to the modern 69° 9 1/2'). I 360 !
The common mineral, calcite, which in its
crystallized form can easily be split along
molecular planes, quickly became a favorite
material for cleavage investigations. ERASMUS
Bartholin was the first to show that the
interfacial angle of its fragments was always
constant. In 1669, he measured the angle at
103° 40'J 361 ] In 1690, Christian Huygens
measured the angle at 105°, I 362 ! which was
followed in 1710 by Gabriel de LA Hire's
measurement of 10 5°. I 363 ! A century later, with
better instruments, including the reflecting
goniometer invented in 1809, the angle was
more exactly measured by Etienne Louis
Malus in 1810 at 105° 5', I 364 ! by William
[358] j^ Boyle. , Specimen de Gemmarum Origine. Hamburgi,
1683.
[359] D Guglielmini., Opera Omnia. Genevae, 1719, p. 83.
[360J j^ van Leeuwenhoek., Arcana Naturae Detecta,
Delphis Batav., 1695, p. 124.
]^> 61 J E. Bartholin., Experimenta Crystalli Islandici Disdia-
clastici. Hafniae, 1669.
[362] c fjuygens., Traite de la Lumiere. Leiden, 1690.
[363J q ^ e i a Yiire ., "Observations sur une espece de talc
qu'on trouve communement proche de Paris au-dessus des
bancs de pierre de platre," Memoires de l'Academie Royale
des Sciences, 1710, p. 341-352.
I 364 ! E.L. Malus., Theorie de la double Reflexion. Paris,
WOLLASTON in 1812 at 105° 5', I 365 ! and by
Adolph Theodor Kupffer in 1825 at 105°
4.5'. I 366 !
In the 18 th century during a lengthy
discussion of fracture in minerals, ABRAHAM
Gottlob Werner also includes a section
"On the Form of Fragments" that describes
the cleavage property. He notes that when
broken some minerals separate into one of six
different geometric shapes: cubic, rhomboidal,
pyramidal, cuneiform, scaly, and tabular.! 367 !
He also includes "irregular" as a seventh option,
which serves as a catch all for those minerals
that show no distinct cleavage. Although
Werner observes that the broken fragments
have a geometrical shape to them, in no way
does he relate this to a mineral's crystal form.
In his mind it is simply a mineral diagnostic,
and from Werner's time forward, cleavage was
routinely included in the description of those
minerals that exhibited the property.
Cleavage was one of the few properties
available in the 18 th century that reflected
information about the atomic structure of a
crystal. For a long time it was implicitly
recognized that an interrelationship existed
between the geometrical arrangement of the
molecules of a mineral and the cleavage
it exhibits. Theories of crystal structure
therefore led to attempts to explain cleavage
while similtaneously research on cleavage
gave an understanding of crystal structure.
Nevertheless in spite of attempts to resolve the
problem, the phenomena of cleavage continued
as one of great difficulty to fully understand.
Guglielmini speculated that the cleave
fragments of calcite represented a primitive
polyhedra from which the crystals were built.
Decades later, after his own experimentation,
Christian F. Westfeld concluded that
crystals of calcite were formed from a
1810, p. 98.
[365] w ^ Wollaston., "On the primitive crystals of
carbonate of lime, bitter-spar and iron-spar," Philosophical
Transactions, 1812, p. 159.
[366J j^ rp Kupffer., Preisschrift iiber genaue Messung der
Winkel. Berlin, 1825, p. 65.
[367] A.G. Werner., Von den ausserlichen Kennzeichen der
Fossilien. Leipzig, 1774, p. 227-230.
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5.3 Cleavage
rhombohedral shaped molecule. I 368 ! JoHANN
G. Gahn who was an expert in blowpipe
analysis, worked in the 1760's in the laboratory
of Torbern Olaf Bergman. Together, they
investigated many minerals and crystals, and
sometime during that period they found that
when crystals of Iceland spar (calcite) were
split along their cleavage planes, the resulting
fragments could be reduced to smaller and
smaller rhombohedrons. In 1773, Bergman
published his findings including observations
about cleavage.! 369 ] According to Bergman,
calcite was built from a rhombohedron shaped
nucleus whose surfaces had angles of 101 1/2°
and 78 1/2°. These could easily be discovered
by measuring the cleavage fragments of the
calcite which Bergman said reflected the shape
of nucleus. He goes on to explain how the
hexagonal crystal of calcite can be constructed
from these smaller rhombohedrons. I 370 !
Richard Kirwan suggested that a rela-
tion exists between magnetism and cohesion in
1797. I 371 ! He attributed crystallization and
magnetism to the same physical cause, and the
parting along cleavage planes as a breaking of
a bond similar to a magnetic connection.
In 1784, the property acquired a new
importance with the researches of the Abbe
Rene Just Hauy, who was the first to make
the general observation that all crystals of
the same substance possess the same cleavage.
He was led by this observation to develop a
mathematical theory of crystal structure that
explained all the known facts, and for the first
time set mineralogical science as a whole on a
mathematical foundation.
"The fundamental idea of my whole theory was suggested
to me by an observation which I made upon calcareous
spar in six-sided prisms terminated by two hexagonal faces.
I had noticed that a crystal of this variety, having been
[368] CF Westfeld., Mineralogische Abhandlungen. Gottin-
gen, 1767, p. 50.
[369] rp^ B er g man-; "Variae crystallorum formae a spata
ortae," Nova Acta Regiae Societatis Scientiarum Upsaliensis,
1 (1773), p. 150-155.
[370] yi. Hooykaas., "Torbern Bergman's crystal theory,"
Lychnos, 1952, p. 21-54. • J. A. Schufle., Torbern Bergman.
A man before his time. Lawrence, Kansas, Coronado Press,
1985, p. 328.
[371] yi. Kirwan., "Thoughts on Magnetism," Transactions
of the Royal Irish Academy, 7 (1797), p. 177.
detached by chance from a group, was broken obliquely
across in such a way that the fracture presented a clean
surface, having the luster which may be recognized as
Nature's polish. I then endeavored to obtain from the
same prism sections in other directions, and after several
attempts succeeded in obtaining from each side of the
prism three oblique sections; by new sections parallel
to the first I removed from the center of the prism a
rhomboid precisely similar to Iceland spar. Struck with
this observation, I took other calcareous spars, ... and
I found in them the same rhomboidal kernel which had
been yielded by the prism mentioned above. Similar trials
made upon crystals of several different kinds soft enough
to be smoothly divided gave me kernels which had other
shapes, but of which each was invariable in the same kind
of crystal." I 372 l
Until that time, cleavage was used only as
a deterministic property to distinguish one
mineral species from another. However, Hauy
for the first time explicitly stated that cleavage
was intertwined with the molecular structure
of crystals, and theoretically, its study would
allow the mineralogist to discover ideas about
the arrangement of atoms within the crystal
lattice.! 373 ! Around this central concept
Hauy developed a comprehensive view of
mineralogical science, which was ultimately
published in the important and influential
Traite de Mineralogie (1801).
Cleavage was described by Friedrich
Mohs in his Grundriss der Mineralogie. He
believed that the property was a remarkable
phenomenon of inorganic nature, intimately
related to the mineral species that exhibited
the property. One infers from his discussion
that he believed cleavage integral to the crystal
and was, therefore, a property that would
continue to be exhibited even if the crystal was
microscopic in size. I 374 !
Francois Sulpice Beudant included a
description of cleavage in the first edition of his
own Traite de Mineralogie (1824), and notes
its presence in those minerals that display the
[ 372 1 R.J. Hairy., Essai
crystaux. Paris, 1784, p
I 373 l R.J. Hairy., Essai
crystaux. Paris, 1784, p
d'une theorie sur la structure des
10.
d'une theorie sur la structure des
75.
[374] R Mohs., Grundriss der Mineralogie. Berlin, 1822, 1,
p. 269, 277.
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5.3 Cleavage
property. I 375 ! He notes that in crystallized
minerals that the cleavage displayed by the
interior structure can be totally different than
the external form, and that the property is
most prominent in calcite.
In 1823 Antoine Cesar Becquerel
studied the electrical current created by some
crystals when they are pressed or cleaved. I 376 !
Similar studies later in the century lead to the
recognition of piezoelectricity property (§5.7.3).
In 1835, Moritz Ludwig Frankenheim
theorized that during the formation of a crystal,
interruptions in the crystallization process
could create a layering effect in the molecular
structure and, thereby, contribute to cleavage
planes. I 377 !
Beginning in 1848, Auguste Bravais
published a series of papers in which he first
treated the variety of geometric shapes formed
by points distributed regularly in space and
then applied these ideas to crystals, with
the points representing the centers of gravity
of the chemical molecules or as points of
atomic force. I 378 ! Under this approach,
Bravais developed a method to explain the
cleavage and external symmetry of crystals as a
result of the reticular density of the molecules
inside the crystal. He theorized that cleavage
occurred most easily parallel to the plan of the
greatest point density. Using this model he
calculated relative values for potential planes
where cleavage occurred and ranked them from
strongest to weakest. Just how the atoms or
[375] F g Beudant., Traite de Mineralogie. Paris, 1824, p.
35-39.
[376] a.C. Becquerel., "Sur le developpement de l'electri-
cite par la pression," Annals de Chimie, 22 (1823), p.
5-34.; German translation, "Von einigen durch Driicken
und Spalten der Krystalle hervorgebrachten elektrischen
Erscheinungen," Annalen der Physik (PoggendorfT), 12
(1828), p. 147-152.
I 377 ] M.L. Frankenheim., Cohaesion. Breslau, 1835, p. 325.
[37s[ j^ Bravais., "Les systemes formes par des points
distributes regulierement sur un plan ou dans l'espace,"
Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique, 19 (1850), p. 1-128. [The
paper was presented to the Academy of Sciences on 11
December 1848. There is an English translation of this
"work by Amos J. Shaler, On the Systems Formed by Points
Regularly Distributed on a Plane or in Space published by the
Crystallographic Society of America, 1949.]; ibid., "Etudes
cristailographiques," Journal de l'Ecole Polytechnique, 20
(1851), p. 101-276. The paper was presented to the
Academy of Sciences on 26 February and 6 August 1849.]
molecules were arranged within the unit cells
formed by the space lattice stayed, however, a
matter of conjecture. Because it was known
that the symmetry of the crystal was related to
the pattern of the internal structure, it was not
a stretch to believe that cleavage also developed
from the same structural elements.
When the great German crystallographer
Leonard Sohncke was developing his own
theory of spacial points arranged in crystallo-
graphic patterns, he used his observations of
cleavage to support his work. An early paper
described his investigations into the cohaesion
of crystals of rock salt (halite) along different
directions.! 379 ] While in his later work he
thought cleavage depended upon the breaking
of atomic bonds tangential to where the cohe-
sion was greatest. I 380 ! The assumption being-
made that such layers are more strongly held
together the restult is greater tangentail cohe-
sion inside the layer while the interlayer con-
nections are weaker, thus giving rise to cleav-
age. Judging if Sohncke's application was cor-
rect required knowledge of the crystal struc-
ture. Only in 1914 were Peter Paul Ewald
and WlLHELM Friedrich able to conclude
that this model was correct after examing the
structure of pyrite using the newly invented X-
ray method. I 381 l Johannes Stark took the
model further by considering crystals in which
the atoms can be considered as ions. He consid-
ered cleavage to be the repulsion of similar ions
located on adjacent planes as they approached
each other during the shearing process. I 382 l
In some cases cleavage which is not
ordinarily observed in a mineral may be
developed by a sharp blow or by sudden change
of temperature. Quartz is, for example, usually
free from obvious cleavage but a quartz crystal
[379J l_ Sohncke., "Ueber die Cohasion des Steinsalzes in
krystallographisch verschiedenen Richtungen," Annalen der
Physik (PoggendorfT), 213 (1869), p. 177-200.
[3S0J j^ Sohncke., "Ueber Spaltungsflachen und naturliche
Kristallflachen," Zeitschrift fur Kristallographie, 13 (1887), p.
214-235.
[381] p_p E wa }d and W. Friedrich., "Rontgenaufnahmen
von kubischen Kristallen, insbesondere Pyrit," Annalen der
Physik, 4 (1914), p. 1183-1184.
[382] j stark., "Neuere Ansichten fiber die zwischen- und
innermolekulare Bindung in Kristallen," Jahrbuch der Rad.
und Elek., 12 (1915), p. 279-296.
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5.3 Cleavage
heated and plunged into cold water often
separates along planes to form both the positive
(+) and negative (-) rhombohedrons and to the
prism as well.
In 1886 Johannes Georg Lehmann
discusses cleavage and parting planes in various
minerals, including quartz, I 383 ! while John
Wesley Judd examined the property in
quartz specifically. I 384 ! Quartz cleavage
was also studed in 1890 by Francois Ernest
Mallard. l 385 l
Other minerals were investigated as well.
Alexander Sadebeck treats the property
in an 1876 paper that covers cleavage shapes,
the condition of the cleave surface, relationship
between cleavage and crystal form, and glide
planes for a number of species. I 386 ! SAMUEL
P ENFIELD describes the perfect of cleavage of
topaz in his study of the mineral.! 387 ] The two
perfect cleavages of calcite and how to obtain
them were studied by Georges Friedel in
1902.I 388 !
The Italian crystallographer CARLO VI-
OLA investigated aspects of cleavage in a vari-
ety of minerals, I 389 ! while Her mann Tertsch
concentrated his investigation to cleavage ob-
served in minerals that crystallized in the trig-
onal and hexagonal system. I 390 ! Many crystals
[383\ j q Lehmann., "Contractionsrisse an Krystallen,"
Zeitschrift fiir Kristallographie, 11 (1886), p. 608-613.;
Abstracted in: Naturwissenschaftliche Rundschau, 2 (1886),
no. 11, p. 87.
[384] J.W. Judd., "On the development of a lamellar
structure in quartz crystals by mechanical means,"
Mineralogical Magazine, 8 (1888), p. 1-9.
[385] pg Mallard., "Sur les clivages du quartz," Bulletin
Societe Mineralogie France, 13 (1890), p. 61-62.
[386] A Sadebeck., "Uber die Teilbarkeit der Krystalle,"
Schriften des Naturwissenschaftlichen Vereins fiir Schleswig-
Holstein (Berlin), 1876, p. 29-47.
[387J g Penfield., "Zusammensetzungen der Topas. Be-
ziehung zu physikalische Eigenschaften," Zeitschrift fur
Kristallographie, 23 (1894), p. 262-271.
[388] q pj-iedel., "Sur deux clivages de la calcite," Bulletin
de la Societe Francaise de Mineralogie, 25 (1902), p. 113-115.
[See also J. Donnay et al., "Various modes of attack in
crystallographic investigations ," American Mineralogist, 19
(1934), p. 437-458.]
[389] q Viola., "Beitrag zur Lehre von der Spaltbarkeit
der Krystalle," Neues Jahrbuch fiir Mineralogie, 1902, I, p.
9-23.
[390] H. Tertsch., "Spaltbarkeit und Structur im trigonalen
und hexagonalen Systeme," Zeitschrift fiir Kristallographie,
of this type were exceptional because they did
not strictly follow Bravais' theory of structure
and cleavage, and Tertsch records those excep-
tions he has encountered.
William Barlow considered the prob-
lem of the internal structure of crystals from
the point of view of a physical model, where the
atoms in a crystal behaved like small spheres
that packed themselves into as tight a volume
as possible. I 391 ! After examining the issues
of packing identical sized spheres or atoms, he
attempted to model the structure that was cre-
ated by packing of spheres of different sizes,
which were probably necessary for the arrange-
ment of atoms in simple binary chemical com-
pounds. He accepted that cleavage was a condi-
tion that broke the atomic bonds between par-
ticles and used experimental observations of the
property to strenghten his theoretical model.
It was becoming clear that a great deal of
information about the internal arrangement of
chemcial molecules could be inferred from how
cleavage developed in crystals. In 1904 a few
years before X-ray analysis was invented JACOB
BECKENKAMP wrote on cleavage and molecular
structure. I 392 ! Years later, after X-ray
analysis was fully established, he retuned to the
subject when he presented his theory of atomic
structure and its relationship to cleavage in
crystals. I 393 l Now Beckenkamp's treatment
is a combination of the theories of Sohncke and
Stark.
It was in 1912 with the introduction of
X-ray analysis that the most profound impact
on understanding the arrangement of atoms in
minerals. Conversely, the overlay of cleavage
planes on crystal structures began to be studied
by mineralogists. Hermann Tertsch looked
at the question of cleavage and matched the
property to geometric planes contained in the
47 (1909), p. 56-74.
[391] "\y_ Barlow., "A Mechanical Cause of Homogeneity of
Structure and Symmetry," Proceedings of the Royal Dublin
Society, new series, 8 (1897), 527-690.
[J J. Beckenkamp., "Beziehg. der Spaltbarkeit zur
Molekularstruktur," Zeitschrift fiir Kristallographie, 39
(1904), 2 p.
[393] J. Beckenkamp., "Atomanordnung und Spaltbarkeit,"
Zeitschrift fiir Kristallographie, 58 (1923), p. 7-39.
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5.4 Luminescence
Bravaisian lattice strucutureJ 394 ] MAURICE
L. HUGGINS in 1923 matched the observed
cleavage planes of several minerals to the
atomic structure derived from their X-ray
analysis. I 395 l Of the several minerals examined
there were included diamond and sphalerite.
He concluded that the new crystal surfaces
that resulted from cleavage must be electrically
neutral, that weak atomic bonds would rupture
in preference to strong bonds, and that when all
bonds were equally strong, the plane of cleavage
would break the fewest bonds per unit area. In
a comprehensive study published in 1936, M.D.
SHAPPELL explored the reasons that cleavage
occur in ionic minerals.! 396 ]
Through out most of the 19 th century,
cleavage was only included in the description
of a mineral if the species in question exhibited
the property. However, in 1892, with the
publication of the sixth edition of Dana's
System of Mineralogy by EDWARD SALISBURY
DANA, cleavage became a standard diagnostic.
Every mineral Dana listed now included a
description of its cleavage, even if the species
did not exhibit one. So influential was the
sixth edition that every handbook after it that
gave any meaningful description of minerals
also includes cleavage as a physical property for
each of the species. I 397 !
Testing Apparatus
Suprisingly, no attempts were undertaken to
create a standard measure of a crystals ability
to cleave until the 20 th century. Through
out the history of mineralogy, the property
was given in the description of minerals as
perfect, distinct, non-distinct, nonexistant,
etc. It was not until Hermann Tertsch
[394J H. Tertsch., "Zur Frage der Spaltbarkeit," Tschermaks
mineralogische und petrographische Mitteilungen, 35 (1921), p.
13-30.; ibid., "Bemerkungen zur Spaltbarkeit," Zeitschrift
Fiir Krystallographie, 65 (1927), p. 712-718.
[395J M L_ Huggins., "Crystal cleavage and crystal
structure," American Journal of Science, 5th series, 5 (1923),
p. 303-313.
[S9b\ jyj j-j Shappell., "Cleavage of ionic minerals,"
American Mineralogist, 21 (1936), no. 2, p. 75-102. [Contains
an interesting history to the subject in the late 19th and
first decades of the 20th century]
[397\ j^ recen t example is contained in John W. Anthony,
Richard A. Bideaux, et al., Handbook of Mineralogy.
Tucson, Arizona, 1990-2003. 5 vols.
in the 1930's that any attempt was made
to develop a standard method to test the
cohesion of crystals. I 398 l Using a guillotine-
like machine that could apply a measured
pressure along a thin line of a mineral plate
placed beneath, Tertsch tested the cleavage of
sample. With this device the same conditions
could be reproduced on a variety of minerals
and determine the exact amount of pressure
required to cause cleavage. However, few other
researchers followed in his footsteps, I 399 ! and
the property generally remains a measurement
of relative values.
Tertsch's Cleavage Tester. (1930)
5.4 Luminescence! 400 ]
[398J jlj Tertsch., "Einfache Kohasionsversuche I," Zeit-
schrift fiir Kristallograpriie, 74 (1930), p. 476-500.;
ibid., "Einfache Kohasionsversuche II," Zeitschrift fur
Kristallographie, 78 (1931), p. 53-75.; ibid., "Einfache
Kohasionsversuche III," Zeitschrift fiir Kristallographie, 81
(1932), p. 264-274.
[S99\ q p renze ] ^ "Cleavage in pyrite," American Miner-
logist, 52 (1967), p. 994-1005. [Includes a picture of a
machine similar to Tertsch's to make his measurments of
cleavage.]
[400j pother historical information may be found in:
M.C. Goldberg and E.R. Weiner., "The science of
luminescence," (pp. 1-22) in: M.C. Goldberg and E.R.
Weiner., Luminescence applications in biological, chemical,
environmental, and hydrological sciences. Denver, ACS
Symposium Series, 1989. [Gives a short history of
luminescence.] • E. Harvey, A history of luminescence,
from earliest times until 1900. Philadelphia, American
Philosophical Society, 1957. xxiii, [1], 692 p., plates. •
Edmund Hoppe., Geschichte der Physik, p. 295-301. •
John Rakovan and Glenn Waychunas., "Luminescence in
minerals," Mineralogical Record, 27, (Jan., 1996), p. 7-19. •
W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of physical crystallography"
(pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of
crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
95
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5.4 Luminescence
REWORK: Luminescence is the non-thermal
emission of visible light by a substance. The
emission of visible light by minerals in response
to irradiation by ultraviolet light is a prime
example. The principal mechanism for most
types of luminescence is essentially the same,
that is, the interaction of incident energy with
electrons in a solid. One of the great scientific
discoveries of this century is that the electron
energy levels within an atom can have only
discrete, specific values; that is, they are
quantized. Because these energy levels have
discrete values, the energy differences between
levels are also quantized, and this provides
the basis for explaining the mechanisms of
luminescence in minerals.
There are numerous varieties of lumines-
cence. Those produced by exposure to incident
energy or radiation sources are distinguished
by the type of incident radiation. Of the var-
ious types of luminescence two have had the
greatest use by mineral enthusiasts and pro-
fessional mineralogists. These are photolumi-
nescence and cathodoluminescence. The pri-
mary reason for their popularity is the relative
ease of producing ultraviolet light (for fluores-
cence) and an electron beam (for cathodolumi-
nescence) .
John Rakovan and Glenn Waychunas.,
"Luminescence in minerals," Mineraiogicai Record,
27, (Jan., 1996), p. 7-19.
The detailed summary of some key
elements in the history of luminescent studies
in minerals is well presented in the following
books and reviews:
Walker G (1985) In: Berry F, Vaughan
D (eds) Chemical bonding and spectroscopy in
minerals chemistry. University of Birmingham
Waychunas, G., "Luminescence, X-Ray
Emissionand New Spectroscopies," (pp. 638-
698) in: F.C. Hawthorne, ed., Spectroscopic Methods
in Mineralogy and Geology. Mineraiogicai Society of
America, 1989. [Published as part of the series,
Reviews in Mineralogy, Volume 18.]
Leonard J. Spencer! 401 )
Gorobets B, Portnov A, Rogojine A
(1995) Radiation Measurements 24: 485-49.
[electronic resource]
Nasdala L, Gotze J, Hanchar J, Gaft
M, Krbetschek M (2004) In: Biran A,
Lubowitzky E (eds) EMU Notes in Mineralogy,
Spectroscopic Methods in Mineralogy vol 6,
Chapter 2, pp 43-91.
Tarashchan, Arkadii Nikolaevich. (1978)
Liuminestsentsiia mineralov. [Luminescence of
minerals]. Kiev, Naukova Dumka, 1978. 296 p.,
illus. (in Russian) A classic, comprehensive
treatise on luminescence, unfortunately not
available in English translation, is the book
Luminescence of Minerals by Tarashchan
(1978) [DLC QE369.06 T37].
Gorobets and Rogojine (2001) Lumines-
cent Spectra of Minerals, contains a systematic
compilation of luminescence spectra of miner-
als and also contains a summarization of the
main achievements in the field upto 2000.
A good bibliography is in : Michael
Gaft and Reiiata Reisfeld., Modern luminescence
spectroscopy of minerals and materials. Berlin; New
York, Springer, c2005. xvi, 356 p., illus.
M. Robbins (1983) The collectors book
of fluorescent minerals. New York, Van
Nostrand, 1983. 289 p.
Cathodoluminescence observations of min-
erals and gems date back to the early work
of Crookes (1879), who conducted spectral
and polarization experiments. The book by
Marshal (1988) cover its history and applica-
tions. [402]
D.R.Vi]., Luminescence of Solids. 1998. XV, 427
p. : ill. [QC476.5 .L86 1998]
Nalwa, Hari Singh and L.S. Rohwer.,
Handbook of luminescence, display materials,
and devices. Stevenson Ranch, Calif.,
American Scientific Publishers, c2003. 3 vols.
Curie, Daniel., Luminescence in crystals.
London, Methuen; New York, Wiley, 1963.
332 p., illus. [535.35 C975, tG2]
Galanin, M.D., Luminescence of molecules^
and crystals. Cambridge, England, Cambridge
[401] l j Spencer., "Fluorescence of minerals in ultra-
violet rays," Nat. Hist. Mag (British Mus.), 1 (1928), p.
291-298.
[402] Y) J. Marshall., Cathodoluminescence of geological
materials. Boston, Unwin Hyman, 1988. 146 p. [QE431.5
.M365 1988]
96
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5.4 Luminescence
International Science Publishing, 1996. 130 p.,
illus. [QC476.5 .G34 1996]
Leverenz, Humboldt W., An introduction
to luminescence of solids. New York,
Dover Publications [1968]. xxii, 569 p.,
illus. [ QC476.5 .L38 1968; "An unabridged
and corrected republication of the work first
published in 1950 ... The author has written a
preface to the Dover edition, and a new Early
history of luminescence . . . and has replaced the
periodic chart with a new one."]
T.C. O'Haver., "The development of
luminescence spectrometry as an analytical
tool," Journal of Chemical Education, 55 (1978), p. 423-
428.
Malley, Marjorie., "Thermodynamics and
Cold light," Annals of Science, 51 (1994), p. 203-
224. ['During the late 19th century, interest
in thermodynamics led to several attempts
to apply it to the puzzling phenomena of
phosphorescence and fluorescence. These
efforts reveal the pervasiveness of heat concepts
for both experimental and theoretical physics of
the period.'.]
5.4.1 Phosphorescence! 403 !
REWORK: The oldest known written observa-
tions on bioluminescent phenomena in nature
were made in China, dating roughly from 1500
to 1000 B.C. regarding fireflies and glow-worms;
however, no effort was directed at understand-
ing and applying knowledge of such phenomena
until the full flowering of alchemy in Europe
during the 16th and 17th centuries. Aristote-
les' (Greek: ???????) is the first to remark that
Holzschwamm, sheds of fish the ability have de-
caying meat to shine in the dark.
Later still special cases are probably
communicated, but this characteristic seemed
to be only with organic bodies. With
inorganic substances phosphorescence was first
mentioned in 1612 by La Galla in De
Phaenomenis into Orbe Lunae, 1612. I 404 !
1640: Fortunio Liceti, Litheosphorvs,
Sive De Lapide Bononiensi, a phosphorescent
barite is described. A work on the
phosphorescent stone of Bologna. Kopp says
that the first chemical preparation known to
show phosphorescence was a paste made from
a barite found near Bologna, and that it
was described in this book. This is the
most comprehensive 17th century work on the
subject, and at the same time it is the least
scientific approach. In the 55 chapters there is a
detailed account of the various names by which
the Bolognian stone was known, its discovery,
the places where it occurred, and an attempt
at explanation of its luminescence.
1665: Boyle suggests at least that first of
Kircher (Mundus subterraneus, 1665, p. 210)
described sea lights with the observations of the
Aristoteles in connection of conditions (Phil,
mentioned above. Trans. 59, p. 450).
1671: A. Kircher described in detail
the manufacture of artificial phosphor from the
Bologian stone. I 405 ! He means, air contains
a fine vapor, which can be illuminated easily;
from this vapor aspirate the stone and radiate
then in the dark one this up-sucked light.
1698: The first chemical investigation
of the Bolognian stone, which is however
incomplete, was made by LuiGl MarsigliI 406 !
In the meantime however different were
"Phosphore " discovered 1676 observed spades
pool of broadcasting corporations shining the
vacuous tree in the Quecksilberbarometer
when vibrating and called the same Merkurial
phosphorus. I 407 ! Only Hauksbee (f 1713)
showed that this did not have to do anything
with phosphorescence.! 408 ]
Balduin made in 1675 an artificial
phosphorus of Kalkerde and nitric acid, which
when it was no longer in contact with air lost
its phosphoresce, therefore to be hermetically
[ ' Further historical information may be found in: E.
Harvey., A history of luminescence, from earliest times until
1900. Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1957.
xxiii, [1], 692 p., plates. • Edmund Hoppe., Geschichte
der Physik, p. 298-301. * W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of
physical crystallography" (pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria,
ed., Historical atlas of crystallography. New York, Elsevier,
1990.
[404] L a G a n a _ 5 De phaenomenis into orhe lunae. 1612.
[405] A Kircher, Acre de Magna. 1671, p. 18.
[406] L Marsigli., Acta Erud., 1698, p. 148.
I 407 ! Hist. Paris II, p. 202, 1733.
I 408 ! Hauksbee, Phil. Trans. 1705, No. 303, p. 2129, and
1706, No. 307, p. 2277, 2327).
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5.4 Luminescence
locked kept had. I 409 ! Balduin wanted to
make gold, the same goal that Brandt had.
He made a real phosphorus from the urine,
1669/77. I 41 °]
Oldenburg (1705) described the lumines-
cence of fluorite, CaF2, on heating. I 411 l
Charles-Francois De Cisternai Du
Fay (1698-1739) rediscovered the observation
first made by Albertus Magnus that some
diamonds would shine in the dark. I 412 l hi 1730
he returned to the subject, phosphorescence,
with a memoir of great importance in the
development of his method. he noted
that some limestones, marbles, and gypsums
phosphoresced.! 413 ] He also found
the property with some emeralds and other
jewels. I 414 l
Chemists had long been acquainted with
a few minerals which, like the Bologna stone
(BaS) and Balduin's hermetic phosphor (CaS),
glowed after exposure to light. Great mystery
surrounded these expensive and supposedly
rare substances. Dufay detested mysteries
and held as a guiding principle that a given
physical property, however bizarre, must be
assumed characteristic of a large class of
bodies, not of isolated species. He set about
calcining precious stones, egg and oyster shells,
animal bones, etc., most of which became
phosphorescent; indeed, he found that almost
everything except metals and very hard gems
could be made to shine like Bologna stones. He
gave clear recipes for producing the phosphors
and patiently examined the endless variations
in their colors and intensities: "How differently
bodies behave which seemed so similar, and
how many varieties there are in effects which
seemed identical!" This line of work ended
in 1735, with a study of the luminescence
[409] Baidujnj aurum superius etc. et phos phos-phorus
hermeticus, 1675).
I 410 ! Brandt., Miscel. Berolin., I, p. 91.
[411] Oldenburg, H. (1705). Four sorts of factitious shining
substances. Philos. Trans. Abr. 3, 345-346.
I 412 ] Albertus Magnus., Opera. Lyon, II, 4.
[413] c__p_ Tj u Fay., "Memoire sur un grand nombre de
phosphores nouveaux," Memoires de VAcademie des Sciences
(Paris), 1730, p. 524-535.
[414] p a y_ 5 Memoires de VAcademie des Sciences (Paris).
Paris, 1734/36, p. 503.
of gems. Dufay distinguished excitation by
friction, by heat, and by light, and tried to find
some general rules of their operation; but the
phenomena proved altogether too complex, and
he established little more than that diamonds
usually can be excited in more ways than lesser
stones. (DSB) In 1735 Dufay wrote on the
luminence of diamonds.! 415 ]
A number of works appeared in the
18 th century that described phosphorescent
substances that exhibited the property under
certain circumstances. I LIFT LANE [1734-
1807] observed in 1764 that marble was made
to phosphorescence by an electrical spark. I 416 !
Placidus Heinrich (1758-1825) summa-
rized all the previous investigations imple-
mented until that time in a large work that
covered light generation and phosphorescence
that was published as Die Phosphorescenz der
Korper (4 vols., 1811-1820). He gives therein a
sequence of the phosphorescing bodies, of the
best, the fluor-spar, lime inter etc. up to the
Marienglas. The first section deals with phos-
phorescence from light, the second treats ther-
moluminescence, the third light from plants
and animals, the fourth, luminescence from me-
chanical means, and the five light from chemical
reactions. In 1840 Heinrich made the discovery
that a phosphorescing body, which had lost its
phosphorescence by heating regained the abil-
ity through exposure to a powerful the electri-
cal spark.! 417 !
From V. Grotthuss examines the con-
ditions, under which the bodies phosphoresce;
some had this characteristic only in presence
of oxygen, primarily are that the organic Phos-
phore. Furthermore he finds that the jets are
most suitable from blue to deep into the ultra-
violet. I 418 l V. GrotthuB already dedicated a
longer investigation in a larger number of work
E examined. I 419 l
In 1830 T.J. Pears all observed that col-
[415] c__p_ J3 U Fay, "Recherches sur la lumiere des
diamants et de plusieurs autres matieres," Memoires de
VAcademie des Sciences (Paris), 1735, p. 347-372.
I 416 ! Lane., Phil. Trans. 56, p. 107.
I 417 l Pogg. Ann. 49, p. 544.
[418] Grotthufi., Schweigg. Journ., 3, 1811; 14, p. 133,1815.
[419] y. GrotthuB., Schweigger to this behavior. Journ.
1814.
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5.4 Luminescence
orless fluorite could be colored by discharging
sparks from a Leyden jar against it. I 420 !
Heinrich Rose l 421 l
G.G. Stokes! 422 !
Edmond Becquerel! 423 !
A. Forster! 424 !
A. Forster investigated the ef-
temperature had on phosphores-
1835:
1852:
1859:
1867:
1871:
feet high
cence.I 425 !
In 1874 Daniel Hahn published his dis-
sertation on the subject on the phosphorescence
of minerals. I 426 !
hi 1859 E. BECQUEREL investigated phos-
phorescence and his results are summarized in
a series of papers. I 427 ! of his in summary in La
lumiere, SA cause et ses effets (1867). In it also
the experiments are to the proof that the color
of the phosphorus light with the temperature
[ UJ T.J. Pearsall., "On the effects of electricity upon
minerals which are phosphorescent by heat," Journal of
the Royal Institution, 1 (1830), p. 77-83. • ibid., "Further
experiments on the communication of phosphorescence
and colour to bodies by electricity," Journal of the
Royal Institution, 2 (1830), p. 267-281. • ibid., "Ueber
die Wirkung der Elektricitat auf die bei Erwarmung
phosphorescirenden Mineralien," Annalen der Physik, 20
(1830), p. 252-260.
[421] j-[ Rose., "Uber die Lichterscheinungen bei der
Krystallbildung," Annalen der Physik, 35 (1835), p. 481-485,
52 (1836), 443-464, 585-600, and Ann. de Chim. et Phys., 61
(1841), p. 288-293.
[422] q q Stokes., "On the change of refrangibility of
light," Philsophical Transactions, 142 (1852), p. 463-562 and
143 (1853), p. 385-396.
] 42 ^>J E. Becquerel., "Recherches sur divers effets lumineux
qui resultent de Paction de la lumiere sur les corps" (1st,
2nd and 3rd Memoires), Ann. de Chim. etPhys., 55 (1859),
p. 5-119; 57, p. 40-124.
[424] j^ Forster., "Ueber Darstellung kunstlicher Leucht-
steine," Mitteilungen der naturforschenden Gesellschaft in
Bern, 1867, p. 62-131.; ibid., "Ueber Darstellung kunstlicher
Leuchtsteine," Annalen der Physik, 133 (1868), p. 94-121,
228-258.
[425] j^ Forster., "Notiz zur Kenntniss der Phosphorescenz
durch Temperaturerhohung," Annalen der Physik, 143
(1871), p. 658-660.
[426] Y) Hahn., Die Phosphorescenz der Mineralien. Witten-
berg, 1874. 37 p.; ibid., "Die Phosphorescenz der Miner-
alien," Zeitschrift fur die Gesammt. Wissenschaften (Berlin),
9 (1874), p. 1-37, 131-213.; Abstracted English translation,
"On the phosphorescence of minerals," Edinburgh Geologi-
cal Society, Transactions, 3 (1880), p. 41-49.
[427] g Becquerel., "Recherches sur divers effets lumineux
qui resultent de Paction de la lumiere sur les corps" (1st,
2nd and 3rd Memoires), Ann. de Chim. et Phys., 55 (1859),
p. 5-119; 57, p. 40-124.
varies. Above all crosswise eischen investiga-
tions interest those from this Bee, which refer
to the time and "fading away " shining after the
exposure (L.C., p. 244). He also showed within
a short time the law of phosphorscening bodes:
at longer duration it fails perfectly against it.
Likewise the law that the Phoephoreszenz color
is less brechbar than the exciting, is only one
rule, also the exceptions has.
In the 19th century, Becquerel showed
that phosphorescence in solids is due to the
presence of finely dispersed foreign substances.
Since then, numerous workers have studied the
luminescence of crystals under the action of
ultra-violet radiation, cathode rays, X rays and
a, p and y radiation. He made a detailed
study of phosphorescence and fluorescence, two
phenomena with which physicists had long
been familiar. With a special instrument, the
'phosphoroscope', he showed that the duration
of phosphorescence varies from substance to
substance, and suggested that fluorescence is
simply phosphores cence of very short duration.
Subsequent investigations fully proved the
justice of his view.
Becquerel designed for his measurements
his own phosphoroskope, which is still used to
this day. I 428 ! This led to further improvements
in the phosphoroskope, particularly by the
installation of a special engine. Wiedemann in
order particularly to use as source of light the
electrical spark, I 429 ! while Lenard designed a
very simple phosphoroskop.! 430 !
It was in the papers mentioned above sev-
eral times the question was raised, whether the
phosphorescence occurs substantially by the
heating up, there also the Eeibung (particu-
larly with the phosphorus) the phosphorescence
to excite can. This question decided Kirchhoff
there occasionally its famous work on the solar
spectrum (see below) already that phosphoresc-
ing is not a pure effect of the warmth, but by
changes in the body is brought out. I 431 !
1885: Becquerel E. (1885, 1886) Etude
spectrale des corps rendus phosphorescents par
[428] E Becquerel., ?????, p. 249.
I 429 ! Wiedemann., (Wied. Ann. 84, p. 450, 1888).
I 43 °] Lenard., (Wied. Ann. 46, p. 634, 1892.
I 431 ! Kirchhoff., Abh. Berlin, 1861, p. 38).
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5.4 Luminescence
Taction de la lumiere ou par des decharges
electriques. Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci.
Pr. 101, 205-210. Action du manganese sur
le pouvoir de phosphorescence du carbonate
de chaux. 103, 1098-1101. Observations on
Iceland spar. E. Becquerel (1885), in a study
of cathode rays, found that when crystals
were bombarded by cathode rays they became
coloured and also emitted light. I 432 '
Since by all attempts over fluorescence
and phosphorescence it had shown up that
the cause of this light sending is not rise in
temperature, then E. Wiedemann suggested
for all light sending, which was independent
of the rise in temperature more or less, to
the name luminescence and wants, if exposure
arranged the luminescence, Photolumineszenz
for designation to then use, according to
Elektrolumineszenz etc. (Wied. Ann. 34, p.
446, 1888).
Goldstein (1894) showed that ultraviolet
light has the same effect as cathode rays. I 433 !
Holtzknecht (1902) showed that X-rays
produce colouration in various crystals. I 434 l
The phosphorescence of zinc sulfide under
X-ray bombardment was discovered in 1903,
independently by CrookesI 435 ! and Elster &
Geitel.Kse]
hi 1910 the subject was written up in
Radium and Colour by Doelter in his Radium
and ColourM 37 ^
Rontgen (1921) determined the absorption
spectra of coloured crystals and also their
photoconductivity. I 438 l
[432] Becquerel, E. (1885). Etude spectrale des corps
rendus phosphorescents par Paction de la lumiere ou par
les decharges electriques. C. R. Acad. Sci. 101, 205-210.
[433] Goldstein, E. (1894). Uber die Einwirkung von
Kathodenstrahlen auf einige Salze. Sitzungsber. K. Preuss.
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, pp. 937-945.
I 434 l Holtzknecht, G. (1902). Ueber die Erzeugung von
Nachfarben durch Rontgenstrahlen. Verh. Dtsch. Phys.
Ges. 4, 25-28.
[435] Crooks, W. (1903). The emanations of radium.
Proc. R. Soc. London Ser. A, li, 405-408.
I 436 ! Elster, J. & Geitel, H. (1903). Uber die durch ra-
dioaktive Emanation erregte scintillierende Phosphoreszenz
der Sidot-Blende. Phys. Z. 4,439-440.
I 437 ! Doelter, C. (1910). Radium and Colour. Dresden.
I 438 l Rontgen, W. C. (1921). Uber die Elektrizitatsleitung
in einigen Kristallen und uber den Einfluss einer
Bestrahlung darauf. Ann. Phys. (Leipzig), 64, 1-192.
1956: Przibram published a comprehen-
sive survey under the title Irradiation Colours
and Luminescence.
There are many comprehensive references
in the literature listing minerals that luminesce:
HENKEL, G. (1989) The Henkel Glossary
of Fluorescent Minerals.
ROBBINS, M. (1994) Fluorescence, Gems
and Minerals Under Ultraviolet Light. Geo-
science Press, Inc., Phoenix., 1994.
Literature
1874 Daniel Halm., "Die Phosphorescenz der Mineralien,"
Zeitschr. Gesammt. Naturwiss., 9 (1874), p. 1-37,
131-213. Abstracted English translation, "On the
phosphorescence of minerals," Edinburgh Geol. Soc.
Trans., 3 (1880), p. 41-49.
5.4.1.1 The Bologna Stone! 439 !
REWORK: By that time, the philosophical
and intellectual groundwork that permitted
a rational and materialistic approach to the
study of natural phenomena had been laid
and, in the spirit of times, this approach was
applied to finding or making the Philosopher's
Stone, that which would be capable of turning
"ignoble metals" into gold. Conditions were
thus ripe for excitement when, in 1602, one
Vincenzo Casciarolo, a cobbler by trade and
dilettante alchemist, discovered the " Bolognian
Phosphorus" on Monte Paderno just outside
of Bologna. It was this natural stone,
subsequently referred to also as the " Bolognian
Stone" or " Litheophosphorus" , that became
the first object of scientific study of luminescent
phenomena.
The most complete text on the sub-
ject of Vincenzo Casciarolo and his stone,
" Litheosphorus Sive De Lapide Bononiensi"
(Fig. 2), was written in 1640 by the scholar
and professor of Philosophy at the University
of Bologna Fortunius Licetus (1577-1657), of
which the following is an excerpt in translation
from the original Latin text:
"About thirty-six years ago, a stone of this
type was found in the countryside near Bologna
by an honest man of humble circumstances who
[J Further historical information may be found in:
Partington, History of Chemistry, 1961, 2, p. 334-340. • E.
Harvey., A history of luminescence, from earliest times until
1900. Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1957.
xxiii, [1], 692 p., plates. • E. Hoppe., Geschichte der Physik,
p. 298-301.
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5.4 Luminescence
was given to assiduous pursuit of activity in the
science of chemistry; he was called Vincenzo
Casciarolo, and he was of Bolognian origin.
As asserted by the Excellent Petrus Poterius
Andegauensis, the illustrious chemist now
among the Bolognians, in his "Pharmacopea
Spagirica" , Casciarolo who abandoned his work
as a cobbler to pursue transformation of
humbler materials into gold, took the stone
that he called "solar" to Scipione Begatello,
an expert in the art of transformation in that
time. [Casciarolo] sustained that the stone
was most suitable for the production of gold
by virtue of its notable weight and content
of sulphur. After submitting the stone to
much preparation, it was not the Pluto of
Aristophanes that resulted; instead, it was
the Luciferous Stone, which woud not itself
produce gold, but which would absorb the
golden light of the sun, like a new Prometheus
stealing a Celestial Treasure. Casciarolo
communicated this wonderful and unexplained
event not only to Begatello, but also to
the Illustrious Antonio Magino, the excellent
Professor of Mathematics in this Archiginnasio
[of the University of Bologna]. Magino gave
preparations of the stone as a gift of a
wonderful and unheard-of substance to several
men of letters and to many others as well. I
myself, in the company of the Illustrious Carolo
Antonio Mangino, Bolognian philosopher, have
seen many stones made of this substance,
whether in their natural or calcinated form,
whole or fragmented, alone or in mixture
with albumin. With diligent observation,
again and again I have seen the conception
of the light of the Sun, the glowing in the
darkness, and the spontaneous extinction. I
went with the Illustrious Ovidio Montalbano,
noble interpreter of the mathematical arts in
our Palladium [University of Bologna], and
with Carolo Antonio Mangino, Philosopher, to
Monte Paderno, the place of origin of the stone,
and the surrounding valleys, and I collected
many stones of this substance made, most
suitable for producing light" .
The rudimental alchemistic approaches of
the cobbler Casciarolo led, by a process of
heating and calcination of the stone, to the
discovery of its mysterious and magical ability
to " accumulate" light when exposed to the sun
and to emit it in the darkness.
The recipe and method of preparation of
the Bolognian Stone were kept secret only
briefly, the first detailed description on the
methods being published in 1625 by Pierre
Potier (Poterius), physician to the King of
France, in his "Pharmacopea Spagirica", a
treatise on inorganic remedies based on the
teachings of Paracelsus. Potier lived for some
time in Bologna, and he was able to give an
acceptable interpretation of the discovery.
Casciarolo showed his "lapis Solaris" to
many learned men of the time, and there was
widespread interest in Italy despite the fact
that attempts to use it as the "Philosopher's
Stone" were unsuccessful. Galileo Galilei
(1564-1642) participated in scientific debate
regarding the stone, and he also presented it to
Giulio Cesare La Galla (1576-1624), professor
of Philosophy of the Collegio Romano who first
reported this phenomenon in the book "De
Phenomenis in Orbe Lunae" (Venice, 1612). La
Galla asserted that the untreated stone was not
able to emit light, but that it acquired this
property only after calcination. He explained
this phenomenon, as related to him by Galileo,
as a certain quantity of fire and light to
which the stone was exposed being trapped
in the stone and then slowly released from it,
comparing its absorption to that of water by a
sponge.
Subsequently, Ovidio Montalbani (1601-
1671), professor of Astronomy and Mathemat-
ics at the University of Bologna, published a
brief report, "De Illuminabili Lapide Bonon-
iensi Epistola" (1634), in which he gave a dis-
sertion on the various colors of light that could
be obtained from the stone, and was the first
to suggest that the light resulted from a kind
of burning. As mentioned above, the most
important and comprehensive contribution to
the subject was given by Fortunius Licetus
(15771657) in his lengthy (280 pages) treatise
of 1640, " Litheosphorus Sive De Lapide Bonon-
iensi" . His approach was detailed and very en-
thusiastic, so much so that publication of the
book led to a famous controversy between him-
self and Galileo Galilei: whereas Licetus sus-
tained that the faint light of a crescent moon
101
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5.4 Luminescence
was produced by phosphorescence similar to
that of the Bolognian Stone, Galileo believed
that it was a reflection of sunlight from the
Earth to the Moon. The debate extended
throughout Europe, aided by the fact that the
Bolognian Stone was included in Pierre Potier's
widely used "Pharmacopea Spagirica" (1425),
where it was mentioned for its presumptive de-
pilatory properties.
This use of the stone was noted by French
and German physicians and pharmacologists
until the 18th century. Another important
European contributor to the study of the stone
was given by Athanasius Kircher of Fulda
(1601-1680) who, during his sojourn in Rome,
wrote two books on the subject, "Magnes
Sive De Arte Magnetica" (1435) and "Ars
Magna Lucis Et Umbrae" (1646). To Kircher,
the ability of phosphorus to attract light was
similar to that of a magnet for iron, and his
studies led him to believe that the material was
made porous by calcination, thereby holding
the subtle vapors of air suffused with light in
its pores.
John Evelyn (1620-1706) was one of the
first Englishmen to learn of the stone during
his visit to Bologna in 1645. Although
he apparently observed the luminescence,
confirming that it occurred with various colors
of light, he did not take any samples back
to England because, as was reported in
the " Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society" in 1666, the recipe for the preparation
of the stone had apparently been lost. The
most important contribution of the mid- 17th
century to understanding of the phenomenon
came from Nicola Zucchi (1586-1670), a
professor of Mathematics at the University of
Rome. In 1652 he reported in his book "Optica
Philosophia" that the more intense the light to
which the Bolognian Stone was exposed, the
more strongly it luminesced, and also that the
color of the light emitted by the stone was the
same regardless of whether it was exposed to
white light or that passed through red, yellow
or green glass. From this he concluded that the
light is not merely absorbed as such.
Although his experiment was very impor-
tant, it was not repeated until almost a cen-
tury later when, in 1728, a group of scientists
in Bologna led by Francesco Maria Zanotti re-
newed the study of phosphorus, arriving, how-
ever, at an interpretation that was entirely dif-
ferent from the one commonly held at the time.
In his experiments with the Bolognian Stone
Zanotti showed that it did not soak up the light
like a sponge but that the light coming from the
stone was its own.
They essentially repeated Zucchi 's exper-
iment, aided by Count Luigi Ferdinando Mar-
sigli, Bolognian naturalist and mathematician.
In 1691, Marsigli wrote "Del fosforo
minerale e sia della pietra Bolognese" and
dedicated it to his English colleague Robert
Boyle, who unfortunately died before he was
able to read it; because of Boyle untimely
death, the work was put aside and not
published until 1698. Several decades later,
Count Camillo Galvani wrote in his tract " Sulla
pietra fosforica del bolognese" (1780):
Many other prominent men searched for
the Bolognian Stone or visited Monte Paderno,
among them Goethe in 1786. Today we have
a vastly more comprehensive understanding
of the Bolognian Stone and its ability to
luminesce. We know it is made of barite
(barium sulphate) in the form of heavy silvery
concretions with fibrous radial formations that
widen toward the periphery of the stone.
The phenonenon discovered by Casciarolo
was the first recorded observation of inorganic
phosphorescence. In these earlien times, the
scientific dimensions of studies were often
tinged with a magical quality that has, perhaps
unfortunately, now largely disappeared. Even
in the popular mind, this discovery was
perceived as wondrous and momentous, and
awareness of the stone was so common that
in Bologna it was even employed in satire, as
a metaphor for the splendor of the reigning
Prince.
I have had the good fortune of being born
and raised in Bologna, and I still remember
when, as a young student charmed by magical
aspect of studying minerals and chemicals, I
ventured along the path taken by Casciarolo,
over the Calanques of the Colli bolognesi
(Bolognian Hills) to Monte (Mount) Paderno,
less than three miles from the center of
Bologna. I can still remember the excitement
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5.4 Luminescence
I felt when I found my first Bolognian Stone,
a piece about the size of an orange, which still
has a place of honor in my collection.
When my friend and colleague Anthony
Campbell of the University of Cardiff (Wales),
who has a passionate interest in Natural
History, recently came to Bologna to give a
series of lectures I was more than happy to
accomodate his request that I accompany him
to the same area around Monte Paderno to
look for the Bolognian Stone. Although we
were not successful in this regard, we did
found or perhaps, refound, the enthusiasm and
excitement of our earliest days of scientific
exploration. It was great fun!
Almost four hundred years have passed
since the discovery of the Bologna Stone. Since
then, the earlier occult studies, filtered by
illuministic rigor, have given way to a modern
scientific approach that has produced a vastly
greater knowledge of luminescent phenomena,
including recent acquisitions in the fields of
bioluminescence and in genetic manipulation.
Nonetheless, the phenomenon of lumines-
cence remains a fascinating field of study that
still has a magical quality, at least for those
of us who remain young at heart. We of the
University of Bologna are proud of its history;
indeed, in its more than nine hundred years of
existence many other chapters have been writ-
ten in the history of science.
We would like to extend an invitation to all
who are interested in these fascinating stories
to visit the University and the city of Bologna.
5.4.2 Fluorescence! 440 !
REWORK: Fluorescence was first observed by
Kircher (1601-1680) at a solution (Tinktur)
of the wood specified by the inhabitants of
Mexico Tlapazalli (lignum nephriticum), which
translucently knows, in the reflected light
[44UJ pother historical information may be found in: E.
Harvey., A history of luminescence, from earliest times until
1900. Philadelphia, American Philosophical Society, 1957.
xxiii, [1], 692 p., plates. • Edmund Hoppe., Geschichte
der Physik, p. 295-298. * Fred W.D. Rost., "Chapter
18. The history of fluorescence microscopy," (2, pp. 183-
195) in: Fluorescence microscopy. New York, 1995. [Deals
mostly with 20th century applications.] • W.A. Wooster.,
"Brief history of physical crystallography" (pp. 61-76), in:
J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of crystallography. New
York, Elsevier, 1990.
appeared blue. Naturally, " Kircher saw also
still many other miracle things to it, but to
supply the explanation he did not hold its
promise (acre magna lucis umbrae, 1671, et p.
56).
Boyle took up this discovery, stated
that she looks reflecting blue translucently
gold-yellow. It compares this feature with
probably the remark made first by Harriot
that goldbeater's skin is transparent, but then
appears green blue (Epist. ad Kepler, 235,
1607), and explain to pass the thing by it
that these bodies would have the characteristic
to back-throw individual kinds of light others;
that was also Newton's theory (Exper. et cons,
de col. Ill, No. 9 and 10, 1663).
More than 100 years no more obersvations
were apparently made. Wish determined the
feature at the same Tinktur again, only it calls
the colors blue and red; with Safran he wants to
have seen yellow red and green, and/or. It filled
a prism with Indigo, then red was absorbed,
that reflected Light appeared blue white (verse,
and Beob. over the colors, 1792).
Again later Brewster the feature at sulfur-
sour Chinin showed 50 years, by throwing a
cone of sunlight into a Glastrog filled with it
by a lens; this cone shone sky-blue, while the
let through light appeared white. Chlorophyll,
which already of wish was examined, gave
blood-red cone, translucently brownish-red;
Kurkumatinktur supplies becomes green to
cone, translucently yellow-brown; Fluor-spar:
Cone violet-blue, translucently knows. It called
the procedure internal Eeflexion " (Eep. OF
roasted. Assoc. 1888, p. 10, and Edinb. Trans.
12, p. 542, 1846).
Herschel called the feature epipolische
dispersion " (Phil. Trans. 1845, p. 143). In
a very detailed work, which proceeded from
the fluor-spar, Stokes (1819-1903) particularly
examined conditions at Chininlosung and
called this characteristic fluorescence (Phil.
Trans. 1852, p. 463). He observed also
first the difference whether one observes the
reflected light by a body, or whether one lets
the light pass through before the Eeflexion
by the body. Then it examined fluorescence
with the Spektralfarben and found that the
jets of largest Brechbarkeit, particularly the
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5.4 Luminescence
ultraviolet jets, which produce fluorescence.
It expresses the general sentence: In the
fluorescence light the Brechbarkeit is smaller
than in the light producing fluorescence.
It divides the spectrum produced on a
Fluoreszenzschirm by view by means of one
prisms turned around 90° into two parts (Pogg.
Ann., Ergb. 4, p. 188, 1853).
Hagenbach (1833-1910), the 36 substances
examined, confirmed the Stokesschen sentence
and found the brightness maxima of the
fluorescence light (Pogg. Ann. 141, p. 248,
1870; 146, p. 66, 282, 375, 508, 1872).
Against the fact Lommel showed that
there are also exceptions of the Stokesschen
sentence (ib. 143, p. 30, 1871; 159, p. 514,
1876; 160, p. 75, 1872; Wied. Ann. 3, p. 113,
1878).
Lallemand (18161886) found from it in
such a way designated ISO-chromatic
fluorescence (Journ. D. Physical 5, p. 829).
Due to these experimental results Lommel
developed then its theory of the absorption
and fluorescence, whereby he understands the
absorption as a kind Eesonanzerscheinung,
after which the fluorescence light of in such
a way changes swinging atoms is sent (Wied.
Ann. 3, p. 251). Those are thoughts,
which remind Euler (see above) lively of the
conceptions of L. Whereupon Lommel creates
then its theory of the normal and abnormal
dispersion (ib., p. 889), which it against
different on seized defended. It participates
from interest that he can harmonize its formula
also with the Helmholtz one.
Helmholtz had derived from the motion
equation of the ether and the resonant atoms
as feed back control systems the dispersion
equation, which Eechnung quite laborious by
the necessary regulation of four constants
required.
Lonimel showed now that one actually
gets along with one Naherungsformel and two
constants for all m rmal dispersing media (ib.
8, p. 628, 1880).
The work of Sellmeyer and helmet Helm-
holtz arranged chaining eggs to develop its
dispersion theory also in such a way now that it
also contained the abnormal dispersion (Wied.
Ann. 7, p. 608, 1880). It had however already
shown up that also with Adsoptionsstreifen
with some approximation the simple formula
is still sufficient (S. Wiillner, Wied. Ann. 17,
p. 580, 1882).
That also for gases (spec. Air) dispersion
to find is, is recognized only late. Mail intended
first only the Brechungskoeffizienten for white
light.
After Euler the refraction of light in the
atmosphere as a function of the temperature
and/ or on the tightness had already computed
(Mem. Berlin 1754, p. ), the Brechungsko-
effizient is again certain 631 by Delambre
(Laplace, Mec. eel. 4, p. 237, 1805) from
atronomischen observations. By compression of
air Biot and Arago (Mem observed. Of Paris
7, p. 301, 1806) and found the relationship be-
tween Brechungskoeffizienten and density ex-
pressed const by the equation (n 1) /d =.
Only chaining eggs took these attempts by
observation with min see Interferentialrefrak-
tometer (see above) and determined thereby n
iur the woman yard see lines on three places
exactly (Pogg. Ann. 124, p. 390, 1865).
Kind of MASK works likewise with inter-
ference and intends the Brechungskoeffizienten
for the D-line and four cadmium lines (Ann.
de l'ec. standard. 6, p. 9, 1877). Again with
apparatus sees min working Chappuis and find
Eiviere and (n 1) /d really constantly (Ann. de
Chim. et de physical ones, Ser. 6, 15, 1888).
Benoit (1844-1922) observes the depen-
dence on the temperature (Journ in Newton's
a gene, de physical ones 8, p. 451, 1889). In
extremely careful investigation with a Eowland-
schen Konkavgitter Kayser and Eunge have the
dispersion of air as a function of the wavelength
intended for the lines A to U of the Fraunhofer-
schen designation (Wied. Ann. 50, p. 293,
1893). It was shown with the fact that one
does not get along here with two members of
the Cauchysehen formula, but only with three
constants agreement between observation and
formula to manufacture can.
The investigation of the dispersion had
referred up to then only to the visible
spectrum; it was however probably tried with
the fluorescent substances to make it usable
also for ultraviolet light but within the range of
the infrared jets was only for quartz by Mouton
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5.5 Hardness
(C.R. 1879, p. 1078, 1189) and for rock salt of
Langley (Wied. Ann. 22, p. 598, 1884) a Eeihe
implemented by dispersion measurements.
Only Rubens measured the dispersion of
infrared jets by extraordinarily elegant method
(Wied. Ann. 45, p. 238, 1892). This work
was in repeated relationship starting point for
later investigations, which lie outside of the
framework of this book.
The existence of ultraviolet (UV) light,
and the phenomenon of fluorescence were
first recognized in the early nineteenth-century
from the observation that when light was
dispersed by a prism, the region beyond
the farthest violet visible light could darken
photosensitive silver salts and cause minerals
and other substances to luminesce. The
term "fluorescence," coined by George G.
Stokes in 1852, was .derived from the
behavior of fluorite when exposed to UV light.
Early observations of fluorescence required
cumbersome arrangements of sunlight, window
shades, and prisms in darkened rooms, so that
only the most intense examples of fluorescence,
produced by UV wavelengths closest to those
of visible light, could be detected. Other
early observations were made with radiation
from radium salts, burning magnesium metal,
or electric arc lamps, often involving a great
deal of heat, light, smoke, noise, or danger to
the participants. One of the first published
studies of fluorescent minerals was by Kunz
and Baskerville (1903), who examined the
luminescence of gems and gem minerals in the
Morgan collection of the American Museum of
Natural History. They employed radium, X-
ray "Roentgen rays," and an electrical spark
between iron electrodes. Later, when UV
lamps came into common use, observation of
fluorescence became much easier and more
convenient. Spencer (1929), Harvey (1957),
and Robbins (1983) give accounts of some of
these early observations.
Spencer (1929)
Harvey (1957)
Robbins (1983)
Liebisch., Fluorescence in ultra-violet
light; , Ber. Ak. VViss., 229, 1912.
5.5 Hardness! 441 !
REWORK: Hardness is defined as the resis-
tance of a smooth surface of a mineral to abra-
sion, while the degree of hardness is determined
by observing the comparative ease or difficulty
with which one mineral is scratched by another,
or a file or a knife. Within the realm of min-
erals, there are all grades of hardness, from
talc, impressible by the finger-nail, to the dia-
mond, hardest of all natural substances. Mea-
surements of hardness are extremely useful in
the determination of mineral species. Unfortu-
nately, hardness is a very vague concept, and
what we, in fact, do when we try to measure it,
is to measure a complex of such diverse prop-
erties as elasticity, malleability, toughness, vis-
cosity, etc.
The cohesion strength of crystals was
not the subject of many early scientific
investigations and it is still suprising that there
have been relatively few observations in the
early literature about the hardness of minerals.
Fromt eh earliest experiments, optical, thermal,
magnetic and electrical features of crystals were
well studied and theorized about but ideas on
the hardness are noticeablly lacking. This is
particularly odd since observations on hardness
could be performed with less difficulty than
most other physical properties.
That gemstones and other minerals were of
differing hardness must surely have been known
since the earliest times and as a mineralogical
science developed authors would note that
one mineral was harder than another mineral.
I 441 ] Further historical information may be found in:
Ulrich Burchard., "The sclerometer and the determination
of the hardness of minerals," Mineralogical Record, 35
(2004), p. 109-120. • William J. Grailich and F.
Pekarek, "Der Sklerometer, ein Apparat zur genaueren
Messung der Harte der Krystalle," Sitzungsberichte der
Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften. Mathematisch-
Naturwissenschaftliche Classe (Wien), 13 (1854), p. 410-436.
• Frederic Hugueny. , Recherches experimentales sur la durete
des corps. Paris and Strasbourg, Gauthier-Villars, 1865.
vii, [1], 109 p., 6 plates. • Albrecht Schrauf., Lehrbuch
der physikalischen Mineralogie. Leipzig, 1866, 1, p. 61-70. •
H. Tertsch, Geheimnis der Kristallwelt, 1947, p. 206-211. •
Isaac Todhunter., A history of the theory of elasticity and
of the strength of materials. From Galilei to Lord Kelvin.
London, 1886-93. 3 vols, xiv, [2], 936 p.; xii, [2], 762 p.;
[4], 546 p. • Samuel Robinson Williams., Hardness and
hardness measurements. Cleveland, The American Society
for Metals, 1942. [8], 558 p. ["Bibliography on hardness,"
p. [463J-546.]
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5.5 Hardness
Diamond was clearly known for its hardness
as its ancient name (adamant=???) clearly
defines. The relative hardness of other stones
was implicitly known by the miners, stone
masons and ancient jewelers if not explicitly
recorded. This is attested to by the fact that
early works of art and utility were carved from
rock crystal, and other precious stones.
In 1546, Agricola recognized that
hardness could be one of the properties used
to distinguish metals and minerals, but did not
persue the subject further. Instead, the first
scientific approach to hardness was presented
by the physicists.
Petr.o van Musschenbroek Musschen-
broek concludes his Physicae Experimentales
ei Geometricae Dissertationes (Leyden, 1729)
with a chapter entitled: "Tentarnen de cor-
ponim Duritia" (p. 668-672), that portion of
his work (Introductio ad Cohaerentiam corpo-
rum firmorwn) to which we have referred in
our Art 28*. His method, of which he speaks
very diffidently, was to count the number of
the blows of a mass swung like the bob of a
pendulum which are required in order to drive
a chisel through a slab of definite thickness of
the given material. He supposes that the num-
ber of blows divided by the specific gravity of
the material may be taken as a measure of its
hardness. He tested in this way the hardness
of a great number of specimens of wood and of
some of the more usual metals. He gives the fol-
lowing ascending order of hardness for metals:
lead, tin, copper, Dutch silver of small value,
gold, brass, Swedish iron. Obviously Musschen-
broek's definition of hardness would involve ab-
solute strength rather than set.
Petro van Musschenbroek thought he
was measuring hardness when he counted the
number of blows necessary to drive a chisel
through a given thickness of the material to
be tested, and divided this number by the
specific gravity of the material. I 442 l In
this fashion Musschenbroeck measured the
[442J p van Musschenbroeck., Physicae Experimentales, et
Geometricae, de Magnete, Tuborum Capillarium Vitreorumque
Speculorum Attractione, Magnitudine Terrae, Cohaerentia
Corporum Firmorum Dissertationes. Lugdum Batavorum, S.
Luchtmans, 1729. Chapter 10 of section, "Introductio ad
cohaerentiam firmorum," pages 431-672.
hardness of a large number of woods and of
the common metals. His metals were arranged
in ascending order of hardness as follows; lead,
tin, copper, Dutch silver, gold, brass and
Swedish iron. Musschenbroek in his Introductio
ad Philosophiam Naturalem (1762) has in the
first volume a chapter Cap. XVI. De Corpore
Duro, Fragili, Molli, Flexibili, Elastico that
describes durability, fragibility, flexibilty, and
elasticity. But the concept of an absolute
hardness is still not clear. Here are described
only relative values.
Anselmus Boetius de Boodt [1550-
1632] in his book Gemmarum et Lapidum His-
toria (1609) presents one of the most important
mineralogical works of the seventeenth century,
marking a transition over previous lapidaries.
Discussing the properties of stones, Boodt gives
a long discussion of hardness. He provides
the earliest system of hardness grading for the
various stones, which acted as a crude index
to distinguish imatation gems from genuine.
He distinguished three degrees of hardness and
also included softness as a related but differ-
ent property. Soft stones are considered such
if fingers alone are sufficient to rub away the
surface. Hard stones are called hard when they
can neither be rubbed away with fingers nor cut
by iron. Hard stones are classified under three
categories: (1) a steel file can scratch the stone,
(2) only the use of the Smyrna stone [emer-
ald??] can cut the surface, and (3) those that
can only be rubbed away with a diamond point.
However, it was not until the seventeenth
century that the characteristic of hardness
began to appear in the literature as a
mineralogical property. CHRISTIAN Huygens
in his Traite de la Lumiere (1690) noticed that
a calcite cleavage has a different hardness along
the axis rather than across it. Apparently this
is the earliest reference to the scientific measure
of hardness and the variation of hardness
with direction. He suggested that the optical
properties of Iceland spar could be explained
by considering a crystal as being made up of
flat spheroidal molecules. At the surface of
the crystals these flat spheroids were arranged
like the scales of a fish. If one moves a
sharp edge with the scales, it slips over them,
but if against the scales it catches under the
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5.5 Hardness
edge of the scales and the slipping is not
easy. He observes this same effect in applying
the scratch method to the natural surfaces of
Iceland spar. The scratch method, therefore, is
a means of demonstrating the way in which the
crystal is built. He finds that in one direction
the scratching point moves easily but in the
opposite direction it does not.! 443 !
In 1728, John Woodward in his Fossils
of all Kinds digested into a Method (1728)
used a minerals relative hardness compared to
the hardness of marble as a diagnostic to help
subjugate species within his method of mineral
classification.
About 1730, Pierre Varignon [1654-
1722] wrote about his experiences with the
hardness of bodies. I 444 ]
In the mid-eighteenth century CARL LlN-
NEAUS recommended hardness has a distin-
guishing property of minerals but took no de-
cisive step to use it in his own mineralogical
works.. I 445 ! It was a theoretical leap to a
complete scale of hardness that would provide a
relative scale against which the hardness of any
mineral could be compared against another.
In 1768, Bengt Andersson Quist [1726-
1799] was apparently the first to propose a
graduating scale listing the relative hardness
of minerals.! 446 ] In his study he compared
[443] (j Huygens., Traite de la Lumiere. Leiden, 1690,
p. 95-6: "Tout cecy prouve done que la composition du
cristal est telle que nous avons dit. A quoy j'ajoute encore
cette experience; que si on passe un cousteau en raclant
sur quelqu'une de ce surfaces naturelles, & que ce soit en
descendant de Tangle obtus equilateral, e'est-a-dire de la
pointe de la pinmide, on le trouve fort dur; mais en raclant
du sens contraire on l'entame aisement Ce qui s'ensuit
manifestement de la situation des petits spheroides; sur
lesquels, dans la premiere maniere, le cousteau glisse ; mais
dans l'autre les prend par dessous, a peu pres comme les
ecailles d'un poisson."
[444J p Varignon., "Experiences sur la durete des corps,"
Anc. Mem. Paris, 2.; ibid., "Conjecture sur la durete des
corps," Anc. Mem. Paris, 10.
[445] c L mneaus ; Systema Naturae. Holmiae, 1768, 3,
p. 29-30. Linne's first statement on hardness apparently
appeared in the Amonenitates Academ. (Holmiae, 1750).
[446] Bengt A. Quist., "Forsok pa en del kisel arter och
i synnerhet de hardare sa kallade akta stenar," Kongl.
Svenska Wetenskaps Academiens Handlingar, 39 (1768), p. 55-
78.; German translation, "Versuch uber einige Kiefelarten
und besonders die hartern so genannten achten Steine,"
Abhandlungen aus der Naturlehre, Haushaltungskunst und
Mechanik (Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien) , 1768, p.
Mineral
Hardness
Sp. Gr.
Diamond
1-3
31-34
Ruby
4-8
31-42
Sapphire
4-5
36-38
Topaz
6-7
35-45
Emerald
9
27-28
Aquamarine
9
28
Chrysolite
11
36-37
Gar.net
9-11
33-44
Rock Crystal
9-10
26-28
Quartz
11
22-29
Agate
9-10
25-27
Jasper
10-12
20-27
Zeolite
13
19-21
Quist's Scale Abridged (1768)
13 minerals with specimens coming from
a variety of localities so that a range of
hardness values could be established. His
hardest stone was diamond with a value of
1 down to zeolith with a hardness of 13.
He also included information on the specific
gravities of the stones listed. Published in
Sweden's leading scientific journal, Quist's
paper influenced the great Irish mineralogist
Richard Kirwan [1735-1812] to rework the
index and incorporate it into the first edition
of his own influential mineralogical textbook,
Elements of Mineralogy published in 1784. I 447 ]
Here diamond is given the highest relative
hardness value of 20 while other minerals are
listed with decreasing values until chalk with
a value of 3. Kirwan also gives information
about the specific gravity of the minerals
listed. However, in the second edition of his
Elements of Mineralogy published in 1794,
Kirwan abandons the list giving instead a
general description of how to determine the
value of relative hardness. I 448 l
Other mineralogists noted that structure
and hardness were one of the most valuable
57-80.
[447J p Kirwan., Elements of Mineralogy. London, 1784, p.
171-3.
[448] Yi. Kirwan., Elements of Mineralogy. Second edition.
London, 1794, 1, p. 38.
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5.5 Hardness
Mineral
Hardness
Sp. Gr.
Diamond
20-18
3.2-3.4
Ruby
17-16
3.5-4.2
Sapphire
17-16
3.8
Topaz
14-11
2.8-4.2
Spinel
13
3.4
Emerald
12
2.8
Garnet
12
4.4
Rock Crystal
11
2.6
Quartz
10
2.7
Amethyst
11
2.7
Carnelian
11
2.7
Agate
12
2.6
Onyx
12
2.6
Opal
10
2.6
Tourmaline
10
—
Zeolite
8
2.1
Fluorite
7
—
Calcite
6
—
Gypsum
5
—
Chalk
3
—
Kirwan's Scale Abridged (1784)
features to determine species, but they did not
attempt to give more than a cursiory definition
of the property. This view was followed in
the writings by Johann Thaddaus Anton
Peithner [1727-1798] I 449 ! and John Hill. I 450 !
The famous French crystallographer Rome de
l'Isle believed that the accurate determination
of the three characteristics of cystallization,
specific gravity and hardness were sufficent to
define a mineral species, but he never gives
an explicit explanation as to how to determine
the hardness of the minerals.! 451 ] In 1779
Wallerius only differentiates by hardness
saying they are either hard or soft but does
believe the property to be caused by the
crystalline structure.! 452 ]
[449] j /p A Peithner., Erste Griinde der Bergwerkswis-
senschaften, zweite Abhandlung iiber die Mineralogie. Prag,
1780.
[450] j Hill., Fossils Arranged according to their obvious
characters. London, 1771.
! J J.B.L. Rome de l'Isle., Cristallographie. Second
edition. Paris, 1783, 2, p. 370.
[452] j q Wallerius., Brevis introduetio in historian!
In 1780 Torbern Bergman writes that
testing gems by their hardness is usual. He
calls attention to the fact that gems are usually
tested by hardness factors and rates them
in order as diamond, ruby, sapphire, topaz,
genuine hyacinth, and emerald. The following
passage, typical of the period, is taken from his
Opuscula Physica et Chemica.
The species of gems is used to be determined by
the hardness ; and by that quality particularly, together
with the clearness, has their goodness been estimated.
The spinellus is particularly worthy of observation, which
is not only powdered by the sapphire, but even by the
topaz ; as also the crysolith, which is broken down by the
mountain crystal, the hardness of which seems rather to
be owing to the degree of exsiccation than the proportion
of ingredients. The analysis of spmellus, of crysolith,
and other varieties, will sometimes illustrate the true
connection ; otherwise, after the diamond, the first degree
of hardness belongs to the ruby, the second to sapphire,
third to topaz, next to which comes the genuine hyacinth,
and fourth the emerald. I 453 l
This was essentially the prevailing view
of the hardness property until 1774 when
the renowned German mineralogist ABRAHAM
Gottlob Werner estimated the hardness of
minerals by scratching specimens by using a
standard set of tests. I 454 ! Based on this test
he differentated six categories that he describes
in §169-§175 of his textbook.
Diamond-Hard. Gives sparks when filed.
Quartz-Hard.
Feldspar-Hard.
Semihard. Fluorite.
Soft. Chalcopyrite.
Very Soft. Gypsum.
Jean Claude de La Metherie in
his Theorie de la Terre (1797) describes
hardness. I 455 l
By 1801 and the publication of Traite
de Mineralogie the distinction method first
litterariam mineralogicam. Holmiae, 1779.
[453J t.O. Bergman., Opuscula Physica et Chemica, 2, p.
104, Upsaliae, 1780 ("De Terra Gemmarum," p. 72-117).
English translation, Physical and Chemical Essays, 2, p. 107-
8, London, 1784 ("Of the Earth of Gems.").
[454] \Yerner, Von den ausserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien,
1774, p. 244-252. [SEE ...]
I 455 l J.C. De la Metherie., Theorie de la Terre. Paris, 1797,
1, p. 36-8. [GoogleBook]
108
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given by Werner proved so useful that Rene
Just Hauy included his own methods for
determing hardness. Hauy is not clear as to
what he means by hardness, however. He also
used a file, but now includes his fingernail to
test hardness. He divides hardess into four
categories, which can be subdivided:
1. Substances which scratch quartz. Examples,
Diamant, Corundum, Ruby, Sapphire.
2. Substances which scratch glass.
a) Communement etincelantes. Examples, Quartz,
Peridot, Idocrase, Euclase, Axinite.
b) Quelque sois etincelantes. Examples, Prehnite,
Sphene, Amphigene, Amphibole.
3. Substances which scratch calcite. Non etincelantes.
Examples, Lazulite, Apatite, Harmotome.
4. Substances which do not scratch calcite. Non
etincelantes. Examples, Talc, Gypsum, Mica.
This was a somewhat more reliable method
to distinguish hardness between minerals.
Hauy defined his hardness by saying that if one
mineral was scratched by another than it had to
be softer than the abrading mineral. Although
the idea was sound the accuracy of the method
was subject to wide variability. It was left for
another researcher to build a useable tool for
the inspection of hardness.
In Tome I. (p. 221) Hauy defines hardness
in a vague way, and gives (pp. 268-71) in four
groups the substances (i) which scratch quartz,
(ii) which scratch glass, (iii) which scratch
calcspar and (iv) which do not scratch the latter
substance. In these lists he confines himself to
substances usually termed stones. On p. 348
of Tome III. Hauy gives the following list of
the usual metals in order of hardness: lead, tin,
gold, silver, copper, platinum, iron or steel.
Perhaps the only importance of Haiiy's work
for the theory of hardness lies in the fact that
he appears to have first suggested the 'mutual
scratchability ' of substances as a measure of
their relative hardness.
To bring a precision to the use of this
character in mineral determination, Friedrich
Mohs outlined his scale of hardness, which
perpetuates to this day his name in mineralogy.
Published in the Versuch einer Elementar-
Methode zur naturhistorischen Bestimmung
und Erkennung der Fossilien of 1812, it is
5.5 Hardness
a scale of relative hardness between minerals,
where each member of the scale scratches the
preceeding one and is cut by all following
members. It consists of only ten intervals, and
its true value was the minerals Mohs selected
were common species, available to students
and professionals alike. Mohs championed his
system in his many textbooks.
Mineral
Hardness
Talc
1
Gypsum
2
Calcite
3
Fluorite
4
Apatite
5
Feldspar
6
Quartz
7
Topaz
8
Corundum
9
Diamond
10
Mohs' Hardness Scale (1812)
Mohs scale was widely applied in practical
minealogy due to easy to remember minerals,
but it was hampered to be used in a true
scientific manner for two reasons. Two
circumstances impair its accuracy of other
methods. Mohs did not take into account
that the hardness of a mineral's surface and
corners can be different for the same mineral,
and sometimes for example it is possible to
scratch a mineral with another specimen of
the same mineral, which normally should not
be possible. For example, Mica and Gypsum
sometimes show this phenomena. The second
problem with Mohs scale is that the distance
between the species it uses in terms of relative
hardness are not equal-distant. Diamond is for
example, considerably harder than corundum,
quartz is much harder than feldspar, etc.
Mohs gave numbers to these classes
and placed other bodies with decimal places
between these numbers by testing the relative
hardness of two nearly equally hard bodies by
their resistance to a file and the comparative
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5.5 Hardness
[ADD ILLUSTRATION OF HARDNESS
CURVES.]
In 1813 Johann Heinrich Lorenz von
Pansner [1777-1851] appears to be the first
to define an absolute hardness of minerals. I 456 '
In his investigation, Panser studied mineral
hardness and specific density. Using a method
where a needle made of steel, copper or lead was
worked back and forth across a crystal surface
until a scratch was seen he created four classes.
By then measuring the minerals density, he
attempted to create an analytical method for
mineral determination based upon the two
values of its hardness and density. It was
a poorly executed investigation that received
only passing interest from mineralogists. But
it was a step towards measuring absolute
hardness. Krutsch suggested the addition of
tin and zinc needles to the method, but little
attention was paid. I 457 !
L. Pansner in a pamphlet published in St
Petersburg in 1813 seems to have been the
first to adopt the plan of testing minerals,
not by scratching them upon each other
but by means of a series of diamond and
metal points. Later in a memoir entitled
: Systematische Anordnung der Mineralien
in Klassen nach ihrer Harte, und Ordnungen
nach Hirer vpecifisclwn Schwere, published in
both Russian and German in the Memoires
de la Societe Imperiale des Naturalistes, T.
v., pp. 179-243, Moscow, 1817, we find him
classifying minerals as follows: (a) Adamanti-
Charattomena (scratchable by a diamond,
but not by a steel graver); (b) CJudybi-
CJiarattomena (by a steel but not by a
copper graver); (c) Chalco-Charattomena (by
a copper but not by a lead graver); (d)
Molybdo-Cliarattoniena (by a lead graver); (e)
AcJtarattoinena (those whose hardness cannot
be tested by scratching). These classes formed
by relative hardness are again subdivided
according as the specific gravity of the mineral
is less than 1, less than 2 etc., into (0)
Natantia, (1) Hydrobarea, (2) Dirhydrobarea,
(3) Tri-hydrobarea etc., etc. Pp. 183-202
[456] j h l_ Pansner., Resultate der Untersuchungen iiber die
Harte und specifJsche Schwere der Mineralien. St. Petersburg,
1813, 33 p.
I 457 ! Grailich and Pekarek, p. 417.
(erroneously paged 173) are occupied with
a table of several hundred minerals thus
classified, with the specific gravities to four
places of decimals. The remainder of the
memoir does not relate to hardness but to a
classification of inorganic substances by other
physical characteristics.! 458 ]
The conception of relative hardness based
upon the power of one body to scratch a second
is evidently very unscientific. Huyghens had
shown a century earlier that the hardness of
a body varies with direction, and its power to
scratch varies also with the nature of the edge
and face. The latter fact was well brought out
by a memoir of WILLIAM WoLLASTON entitled:
"On the Cutting Diamond," Philosophical
Transactions, 1816, p. 265-9. This memoir
draws a distinction between cutting and
scratching, which has been unfortunately lost
sight of by later writers on hardness. Wollaston
shows that the diamond irregularly tears the
surface unless its natural edge, which is the
intersection of two curved surfaces and thus a
curved line, be so held that a tangent to it lies
in the plane face of the material to be cut and
is also the direction of motion of the diamond.
The curved surfaces must also be held as
nearly as possible equally inclined to the plane
face. By paying attention to similar principles
Wollaston succeeded in getting sapphire, ruby
and rock crystal to cut glass for a short time
with a clean fissure. It required a fissure of
only 1/100 of an inch deep to produce a perfect
fracture.
Breithaupt (1823) added two minerals
to Mohs scale to try and make the increments
more equal distant between the hardness
numbers.! 459 ] He put biotite mica
between Gypsum (2) and Calcite (3) and added
Scapolite between Apatite (5) and Feldspar (6) .
Breithaupt 's efforts were never widely adopted,
however. Various textbooks continued to list
the 10 interval scale of Mohs. By 1836, in
his Vollstandiges Handbuch der Mineralogiehe
is one of the first mineralogists to employ a
general definition of the property, applying it as
Todhunter, p.
[458]
I 459 l J.A.F. Breithaupt., VoUstiindige Charakteristik
Alineral-Systems. Dresden, 1823, lxxx, 292 p.
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5.5 Hardness
a general characteristic to mineral bodies. I 460 !
Breithaupt's scale of hardness of 12 classes
did not appear to have met with any wide
acceptance.
In 1828, NAUMANN says that he thinks
hardness should be the measure of the absolute
cohesion of the mineral.! 461 ]
Moritz Ludwig Frankenheim (1829,
1830, 1833) successfully used Panzer's methods
of using different metal needles to gage a
minerals hardness. I 462 ] But unlike
other investigators he measured the hardness
in different directions across a crystal face.
Apparently nobody since Huyghens originally
made the observation had attempted to
determine the hardness of a crystal across
different directions of its surface. I 463 ]
The first experimentalist to obtain results
of value from this method was Frankenheim in
his De crystallorum coluvesione. Dissertatio
Inaugural (Bratislaviae, 1829). Its contents
are, however, embodied and extended in the
same author's later book Die Lehre von der
Cohdsion (Breslau, 1835). Frankenheim 's
results were obtained by scratching with the
metal needle held in the hand and judging
relative hardness by the pressure and pull
necessary to produce a scratch. He applied
this method to test the relative hardness of
crystalline surfaces in different directions. It
cannot be said that such a method is capable
of really great scientific accuracy, but we
shall have occasion later to compare some
of Frankenheim's results with those of other
experimentalists.
Seebeck (1833) introduced a devise
to consistently measure the hardness of
minerals. I 464 ! By the late 1800s, it accurately
determined of hardness of minerals could be
made by the use of an instrument called a
[460] B re }thaupt., Vollstandiges Handbuch der Mineralogie.
Dresden und Leipzig, 1836.
l 461 J Naumann., Lehrbuch der Mineralogie. Berlin, 1828.
[462] m l_ Frankenheim., De crystallorum cohaesione,
dissertatio Inauguralis. Bratislaviae, 1829. [A German
translation appears in Baumgartner's und Ettingshausen's
Zeitschrift fur Physik und Mathematik (Wien), 6 (1841).]
I 463 ! Huyghens., Tractatus de Luinine. Paris, 1690, p. 72.
[464] Seebeck., Sklerometer. Programm der Coin Realgym-
nasiums, 1833.
sclerometer (Burchard, 2004). The mineral
is placed on a movable carriage, with the
surface to be tested upon the horizontal; this
is brought into contact with a stell point (or
diamond point), fixed to a support above. The
weight needed to cause the point to scratch
the minerals surface is then determined. This
method is further complicated that on a single
mineral face, it may have a different hardness
depending on which direction the sclerometer
is applied.
To this time, the hardness of a mineral
largely depended on its elasticity, and depend-
ing on which direction the measurement was
taken on a crystal could show a large varia-
tion in its value. Kyanite for example has very
different values of hardness depending if the
measurement is taken along or across a crystal.
Approaches were invented to take the absolute
hardness of minerals.
In 1850 Rudolph Franz wrote in Latin
his ideas about determining a minerals hard-
ness, De Lapidum Duritate cemque Metiendi
Nova Methodo Dissertatio. It was also trans-
lated into German. I 465 ! This is an impor-
tant memoir that relates comparative hardness
of crystals on different surfaces, and in different
directions on the same surface, and contains the
results of numerous careful observations (Bur-
chard, 2004).
Franz defines the hardness of a mineral as
follows:
Mir scheint namlich die Harte eines Minerals
diejenige Kraft desselben zu seyn, welche seine
Theilchen zusammenhaltend, dem Korper, der diese
zusammenhangenden Theilchen trennen will, Widerstand
leistet. [So far this might stand as a definition of
cohesion.] Sie ist also diejenige Kraft des Minerals, welche
das Eindringen eines Korpers in das Mineral verhindert,
und zugleich der Fortbewegung einer in die Oberflache
eingedriickten Spitze sich entgegenstellt. Das Maasa
dieser Widerstandskraft ist nun aber offenbar der Druck,
welcher angewandt werden muss, um den Korper zum
Eindringen m das Mineral zu bringen (S. 37).
It seems to me that this manner of
determining hardness may really measure two
[465] Yi_ Franz., "Ueber die Harte der Mineralien und ein
neues Verfahren dieselbe zu messen," Annalen der Physik
(Poggendorffs), 80 (1850), p. 37-55.
Ill
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5.5 Hardness
different kinds of resistance, viz. the resistance
to entry and the resistance to tearing after
entry. Franz assumed that in measuring these
resistances he was measuring one and the same
property hardness. Interestingly, a criticism
of Franz's methods on rather different grounds
will be found on p. 39 and 48 of Hugueny's
Recherches Experimentales tur la Durete det
Corps (Paris, 1865).
In 1852, Gustav Adolf Kenngott
[1818-1897] published his "Ueber ein bes-
timmtes Verhaltniss zwischen dem Atom-
gewichte, der Harte und dem speeifischen
Gewichte isomorpher Minerale." I 466 !
This memoir does not state particulars
as to the manner in which the hardness of
the various substances discussed has been
determined. The author supposes his atoms to
be liquid and spherical ; he states that they
can or must be treated as liquid if they are to
group themselves into molecules and as such
into crystals (S. 104). As to the numerical
results given in the memoir, I am unable to
express any opinion as to their value, but the
conclusions which the author draws from his
chemical data appear to be summed up in the
following paragraph which ocairs on S. 114-5,
and which I content myself with citing:
Wenn die hier vorgefiihrten Beispiele zeigen, dass
bei isomorphen Species, welche homolog zusammenge-
setzt sind, ein bestimmtes Verhaltniss zwischen dem
Atomgewicht, dem Atom- oder Moleciil-Volumen, dem
8pecifi8chen Gewichte und der Harte vorhanden ist, so
dass mit dem relativen apecifischen Gewichte in geradem,
oder dem Atomvolamen in umgekehrtem Verhaltnisse die
Harte steigt und fallt, und bei gleichen gleich ist, wahrend
die Krystallgestalten wegen der ubereinstimmenden Grup-
pirung iibereinstimmend sind, weil die gleichgeordneten
Atome der einen die Masse in einem dichteren Zustande
enthalten als die Atome der anderen, so zeigen sie auch
gleichzeitig, dass auf diese Differenzen der Harte und des
relativen speeifischen Gewichtes die Stellung in der elek-
trochemischen Reihe oder das elektrochemische Verhalt-
niss der verbundenen Atome ohne Einfluss ist. Ausdiesem
Grunde habe ich die Atome in der elektrochemischen Rei-
[466J Q \ Kenngott., "Ueber ein bestimmtes Verhaltniss
zwischen dem Atomgewichte, der Harte und dem
speeifischen Gewichte isomorpher Minerale," Jahrbuch der
k.k. geologischen Reichsanstalt Jahrgang (Wien), 4 (1852),
no. 3, p. 104-116.
henfolge vorangestellt, darunter die Verbindungen der er-
sten Ordnung und in denselben die hoheren, wo es dergle-
ichen gibt, und es wird daraas ersichtlich, dass nicht durch
den starkeren elektrochemischen Gegensatz die grossere
Harte und das grossere relative specinsche Gewicht her-
vorgerufen sind.
Wilhelm J. Grailich and F. Pekarek
(1854) I 467 ! were two mineralogists that
studied the hardness of minerals. Together
they designed a sclerometer that would
become widely accepted as the best design.
Working off the principal of Seebeck, they
created a stationary scratch point across which
the sample was drawn. The design was
manufactured by Voigt and Hochgesang for a
price of 220 Marks (Burchard, 2004). This
memoir opens with an interesting historical
account of the various modes of classifying or
measuring hardness (§ 410-21). The authors
note how unscientific was the earlier use
of the word 'hard' by palaeontologists and
mineralogists, and then record the researches
of some of the writers.
Q. Sella Kes]
Through the earlier research it was known
that the hardness of crystals, as determined
with a sclerometer, is different on different
crystal faces, and that the variation is related
to the crystal symmetry. In 1865, Frederic
Hugueny gave a more precise definition of
this property and introduced the distinction
between normal and tangential cohesion.! 469 ]
In his scholarly doctoral thesis that describes
his Experimental Researches on the Hardness
of Bodies, the first 50 pages is given over to
a good introductory history of the subject.
This is followed by a definition of the hardness
property, a description of the apparatus he used
to test for it, a discussion of the places where
errors are encountered, and a review of the
results derived. Finally, Hugueny compares the
[467] w j Grailich and F. Pekarek., "Der Sklerometer,
ein Apparat zur genaueren Messung der Harte der
Krystalle," Sitzungsberichte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften. Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Classe
(Wien), 13 (1854), p. 410-436.
I 468 ! Q. Sella., "??????," TYiriner Akad., (April, 1861), p.
??-??.
[469J p Hugueny., Recherches experimentales sur la durete
des corps. Paris and Strasbourg, Gauthier-Villars, 1865.
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5.5 Hardness
results of his research from various methods.
L. SOHNCKE (1869) in his deep investiga-
tion of halite describes his methods for deter-
mining the minerals hardness. I 470 !
The subject of hardness was thoroughly
investigated by F.S. Exner in 1873 who
describes the forms of hardness across the
faces of many crystals in a series of curves of
hardness in his monograph, Ueber die Harte
der KrystallfldchenA 471 ^
He showed that the variations in hardness
observered in any crystal are dependent upon
the cleavages. Faces not cut by cleavage planes
have constant hardness in all directions, while
faces intersected by planes of cleavage show
mininum hardness parallel to the intersection
with the cleavage plane and if the cleavages
are of unequal ease the minimum hardness is
parallel to the plane of easiest cleavage. So
consistant was this relationship that Exner was
able to express it algebraically. He obtained the
measurements by determining the least amount
of weight required to scratch a crystalline
surface in different directions for each 10° or
15° from 0° to 180°, as determined by a
sclerometer. These directions are laid out as
radii from the center, and the length of each
is made proportional to the weight fixed by
experiment. These points are then connected,
and a specific hardness diagram for the mineral
determined.
J.W.A. PFAFF (1883) [472] determined
hardness by boring his hardness point into
the mineral face and measuring the number of
rotations needed to indent the surface. Pfaff
drew a diamond splinter of definite shape 100
times back and forth in one place, then shifted
and repeated, widening the groove. The loss
in weight of the crystal for the saure number
of movements of the dianiond over the saure
area and with a constant pressure serve as
approximate values for hardness, i.e., hardness
is inversely as the loss in weight. Pfaff also used
I 47 °] L. Sohncke., "Halite," Poggendorffs Annalen, 137
(1869), p. 177.
I 471 ! F.S. Exner., Ueber die Harte der Krystallflachen.
Vienna, 1873. 166 p.
I 472 ! J.W.A. Pfaff., "Mesosklerometer," Sitzungsbeiicht
bayern Akademie Wissenschaften, mathematik-physikalische
Klasse (Miinchen), 13 (1883), p. 55.
a revolving diamond point. For equally deep
Penetration the hardness was as the number of
revolutions.
T. Turner (1886) used an apparatus
similar to Franz's in which the mineral was
fixed and scratched with a moving point. I 473 !
F. Auerbach (1891, 1892, 1896) at-
tempted to create a scale of absolute hard-
ness. I 474 ! Following the definition of hardness
given by Hertz, Auerbach devised a method in
which a piano convex lens of any mineral is
pressed against a horizontal plate of the same
mineral. Both are bent and touch throughout
a circular space, and for some pressure V the
elastic limit is reached, at which there is pro-
duced, if the mineral is brittle, a circular fissure,
or, if the mineral is tough, a circular permanent
indentation.
According to Auerbach the limit pressure
P 1 upon a square mm. of surface varies with
the radius r of the lens, but the product
of P 1 into the cube root of this radius r is
essentially constant and may be called the
Absolute Hardness, that is
H=P 1 ^/¥
On this basis he determines the absolute
values of the Moh's scale to be: corundum,
1,150; topaz, 525; quartz, 308; orthoclase, 253;
apatite, 237; fluorite, 110; calcite, 92; gypsum,
14.
A.K. Rosiwal (1893, 1894, 1896) ^^
used a standard powder to grind the surface.
P. Jannetaz and M. Goldberg (1895)
studied the effect of grinding as a test for
[473] rp^ burner., " A new indentation test for determining
the hardness metals," Proceedings of the Birmingham
Philosophical Society, 5, (1886), pt. 2, p. 240-??.
[474] R Auerbach., Wied. Ann., 43 (1891), p. 61, 45 (1892),
p. 262, 277 & 58 (1896), p. 357. English translation of
the first paper, "The absolute measurement of hardness,"
Smithsonian Report, 1891, p. 207-236. Translated by Carl
Barus.
[475] A.K. Rosiwal., "Ueber eine neue Methode der
Hartebestimmung durch Schleifen," Anzeige (Wien), 30
(1893), p. 104-105.; ibid., "Ueber eine neue Methode der
Hartebestimmung der Minerale, insbesondere jener des
Diamanten," Deutsch. Natl Verh., Theil 2, pt. 1, (1894),
p. 189-90.; ibid., "Neue Untersuchungsergebnisse iiber die
Harte von Mineralien und Gesteinen," Jahrbuch k.k. geol.
Reichsanstalt (Wien), 17 (1896), p. 475-491.
113
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5.5 Hardness
hardness. I 476 ! They employed a so-called,
"Usometer," consisting of a rotating grinding
disc, upon which four plates, the hardness of
which is to be determined, were pressed by
normally acting weights, the loss of weight of
each giving the relative hardness.
T.A. JAGGAR. (1897) describes an instru-
ment of his own design that he employed a
micro-sclerometer of his own invention that
in essence was a modification of P faffs tech-
nique.! 477 ] However, by means of this in-
strument he was able to test the hardness of
minerals present in thin sections under the mi-
croscope. Jaggar designed an attachment to
the microscope, in which the point of a cleavage
tetrahedron of diamond is rotated at a uniform
rate and under uniform pressure until a cut of
uniform depth is obtained (measured by focus-
ing an the rulings of a Zeiss micrometer glass,
which is slightly inclined and follows the down-
ward movement of the diamond point). The
number of rotations of the point varies as the
resistance of the mineral to abrasion by dia-
mond.
J. A. Brinell (1900) describes his exper-
iments for establishing the relative degree of
hardness of materials.! 478 ] His test specimens
are subjected to the pressure of a heavy weight,
with a small sphere of steel interposed between
the weight and test surface of the material. The
impression left on the surface forms a tolerably
indication of the degree of hardness possess by
the objects tested. His tables show the rela-
tive hardness of many metals he tested in this
method, are chiefly based on resistance to pen-
etration.
In 1900 J.-R. Rydberg wrote on the
hardness of simple bodies. I 479 ! He represents
the hardness of the elements as points on a
[476] p Jannettaz and M. Goldberg, "Durete des
matieres vitreuses et cristallisees, determinee au moyen de
l'usometre," Ass. Franc. C.R., Part 2, 9 (Aug., 1895), p.
417-425.
[ 7j T.A. Jagger., "A micro-sclerometer for determining
the hardness of minerals," American Journal of Science, 4th
Series, 4 (1897), p. 399-412. [Contains a good bibliography
of the subject.]
I 478 l J. A. Brinell., Teknisk Tidskrift, 30 (1900), p. 69-87,
illus.
[479] J._R. Rydberg., "Die Harte der einfachen Korper,"
Zeitschrift fur physikalische Chemie, 33 (1900), p. 353-359.
curve, whose abscisse by the atomic weight
and their ordinate are certain by the hardness
of the element concerned. After run this
curve belongs the hardness into that group of
characteristics, with which the periodicity can
be led back to a periodic function into the large
one the cohesion. Here belong among other
things density, expansion, atomic heat, melting
point, heat of fusion, boiling point and most
flexible characteristics of the raw materials.
SCHROEDER VAN DER KOLK (1901) I 480 !
gives a comprehensive look at the hardness
property. He begins by comparing specific
density and atomic weight before delving into
the hardness property. He then gives a table
of approximately 300 minerals with the first
column containing the name of the mineral,
the second the atomic or molecular weight,
the third the specific gravity, the fourth the
compaction, and the fifth the hardness by the
Mohs scale.
Kip (1907, 1911)[ 48 i] outlined in two
articles that invited a single definition of
hardness, to establish a theoretical basis for
the best method to investigate hardness and
to put the method into practice by means of
a suitable, standard apparatus and adequate
mathematical calculation.
Holmquist (1911, 1914, 1916)I 48 2] em-
ployed grinding techniques to determine the
hardness of a wide range of minerals. His re-
sults with regard to the relative hardness of
minerals agree closely with those determined
by Rosiwal.
The method of VlCKER S is chiefly based on
resistance to penetration (Vickers's method has
been applied to the microscopic examination of
polished sections since 1936). S.B. TALMAGE
[480] Schroeder van der Kolk., "Ueber Harte in Verland mit
Spaltbarkeit," Verh. d. Kon. Ak. v. Wet. te Amsterdam, 8
(1901), 12 plates [Appeared 1902].
[481] fj2. Kip., "Determination of the hardness of
minerals," American Journal of Science, 4th Series, 27 (1907),
p. 23-32 and 31 (1911) , p. 96-98.
[482] Holmquist. "Ueber den Relativen Abnutzungswider-
stand der Mineralien der Harteskala," Geologiska Forenin-
gen i Stockholms Forhandlingar, 38 (1911), p. 281.; ibid.,
"Die Schleifharte der Feldspathe," Geologiska Foreningen
i Stockholms Forhandlingar, 36 (1914), p. 401.; ibid., "Die
Hartestufe," Geologiska Foreningen i Stockholms Forhandlin-
gar, 38 (1916), p. 501.
114
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5.6 Optical Properties
(1926) has perfected the earlier sclerometer
technique; P. Le Rolland's method (1926)
is based on the influence of the hardness of a
pendulum's knife edge on the duration of its
oscillations.
Literature
1854 W.J. Grailich and F. Pekarek, "Der Sklerometer, ein
Apparat zur genaueren Messtmg der Harte der Krys-
talle," Sitzungsbehchte der Kaiserlichen Akademie der
Wissenschaften. Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche
Classe (Wien), 13 (1854), p. 410-36.
1865 Frederic Hugueny., Recherches experimentales sur la
durete des corps. Paris and Strasbourg, Gauthier-
Villars, 1865. vii, [1], 109 p., 6 plates.
1909 Viktor Poschl., Die Harte der festen Korper und ihre
physikalisch-chemische Bedeutung. Berlin, 1909. 84 p.
1942 Samuel Robinson Williams., Hardness and hardness
measurements. Cleveland, The American Society
for Metals [1942]. [8], 558 p. ["Bibliography on
hardness," p. [463]-546.].
1943 David Landau., Hardness: A critical examination of
hardness, dynamic hardness, and an attempt to reduce
hardness. New York, The Nitralloy Corporation,
1943. 105 p., illus.
5.6 Optical Properties i 483 i
Transparent minerals, or those that become
transparent when sliced extremely thin, show
optical properties. A mineral that is
transparent interacts with the rays of light that
pass through it. Observing the characteristics
of the light before and after it enters the
mineral, and noting as well changes in the
mineral itself, can lead to its identification.
In the 19 th and early 20 th centuries, optical
mineralogy became one of the most widely used
tools of those available to mineralogists.
5.6.1 Double Refraction! 484 ]
|483j Pusher historical information may be found in:
Jed Z. Buchwald., The rise of the wave theory of light:
Optical theory and experiment in the early nineteenth century.
Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1989. xiv, 498 p.,
illus. [History of optics in the 18th and 19th century.;
ISBN 0226078841.] • P.P. Ewald. , "Zur Begriindung
der Kristalloptik," Annalen der Physik, 359 (1917), no.
24, p. 557-597. • Edmund Hoppe., Geschichte der Optik.
Leipzig, Verlagsbuchhandlung J.J. Weber , 1926. 262,
[1] p., illus. [History of optics.; Reprinted, Wiesbaden,
Dr. Martin Sandig oHG., 1967.] • Henry John Steffens.,
The Development of Newtonian Optics in England. New
York, Science History Publications, 1977. viii, 190 p.
[Surveys the evolution of the corpuscular theory of light
from Newton to the work of David Brewster in the early
19th century.] • W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of physical
crystallography" (pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed.,
Historical atlas of crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
|484j Purifier historical information may be found in:
David Brewster., "Historical Account of its Discoveries
Double refraction (now termed birefringence) is
the property of a crystalline substance to split
a beam of light passing through it into two
different rays. One of these rays is angularly
offset from the other, resulting in two images
being observed when a single image is viewed
through the substance. If for example a line
is viewed through a transparent crystal of
calcite, it will appear double in every direction
respecting the Double Refraction and Polarisation of
Light," Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 1 (1819), p. 289-
296, 2 (1820), p. 167-170, 3 (1820), p. 285-296, 4 (1821), p.
124-130, 8 (1823), p. 149-160, 245-256, 9 (1823), p. 148-152,
10 (1824), p. 90-96. • Jed Z. Buchwald., "Experimental
investigations of double refraction from Huygens to Malus,"
Archives Internationales d'Histoire des Sciences, 21 (1979-80),
p. 311-373. [Traces 18th-century attempts to determine
experimentally a law of double refraction.] • ibid., The
rise of the wave theory of light: Optical theory and experiment
in the early nineteenth century. Chicago, University of
Chicago Press, 1989. xiv, 498 p., illus. [History of optics
in the 18th and 19th century.; ISBN 0226078841.] •
Burke, Origins of the Science of Crystals, 1966, p. 138-146.
• Andre Chappert., Etienne Louis Malus (1775-1812) et la
theorie corpusculaire de la lumiere. Traitement analytique de
1'optique geometrique, polarisation de la lumiere et tentative
d'explication dynamique de la reflexion et de la refraction.
Paris, Vrin, 1977. 283 p., illus. [Full discussion of Malus'
theory of light.] • Mariano Colubi Lopez., "Leyes fisicas
versus leyes experimentales: El intercambio de informacion
entre Brewster y Biot acerca de la relacion entre les leyes
de doble refraccion y las de polarizacion (1813-1819.),"
Llull: Boletin de la Sociedad Espahola de Historia de las
Ciencias, 21 (1998), p. 357-385. [History of double refraction
and the role played by Biot and Brewster.] • Eugene
Frankel., "The search for a corpuscular theory of double
refraction: Malus, Laplace and the prize competition of
1808," Centaurus: International Magazine of the History of
Mathematics, Science, and Technology, 18 (1974), p. 223-
245. • Edgar W. Morse., Natural philosophy, hypotheses,
and impiety: Sir David Brewster confronts the undulatory
theory of light. Dissertation, University of California,
Berkeley, 1972. 356 p. [Univ. Microfilms order no. 75-
22448.] • Lars Garding., "History of the mathematics of
double refraction," Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 40
(1989), no. 4, p. 355-385. • Edmund Hoppe., Geschichte
der Optik, 1926, p. 75-82. • ibid., Geschichte der Physik,
1926, p. 259-261. • C. Klein., "Uber das Krystallsystem
des Apophyllits und den Einfluss des Drucks und der
Warme auf seine optischen Eigenschaften," Sitzungsberichte
der preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1892, pt. 1,
p. 217-267. [Contains a long historical introduction of
the optical studies done on apophyllite.] • CM. Marx.,
"Zur Geschichte der Lehre von dem Doppelbrechung,"
Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff), 78 (1849), p. 272-276.
• Vasco Ronchi., The nature of light: An historical survey.
Cambridge, Mass. , Harvard University Press, 1970. xii,
288 p., illus. (some colored), facsims., plates, portaits. [A
history of optics.; ISBN 0435547526.] • W.A. Wooster.,
"Brief history of physical crystallography" (pp. 61-76), in:
J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of crystallography. New
York, Elsevier, 1990.
115
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5.6 Optical Properties
but one — that of the vertical axis of the
rhomb ohedron. One image is created by the
ordinary refraction of light, while the other, by
an extraordinary refraction. If the same crystal
is placed over a point, and turned around, one
image will appear to revolve around the other.
The direction in which there is no refraction is
called the axis of double refraction, or neutral
line, since in its direction the ordinary and
extraordinary rays coincide. Double refraction
increases in passing from this direction to one
at right angles with it. When there are two
axes of double refraction, both rays are due to
extraordinary refraction. The two axes are in
a vertical plane in right prisms, but not so in
oblique prisms. The angle between these axes
has been determined for many minerals, and
has served to distinguish species, which is the
basis for optical mineralogy.
The property was first reported in 1669
by Erasmus Bartholin [1625-1698] when he
published a small book about his discovery,
Experimenta C'rystalli Islandici Disdiaclastici,
in which he describes his observations and
experiments he made concerning Iceland spar
(a clear variety of calcite).! 485 ] CHRISTIAAN
Huygens [1629-1695] offered an explanation
of the property in terms of his wave theory
of light. Interestingly from the experiments
described in this work it is clear that Huygens
observing the interaction of two rhombohedral
calcite crystals was on the threshold of the
discovery of polarization; however, he stopped
short there because polarization seemed to be
irreconcilable with the theory that light waves
were analogous to (longitudinal) sound waves.
This was published in his important 1690 study,
Tractatus de LumineM 86 ^ Through his
experiments Huygens discovered that quartz
also possessed the property, the only other
mineral besides calcite known to possess the
property until Haiiy made a specific study of
the subject.
Isaac Newton [1643-1727] experimented
with minerals. He calculated the thickness
of the thinnest plates of mica and gypsum,
l 4 ° 5 J E. Bartholin., Experimenta Crystalli Islandici Disdia-
clastici. Hafniae, 1669.
[486] c Huygens., Tractatvs de Lumine. 1690.
and from his experiments with the double
refraction property of Iceland spar he advanced
theory of light that consisted of waves and
insisted that it was corpuscular in nature. I 487 !
He conceptualized light rays with four sides
or "quarters," which he though might be
endowed with forces exhibiting polarity, similar
to magnetic forces. Two of these, he thought,
had the property of usual refraction, while
the other two had unusual refraction (double
refraction). He believed the unusual refraction
exhibited by Iceland spar was created by an
attraction between the light rays and particles
inside the crystal.
The French physicist Charles-Francois
De Cisternai Du Fay [1698-1739] studied
the properties of various substances, including
crystals. He is now credited as the
original discoverer of the interrelation between
crystalline form and the phenomenon of
double refraction, although his priorty was
not recognized for a very long time after
his death. I 488 l Du Fay died tragically
young, but among the last papers he was
working on was his examination of the property
of double refraction on which he conducted
a great number of exact measurements.
Among the general principles he deduced
from his observations was that all transparent
stones that have right angles are only singly
refracting, whereas crystals whose angles are
not right angles are doubly refracting and
that the amount of the double refraction is
dependent upon the inclination of these angles.
Unfortunately this work was never formally
published in a scholarly journal. Instead the
only knowledge we have of it is from Du
Fay's eloge written by De Fontenelle, at that
time secretaire perpetuel of the Academie,
and recorded in the Histoire de I 'Academie
Royale des Sciences (1739, p. 73-83, Paris,
1741.)I 48 9] From De Fontenelle's description
of the work it is clear he had before him some
I 487 ! I. Newton., Opticks. London, 1730, p. 373.
[488J c ar | Michael Marx., "Zur Geschichte der Lehre von
dem Doppelbrechung," Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff),
154 (1849), no. 10, p. 272-275.
I 489 ! Hoppe, Geschichte der Physik, 1926, p. 260. • Adolf
Pabst., "Charles-Francois du Fay, a pioneer in crystal
optics," American Mineralogist, 17, p. 569-572.
116
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5.6 Optical Properties
unfinished manuscript or notes that are now
lost. Sadly, Du Fay's contribution, probably
because of the unorthodox manner in which
it was recorded, never was picked up by later
researchers or most historians of science.! 490 ]
If it had, the development of the science
of crystallography would probably have been
advanced considerablly, because it was nearly
80 years before the same observations were
again made.
In 1762 Giovanni Battista Bbccaria
[1716-1781] published his observations on the
property of double refraction exhibited by
quartz. I 491 ! He noticed that the edges of the
crystal showed a wide range of colors, but he
did not give an explanation for the feature.
Unlike amorphous material, the molecular
arrangement inside a crystal causes the
development of double refraction which was
dramatically shown by the discoveries of the
Abbe Alexis Marie de Rochon [1741-
1817]. He demonstrated that if a glass plate
is attached to various faces of quartz plates
double refraction develops. l 492 ^ He is
credited later with inventing an insturment
called the "micrometer," which was developed
as an attachment to a telescope.! 493 ] Its
optics utilized two precisely cut quartz prisms
that create achromatic prisms that used the
double refraction of the material to produce two
images that were made to coincide by moving
one optical element along a scale.
In his crystallographic studies of minerals,
Rene Just Hauy [1743-1822] naturally con-
l 490 l Only Hoppe in his history of physics mentions Du
Fay's investigations of crystal optics, Geschichte der Physik,
1926, p. 260.
[491] q_3_ Beccaria., "Observation sur la double refraction
du cristal de roche," Journal de Physique, 2 (1762), p.
504-510. English translation, "An Account of the Double
Refractions in Crystals," Philosophical Transactions, 52
(1683-1775), p. 486-490. • Hoppe, Geschichte der Optik,
1926, p. 75.
[492J A.M.de Rochon., Recueil de Memoires sur la Mecanique
et sur la Physique. Paris, Barrois l'aine, 1783. xiv, [2], 384,
xxxij p., 10 plates (including diagrams). [Citation from
Hoppe, Geschichte der Optik, 1926, p. 75-76.]
[493J A.M.de Rochon., Memoire sur le micrometre de cristal
de roche pour la mesure des distances et des grandeurs. Avec
une instruction de M. Torelli-de-Narci sur la maniere de se servir
de la lunette contenant un micrometre fait avec des prismes de
cristal de roche. Paris, A. Beraud, 1807. 62 p., one table.
sidered the phenomena of double refraction. He
accepted the outline of Newton's explanation of
double refraction, but he was hessitant to give
any hypothesis that related the phenomenon to
the internal structure based on the integrant
molecule.! 494 ] In his research he always at-
tempted to match the duplicate images of the
objects seen through the crystal to the sides
of the integrant molecules he theorized existed
inside the crystal. In this way he studied the
crystals of calcite, rock crystal, sulfur, barite,
and gypsum. Although he noticed that the ab-
sence of double refraction was related to an ax-
ial direction of the primitive forms of these sub-
stances, he did not notice the optical biaxiality
of the last three minerals.
Hauy in his Traite de Mineralogie (1801)
gives a list of the double-refracting minerals,
obtained as a result his own searches, and for
the first time isolates the optically isotropic
crystals, which do not exhibit the double-
refracting property! 495 ] But his experimental
method, observing the image of a pin through
prisms constructed of the mineral material to
see if its image doubled could not lead to
satisfactory results. Different orientations of
the needle observed from different distances
caused Hauy to miss the weak double refract
shown by some minerals, or mistake a strong
simple refraction for the property. This
all leads to the fact that the list of Hauy,
which contains 20 "double refracting" and
even 10 "single refracting" minerals is built
from erroneous data. For instance, among
the single refracting minerals that he correctly
recognized, namely fluorite, spinel, garnet,
sphalerite, he adds apatite, tourmaline, and
axinite. At the same time, he does not
include diamond or rock salt (halite) to the
list, although in their descriptions they are
noted as belonging with minerals that exhibit
single refraction. In spite of these omissions
of Hauy, he accumulated enough evidence
[494] p^_j_ Hairy., "Sur la double refraction du spath
calcaire transparent," Journal d'Histoire Naturelle, 1 (1792),
63, 158-160; "Sur la double refraction du cristal de roche,"
Journal d'Histoire Naturelle, 1 (1792), p. 406-408; "Sur
la double refraction de plusiers substances minerales,"
AnnaJes de Chimie et de Physique, 17 (1793), p. 140-156.
I 495 ! R.J. Hairy, Traite de Mineralogie, 1, p. 237.
117
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5.6 Optical Properties
to establish rules based according to his
theory of the integrant molecule that species
characterized by high degree of symmetry,
possess simple refraction. Thus forms of
the cube, octahedron, or those possessing
cubic symmetry do not show double refraction.
He also attempted to distinguish between
singly and doubly refracting crystals and had
correlated the optical property with minerals
containing certain highly symmetrical molecule
integrantes. In other words, Haiiy observed
that the optically isotropic crystals must belong
to one group, now recognized as the cubic
(centered) symmetry [?? CHECK THIS
??]. Moreover, in double refracting bodies he
established that the directions, along which
the double refraction is not revealed, are
planes where the highest symmetry occur.
Understanding the importance of determining
the optical properties of minerals, Haiiy
proposed using them in a practical way for
distinguishing between faceted precious stones,
which could not be easily tested by other
destructive methods. Later, this idea would
lead to the development of a new insturment
called the refractometer (see §14.6.2.).
In 1881, Richard Tetley Glazebrook
[1854-1935] examined Iceland spar and its
interaction with light, particularly the cre-
ation of double refraction and dispersion.! 496 ]
Charles Sheldon Hastings [1849-1932]
published an improvement on Glazebrook's
study in 1888. I 4 ^]
5.6.2 Basis of Optical Mineralogy l 498 !
REWORK: In 1807 Johann Jacob Bern-
HARDI [1774-1850] emphasized that double re-
[496] yi ,T. Glazebrook., "Double Refraction and Dispersion
in Iceland Spar: An Experimental Investigation, with
a Comparison with Huyghen's Construction for the
Extraordinary Wave," Transactions of the Philosophical
Society of London, 171 (1881), p. 421-449.
[497J Q_g Hastings., "Law of double refraction in Iceland
spar," American Journal of Science, 4th series, 35 (1888), p.
68-81.
[49SJ pother historical information may be found in:
Jed Z. Buchwald., The rise of the wave theory of light:
Optical theory and experiment in the early nineteenth century.
Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1989. xiv, 498 p.,
illus. [History of optics in the 18th and 19th century; ISBN
0226078841.] * Burke, Origins of the Science of Crystals,
1966, p. 138-144. • Shafranovskii, Istoriia kristallografii XIX
vek, 1980, p. 78-95.
fraction was intertwinned with the crystal's in-
ternal structure. I 4 99] He pointed out that dou-
ble refraction appeared only in irregularly crys-
tallized bodies, which although found in dif-
ferent degrees in various materials, it followed
the same rules in all. Examining crystals of
calcite, quartz, emerald, and beryl, which are
uniaxial, as well as zircon, vesuvianite, and na-
trolite, which are biaxial, Bernhardi must actu-
ally have observed the optical biaxiality in these
later crystals, although he did not recognize its
importance. He does emphasize, however, that
double refraction was dependent upon the in-
ternal structure of the crystal and that there
was an axis of refraction about which the phe-
nomena occurred.
The connection between optical properties
and crystalline form occurred only after the
discovery in 1809 of the polarization of light by
reflection by Etienne Malus [1775-1812]. I 500 !
Working in the framework of the integrant
molecule, Malus suggested that symmetry of
the molecules was the principal element to
create the phenomena of double refraction. He
constructed a variety of instruments for the
study of polarization both by reflection and
double refraction. From his experimentaions
of different crystals he showed that two
refracted rays are respectively polarized in
planes perpendicular to each other. He also
found that in simple refraction, the ratio
between the sines of the angles of incidence
and refraction was a constant quantity, but
this relationship was variable in the case of
the extraordinary ray. This suggested that it
depended not only upon the inclination of the
incident ray upon the refracting surface but
also upon its position relative to the axis of the
integrant molecule of the crystal. The emergent
ordinary and extraordinary rays had the same
direction when the incident ray fell upon a
face that was parallel or perpendicular to the
[499J j Bernhardi, "Beobachtung uber die doppelte
Strahlenbrechung einiger Korper, nebst einigen Gedanken
uber die allgemeine Theorie derselben," Journal fur die
Chemie und Physik von A. F. Gehlen, 4 (1807), p. 230-258.
[500J g Malus, "Sur une propriete de la lumiere reflechie,"
Memoires de Physique et de Chimie de la Societe d'Arcueil,
2 (1809), p. 143-158; and "Sur une propriete des forces
repulsives qui agissent sur la lumiere," Memoires de Physique
et de Chimie de la Societe d'Arcueil, 2 (1809), p. 254-267.
118
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5.6 Optical Properties
axis of the crystal and emerged from a face
parallel to the incident face, hi Malus' view this
attribute gave a direct means to determine the
axis of refraction in a wide variety of crystalline
materials. If an image was not doubled, when
viewed across two parallel faces, the conclusion
was that these faces were either parallel or
perpendicular to the axis of the crystal. In
the rhombohedron, the axis of refraction was
the same as the crystal axis, but there was
not sufficient information available, according
to Malus, to state that this was the case a
priori in other crystal forms.! 501 ] Thus Malus,
who had studied Bernhardi's work, failed in the
same way to distinguish uniaxial and biaxial
crystals.
In 1811 Dominique Francois Arago
[1786-1853] observed the rich colors produced
by polarized light passing through thin plates of
certain crystals thus establishing a valuable and
sensitive method to detect double refraction
in minerals. He discovered these "interference
colors" by placing a sheet of mica between a
glass reflector and a calcite prism. One can
only imagine the impression that the striking
colors must have made on him.! 502 ! He also
observed that the colors remained stable if the
glass reflector was replaced by the sky. This
gave strong evidence that the blue sky must
be polarized. He presented his preliminary
results in a paper read the Paris Academy,
and thereafter helped develop a new wave
theory of light that could accurately explain
these observations, which were unexplained by
contemporary theories.
In 1812 David Brewster [1781-1868]
and Jean Baptiste Biot [1774-1862] inde-
pendently realized that the interference colors
that were observed when light passed through
thin plates of doubly refracting crystals were
also weak indications of the materials dou-
ble refracting property. Brewster had experi-
mented with topaz (orthorhombic), while Biot
had worked with a variety of mica (monoclinic).
Continuing their respective researches, both
Brewster and Biot arrived at the concept of op-
[501] E. Malus., Theorie de la double refraction de la lumiere
dans les substances cristalisees. Paris, 1810, p. 95, 177.
[502] Shafranovskii, Istoriia kristallografii XIX vek, 1980, p.
tical biaxiality, but Biot, in a long paper, was
the first to report his results. I 503 ! A short
time later Biot also determined that uniaxial
crystals could be divided into two classes. He
assumed that the polarized light corpuscles in
the extraordinary ray in quartz were attracted
to the vertical axis whereas those in beryl were
repelled from it, pointing out that the Iceland
spar had "beryl" polarization.! 504 ] Brewster
rejected Biot's theory of attractive and repul-
sive forces, however, insisting instead that the
different classes arose because of the internal
structure of the crystal.
In crystals ... the polarizing structure ... must therefore
depend on the form of their integrant molecules, and the
variation in their density. ... When these crystals have a
spherical form diminishing in density towards an axis, and
have these axes arranged by laws of crystallization, they
will constitute a crystal of the positive class, ... quartz.
When the density of the spheres increases towards
their axes, their symmetrical combinations will constitute
a crystal of the negative class, such as beryl. I 505 !
Thus, Biot's terminology of differences result-
ing from attractive and repulsive forces was re-
placed with Brewster's that explained a crystal
as being either optically positive or negative.
Both scientists, however, quickly pointed
out that the crystal axes of many substances
corresponded with the axes of double refrac-
tion. Biot suggested that the axis of double re-
fraction proved that a crystal was an aggregate
of atomic elements arranged in a symmetrical
structure around the axis. I 506 ! Asymmetry
[503J j g Biot., "Memoire sur un nouveau genre
d'oscillation que les molecules de la lumiere eprouvent
en traversent certains cristaux," Memoires de l'lnstitut
(1812), Part I, p. 1-371; David Brewster, "On the
Affections of Light Transmitted through Crystallized
Bodies," Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, (1812), Part I, p. 187-218.
[504] j g Biot., "Sur le decouverte d'une propriete
nouvelle dont jouissent les forces polarisent des certains
cristaux," Memoires de l'lnstitut (1812), Part I, p. 19-30;
and "Observations sur la nature des forces qui partagent
les rayons lumineux dans les cristaux doues de la double
refraction," Memoires de l'lnstitut (1813-1815), p. 221-234.
[505] tj Brewster., "On the Laws of Polarization and
Double Refraction in Regularly Crystallized Bodies,"
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
1818, p. 264.
I 506 ! J. B. Biot, "Memoire sur l'utilite des lois de la
polarisation de la lumiere, pour reconnartre l'etat de
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5.6 Optical Properties
was demonstrated by the fact that a light ray
incident on the crystal in an oblique direction to
this axis was doubly refracted. He emphasized
that double refraction would be useful as an
experimental index to analyze crystalline sub-
stances in an effort to determine the system of
crystallization, particularly where the exterior
form was not a sufficient indication of the inte-
rior crystalline state.
During his research, Brewster classified
almost three hundred crystalline materials
according to whether they had one, two, or
three axes of double refraction, or, in modern
terms, whether they were uniaxial, biaxial, or
optically isotropic, respectively. He pointed out
that all crystals having the cube, the regular
octahedron, or the rhombic dodecahedron as
primitive forms have three axes of double
refraction. Hence, in these crystals, no double
refraction is evident. All crystals having the
rhombohedron, the hexagonal prism, or the
octahedron with isosceles triangular surfaces
as primitive forms have one axis of double
refraction. Substances with two axes of
double refraction crystallize in other irregular
forms. Hence, according to Brewster, the
phenomenon of double refraction demonstrated
the position of the crystal axes and could be
used to determine the correct primitive forms
of crystals. Brewster believed it was much more
difficult to gain knowledge of the primitive form
by cleavage and calculation than it was to test
a crystal for double refraction. In Brewster's
opinion, tungstate of lime (Scheelite, CaWOj
provided a good example of the utility of this
optical phenomenon in the derivation of the
primitive form. Haiiy believed that the form
of the integrant molecule of this substance was
a cube, but since it was doubly refracting, this
geometry was impossible according to Hauy's
model, and was accordingly changed.
In 1818 all of these results were compiled
by Brewster in his important paper, On the
Laws of Polarization and Double Refraction
in Regularly Crystallized Bodies. I 507 ! He
cristallisation et de combinaison dans un grand nombre
de cas oil le systeme cristallin n'est pas immediatement
observable," Memoires de l'Academie Royale des Sciences,
1816, p. 275-346.
[507J j-j Brewster., "On the Laws of Polarization and
explains in it the connection between the
optical characteristics and the 'primitive form'
of a crystal. He also introduced a satisfactory
correlation between the form and optical
properties of isotropic and anisotropic crystals,
though not completely for biaxial substances.
Extending his research, Brewster became
bolder in his assertation of the connection of the
crystalline form and the optical properties. He
named 11 minerals that based on their optical
properties could not possess the primitive form
assigned to them by Haiiy. By 1823, 8 of
these minerals had been assigned new forms to
conform with his observations. For example,
boracite could not have a cubic integrant
molecule because it was doubly refracting;
therefore, it must have some other form. I 508 '
John Frederick William Herschel
[1792-1871] published in 1820 a paper on
the interaction of homogeneous light with
crystallized bodies that brought substantial
progress to the knowledge of the optical
characteristics of crystals. I 509 ! During
experimental inquiries on the polarization of
light, he was struck by the very considerable
number of deviations in the colors of their
lamina, first observed by Newton, and which
many crystals exhibit when cut into plates
perpendicular to one of their axes. His curiosity
was excited and he began an inquiry into
the cause of what produced them, especially
since their appearance was a problem for Biot's
theory. He determined they were caused
by "axes of birefringence" that caused the
behavior of light to be connected to the
symmetry axis of the mineral crystal. To
show that the colors produced were not created
by the color of light transmitted through the
crystal, Herschel uses colored glass to filter the
Double Refraction in Regularly Crystallized Bodies" ,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 1
1818, p. 199-273.
I 508 ! David Brewster, "Reply to Mr. Brooke's Observa-
tions on the Connexion between the Optical Structure of
Minerals and Their Primitive Forms," Edinburgh Philosoph-
ical Journal, 9 (1823), p. 361.
I 509 ! J.F.W. Herschel., "On the Action of Crystallized
Bodies on Homogeneous Light, and on the Causes of the
Deviation from Newton's Scale in the Tints Which Many
of Them Develope on Exposure to a Polarized Ray.,"
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
1820, I, p. 45-100.
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5.6 Optical Properties
light that passed through the crystal plates. In
the mean time, Brewster had observed the same
phenomena, which he mentioned in a paper he
read before the Royal Society in 1818, but he
had not attempted an explanation.
The foundations for correlation of the
optical properties of crystals with their form
or symmetry were thus in place by the
second decade of the 19 th century. Further
research accumulated a mountain of evidence
that supported the concept that crystals
possessed in a unique axes of symmetry. In
1824 Eilhardt Mitscherlich [1794-1863]
published a memoir describing the effects of
temperature change on the dimensions of a
number of crystals of various substances. I 510 !
First, he demonstrated that crystals that
were regular geometric solids, like the cube,
the regular octahedron, and the rhombic
dodecahedron, expanded uniformly in all
directions upon a temperature increase and
evidenced no change in the value of their
interfacial angles. Second, crystals having
rhombohedra or hexagonal prisms for their
primitive forms displayed unequal expansion
in one direction when they were heated. For
example, calcite expanded nonuniformly in
the direction of its vertical axis, whereas its
expansion was uniform in the other two axial
directions. Hence, crystals with one axis
of double refraction reacted in exactly the
same manner to heat as to light. Third, all
crystals shown to possess two axes of double
refraction expanded unequally in all three
directions when heated. Mitscherlich concluded
from his experiments that the expansion of
crystals upon heating was related to the
axes of crystallization and that these axes
corresponded with the optical axes.
Hatiy recognized the value of the phe-
nomenon of double refraction in the identifi-
cation of the integrant molecule of a substance,
and he was willing to seek a new primitive form
if this optical property indicated its absolute
necessity. Further, he believed that, together
with form, hardness, and specific weight, dou-
I 51 °] E. Mitscherlich., "Ueber das Verhaltnis der Form der
kristalliserten Korper zur Ausdehnung die Warme," in: A.
Mitscherlich., Gesammelte Schhften von Eilhard Mitscherlich.
Berlin, 1896, p. 195.
ble refraction provided evidence of specificity,
meaning that mineral species could be deter-
mined from them. But he did not ascribe to
this directional property the importance other
scientists attached to it. In fact just as iso-
morphism and dimorphism showed that the in-
tegrant molecule was not specific to a chemi-
cal compound, optical properties showed that
the primitive form and integrant molecule could
not accurately determined by cleavage of the
secondary forms. Obviously, either Hatty's sys-
tem must be entirely revised by the determina-
tion of the correct primitive forms, or another
system of crystal analysis should be adopted.
Not all mineralogists, however, were
prepared to attach such importance to optical
characters as means of determining mineral
species. Cases of apparent conflict between
determinations made on the basis of chemical
composition and crystallographic characters on
the one hand, and optical characters on the
other, soon arose. For example, Brewster,
on optical grounds, regarded tesselite as a
species distinct from apophyllite, in spite of
the fact that Berzelius had shown the two
to be identical in chemical composition. He
also found that sulphato-tricarbonate of lead
(leadhillite) was optically biaxial, whereas it
was generally believed at that time to be
a rhombohedral mineral. In the case of
apophyllite, of course, Brewster was misled
by the optically anomalous character of the
mineral; but in the case of the leadhillite it was
the optical determination that was correct, the
mineral being really monoclinic but with a close
approach to rhombohedral symmetry.
But the standard works on mineralogy
of that time, and for many years later,
contained no account of the optical characters,
beyond reference to such features as the
double refraction of calcite, the play of
color (dispersion) of diamond, the dichroism
of tourmaline, and, perhaps, the statement
that the mineral had "simple" or "double"
refraction, as the case might be. Many
mineralogists recognized, however, that a
knowledge of the optical characters would be of
the greatest aid in determining minerals. Thus
Jameson, in his Manual of Mineralogy (1821)
says:
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5.6 Optical Properties
"To Dr. Brewster, mineralogists are indebted for a great
discovery, namely, the number and position of the axes of
double refraction of minerals. By means of this character
we are enabled to determine mineral species; and even in
those cases where neither form nor cleavage are present, to
refer the mineral to its system of crystallization. We have
no hesitation in considering it as a more certain and useful
aid to mineralogists than chemical analysis. It ought to be
introduced into all systems of mineralogy" J 511 !
Augustin Jean Fresnel [1788-1827]
building on previous experimental work ex-
tended the wave theory of light to a large class
of optical phenomena. By the year 1821, he
was able to demonstrate through mathematical
methods that polarization could be explained
only if light was entirely transverse, with no
longitudinal vibration whatsoever. Other op-
tical phenomena were also given explanation.
For example, through his wave theory he con-
clusively accounted for the phenomena of in-
terference when light rays collide. Although
Fresnel's wave theory of light had many con-
verts, even from the most ardent of those pre-
viously believing in the corpuscular theory, his
assertion that light is a transverse wave was a
step too far for most. However, Fresnel stunned
his critics when he next showed through an in-
credible deduction that double refraction could
be deduced from the transverse wave hypothe-
sis. I 512 l This was an important development
for optical mineralogy, because it offered a bril-
liant explanation of the correlation between the
observed optical properties and structural crys-
tal form of many minerals. Essentially, Fresnel
stated that when there are two axes of double
refraction, both rays are due to extraordinary
refraction. The two axes are in a vertical plane
in right prisms, but not so in oblique prisms.
Thus in biaxal crystals there is no spherical
wave, since there is no single direction round
which such crystals are symmetrical. But when
there is an angle between these axes it could be
measured for many minerals, and would in the
19 th century be determined for many species
that would serve as a specific characteristic to
[ 511 ] R. Jameson..
???.
I 512 ] A.J. Fresnel.,
1827.
Manual of Mineralogy. London, 1821, p.
"Memoire sur la Double Refraction,'
distinguish species.
After Fresnel's tragically young death
his wave theory as it applied to crystal
optics was further extended by the German
crystallographer and physicist Franz Ernst
Neumann [1798-1895]. I 513 ! Brewster had
previously shown the interrelation between
the optical properties and geometries of the
crystals of the three crystallographic systems
of the lowest category, but the crystal
classes containing the rhombic, monoclinic and
triclinic required further examination. To
this question a significant role was played by
Neumann's article on "the Thermal, Optical
and Crystallographic Axes in the Crystalline
System of Gypsum" (1833).[ 514 1 In it he
explores the law of double refraction in the
mineral gypsum from the point of view of
Fresnel's mechanics and concludes that there
was a correlation between the crystallographic
forms axes, the axes of elasticity and thus the
thermal and pressure axes. In this way the
the interrelation between the strucutural form
and the physical properties of a crystal of the
rhombic system are for the first time clearly
stated.
Neumann then turned his attention to
exploring the optical properties of species in
the monoclinic and triclinic crystal systems.
He thought it was entirely possible that
the phyisical properties of crystals always
conform to the symmetry of the crystal.
This position was supported by the research
made by J. Herschel [xxxx-xxxx] and J.G.
NoRRENBERG [xxxx-xxxx] , who investigated
the optical property of the crystals of
monoclinic borax with the aid of the red
and dark-blue glass. Neumann generalized
their data, after adding to it his observations
about gypsum and came to the conclusion
that for the monoclinic crystals the axis of
Fresnel's ellipsoid in the differently colored light
rays changes not only its value, but also its
orientation relative to crystallographic axes.
This showed that in the monoclinic crystals
I 513 ! Shafranovskii, Istoriia kristallografii XIX vek, 1980, p.
90-92.
[514J p_g Neumann., "Die thermischen, optischen und
crystallographischen Axen des Crystallsystems des Gypses,"|
Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff), 27 (1833), p. 240-274.
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5.6 Optical Properties
the optical geometry is relative to the single
plane which is symmetrical to its geometric
form. This suggested that the optical axes
of a crystal must lie either in the plane of
symmetry, or in one of the planes perpendicular
to it. In 1835, Neumann in a small paper noted
that the absence of the symmetry regularities
between the orientation of the optical ellipsoid
and elements of the crystallographic structure
in triclinic crystals. I 515 l These facts explained
the question about the interrelations between
the optical and geometric properties of the
crystals of all seven systems.
The optical study of crystals was greatly
facilitated when the physicist WILLIAM NlCOL
[1768-1851], in 1828, invented the polarizing
prism which bears his name, but for many years
yet mineralogists were slow to avail themselves
of optical characters as an important means
of identifying minerals. Even in the third
edition of Dana's System of Mineralogy (1850),
when the chemical classification of minerals
was adopted, the descriptions of minerals do
not include any optical characters, except that
the refractive index is given for diamond and
possibly for one or two other species. There is,
however, an introductory chapter, "Characters
Depending on Light," in which a number of
minerals are listed with their mean refractive
index (for four of them, two indices are given),
and in another table some twenty minerals are
listed with their optic axial angle.
It was not until well after the middle of
the 19 th century that mineralogists began to
make important use of optical characters, apart
from color and lustre, in the determination of
minerals, and this in spite of the fact that
observation and study of the peculiar behaviour
of light in its passage through crystals had
much influence on the development of the
science of optics.
In 1849, Henry Clifton Sorby [1826-
1918] demonstrated the possibility of determin-
ing the minerals in rocks by the examination of
thin sections under the polarizing microscope.
From this time onward, however, study of the
[515] y.Fj. Neumann., "Nachtragliche Beobachtungen in
Betreff der optischen Eigenschaften hemiprismatischer
Crystalle," Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff), 35 (1835), p.
203-205.
optical characters of minerals assumed increas-
ing importance. Sorby's pioneering work in this
field, and particularly the paper he published in
1857, on the microscopical structure of crystals,
not only laid the foundations of microscopical
petrology but at the same time raised optical
mineralogy to a position of the first importance
as a means of identifying minerals rapidly, even
when in the smallest grains. Thereafter, a
knowledge of the optical characters, at least of
the minerals occurring in rocks, became imper-
ative. Optical studies were being constantly
refined and advanced, and one of Sorby's last
papers describes a method for determining re-
fractive indices.! 516 ] The method he describes
is identical in principle, though worked out in
far greater detail, with that given by the Due
DE CHAULNES in 1767 for singly-refracting sub-
stances, although the method was devised quite
independently.
From the outset, Alfred-Louis-Olivier
Legrand des Cloizeaux [1817-1897] was
one of the most active in this field, and his
Manuel de Mineralogie, the first volume of
which appeared in 1862, is remarkable for the
immense amount of new information presented
relating to the optical characters of minerals.
He improved upon the clumsy microscopes of
Amici and of Norrenberg, and examined the
optical properties of 468 minerals and salts
between 1857 and 1869.
Friedrich Eduard Reusch [1812-1891]
in 1867 wrote on the reflection and refraction of
the light at spherical surfaces under a condition
of finite angles of incidence.! 517 ]
Remarkable advances were made from that
time forward. Microscopes and other optical
instruments have been continually improved, a
great variety of ingenious accessories have been
invented, and new and more accurate, or more
rapid, methods of operation have been devised.
This made possible the examination of crystals
[516] H G Sorby ; «On a New Method for Studying the
Optical Properties of Crystals," Mineralogical Magazine, 15
(July, 1909), no. 70, p. 189-215.
[517] e Reusch., "Reflexion und Brechung des Lichts
an spharischen Flachen unter Voraussetzung endlicher
Einfallswinkel," Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff), 206
(1867), p. 497-517.; ibid., "Ueber die Kornerprobe am
zweiachsigen Glimmer," Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff),
136 (1868), p. 130-135, 632-634.
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5.6 Optical Properties
under the microscope in plane-polarized light,
a field of research in which the petrologists were
particularly active.
At the end of the 19 th century, several
excellent treatises on optical mineralogy by
Americans appeared, namely, those by Luquer,
Iddings and Johannsen.
In 1908 N.H. Winchell [xxxx-xxxx] and
Alexander N. Winchell [xxxx-xxxx] pub-
lished their Elements of Optical Mineral-
ogy, An Introduction to Microscopic Petrog-
raphy.^ 1 ^ According to the authors, none
of these contains a concise and clear exposition
of the principles, methods and data of optical
mineralogy. It is to supply this want that this
text was written. The book is divided into three
parts, as follows: (1) Principles and Methods,
(2) Description of Minerals and (3) Analytical
Tables. It covers the phenomena of light, the
elements of mineralogy, and the application of
polarized light to crystalline substances. Part
two contains a systematic description of all the
rock-forming minerals concerning which there
is sufficient data to permit their being deter-
mined by means of the microscope. Part three
is made up of exhaustive analytical tables for
determination, microscopically, of rock- forming
minerals.
5.6.3 Rotatory Polarization! 519 ]
REWORK: The discovery of the rotation of
the plane of polarization of light travelling
through quartz was made by Arago in 1811.
In 1812, Biot observed that quartz had the
property of rotating the plane of polarization
of transmitted light, but as an adherent of
the corpuscular theory of light he found it
impossible to offer a reason able explanation
of his discovery. (Fresnel had no difficulty in
I 518 ! N.H. Winchell and A.N. Winchell., Elements of Optical
Mineralogy, An Introduction to Microscopic Petrography. New
York, D. Van Nostrand Company. 1908. 502 p., 350 figs. 4
plates.
t ' Further historical information may be found in:
Jed Z. Buchwald., The rise of the wave theory of light:
Optical theory and experiment in the early nineteenth century.
Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1989. xiv, 498 p.,
illus. [History of optics in the 18th and 19th century;
ISBN 0226078841.] • W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of
physical crystallography" (pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria,
ed., Historical atlas of crystallography. New York, Elsevier,
1990.
providing a full explanation on the basis of wave
theory.) A year later, Biot studied rotatory
polarization in various crystals and orga nic
solutions, discovered that while some crystals
rotate the light to the right others rotate it
to the left, and determined that the rotation
is proportional to the thickness of substance
traversed and to the wavelength of the light.
The Frenchmen Francois Arago and Jean-
Baptiste Biot didn't see eye-to-eye. Arago
discovered "interference colors" by placing a
sheet of mica between a glass reflector and a
calcite prism. Imagine the impression that the
striking colors must have made on him! He
also noticed that the colors remained if the
glass reflector was missing but the background
was the sky: the blue sky must be polarized!
He also saw evidence of circular polarization
by replacing the mica by a quartz crystal.
He presented a paper to the Paris Academy
in 1811 on his preliminary results. But
the next year Biot (a previous collaborator)
jumped-the-gun on him by presenting two
papers much more comprehensive, taking the
field away from him (he is considered the
discoverer of circular polarization). Biot also
studied the sky polarization and found that
the rainbow was polarized (Brewster saw a
beautiful confirmation of Descartes law and
his polarizing angle on this fact). Arago
took revenge on Biot by helping his protege,
Fresnel, develop the wave theory of light, as
Biot was a lifetime corpuscular. Arago didn't
like Napoleon either and refused in 1852 to take
the oath of allegiance.
The rich colours produced by polarized
light passing through certain crystals were
discovered by Arago in 1811. Partisans
of the two rival optical theories hastened
to find explanations of this phenomenon of
depolarization. On the undulatory theory
explanations were given first by Young, then
more fully by Arago and Fresnel. On the
corpuscular theory, the facts were accounted
for by Biot in a complicated research of
great mathematical elegance. This was
received favourably by Laplace and other
mathematicians, who found the speculations
of Biot more congenial to their habits of
thought than those of Fresnel. Arago entered
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5.6 Optical Properties
the lists against Biot, and the discussion was
carried on with such bitterness that the two
physicists, once intimately associated, became
wholly estranged. Biot gave the important laws
of rotary polarization and their application to
the analysis of various substances.
In 1811 Arago discovered that if a thick
plate of quartz, with parallel faces cut at right
angles to the optic axis, be examined in plane
polarized light between crossed nicols, it does
not appear dark, as one would expect of a
uniaxial crystal, but shows an interference tint.
If the section be rotated on the stage of the
microscope, this color does not change, and,
if monochromatic light be used, it is only by
rotating one or the other nicol through a certain
angle that darkness can be produced. It is
perfectly clear, therefore, that the emerging
light is plane polarized but not in the direction
in which it entered the crystal. In other words,
the plane of polarization has been rotated. I 520 !
The only other natural mineral known to
possess the property of rotary polarization is
cinnabar. The effect is rather weak in each
case. In the former it is about 1/200 as great
as the double refraction in a direction at right
angles to the axis, in the latter about thirteen
times as great as in quartz. Rotary polaaization
is found, however, in many organic substances
which crystallize in enantiomorphous forms.
All substances which possess the power of
rotating the plane of polarization are called
active, the others inactive.
While rotary polarization is of interest, it
is of no great use in petrography except that
advantage is taken of it in the construction of
certain sensitive plates, such as that of Biot,
Klein, etc.
The amount of rotation depends upon the
color of the light used and the thickness of the
^ 1 F.J. Arago., "Memoire sur une modification remar-
quable qu'eprovent les rayons lumineux dans leur passage
a traiers certains corps diaphanes et sur quelques autres
nouieaux phenomenes d'opiique," Mem. Acad. France, An-
nee, 1811, Pt. I, 12 (1812), p. 93-134.; German translation,
"Ueber eine eigenthiimliche Modification, welche die Licht-
strahlen beim Durchgehen durch gewisse durchsichtige Ko-
rper erleiden, und iiber einige andere neue optische Erschei-
nungen," Gilbert's Ann., 40 (1812), p. 145-161. [Translation
of the preceding by Gilbert.]; ibid., "Memoire sur la po-
larisation coloree," Oeuvres Ccompletes, Paris, X (n.d.), p.
36-74, especially p. 54-55.
section, as was shown by Biot. I 521 l In the table
on the following page the values in millimeters
for the rotation, given in the fourth column,
were determined experimentally by Soret and
SarasinJ 522 ! They may be calculated by
Lommel's formula,! 523 !
Suspecting that rotatory polarization is
an effect of a lack of symmetry, J. Herschel
established that quartz crystals often present
trapezohedral faces placed in such a way that
those belonging to certain crystals are mirror
images of the corresponding faces of other
crystals. He explained the connection between
this arrangement and the respective rotation of
light to the right and the left. The rotatory
polarization of quartz and sodium chlorate
was studied by C. Marbach; des Cloizeaux
discovered the rotatory polarization of cinnabar
and strychnine sulphate.
The rotatory polarization of certain
organic salt solutions would have remained
beyond the scope of crystallography, had not
Pasteur's work with tartaric acid and the
tartrates established a connection between this
property of solutions and the crystalline form
of the solutes (1848-1852). Pasteur gave the
general relation between crystal morphology
and rotatory polarization.
Basing himself on the discoveries of Biot,
Arago and Herschel, Pasteur prepared the
sodium ammonium salts of tartaric and racemic
acids (which latter is optically inactive in
solution) and obtained two kinds of crystal
that were mirror images of each other
(enantiomorphous) . Having carefully separated
the two, he discovered that solutions of one
were dextrorotatory-that is rotated the plane
of polarization to the right-while solutions
1 1 J.B. Biot, "Memoire sur un nouveaux genre
d'oscillation que les molecules de la lumiere eprouvent en
traiersant certains cristaux. Lu a PInstitute, 31 mai, 1813,
et 3 nov., 1813," Mem. Acad. France, Annee, 1812, Paris, 13
(1814), Pt. I, p. 1-371, especially 218-314.
^ J J. L. Soret et Ed. Sarasin., "Sur la polarisation
rotatoire du quartz," Comptes Rendus, XCV (1882), 635-
638.; ibid., Arch. soc. phys. et nat. de Geneve, LIV (1875)
253, VIII (1882), 5, 97, 201.
[bi6\ g Lommel: Theorie der Drehung der Polarisation-
sebene. Wiedem. Ann., XIV (1881), S 23-533.; ibid., "Das
Gesetz der Rotationsdisdispersian," Wiedem. Ann., XX
(1883), 578-592, particular 592.
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5.6 Optical Properties
of the other were laevorotatory. When
aqueous solutions of the two were mixed
in equal quantities, the solution became
optically inactive. From these results Pasteur
concluded that the molecular arrangement of
the atoms of these two compounds was also
enantiomorphous.
1811: Arago The discovery of the rotation
of the plane of polarization of light travelling
through quartz was made by Arago.
1821: Biot enunciated the laws of the
phenomenon.
1821: Herschel pointed out the relation
between the hand of the rotation and the
development of faces on quartz crystals.
1822: Fresnel explained the rotation
by postulating oppositely circularly polarized
beams travelling with different velocities along
the optic axis.
1831: Airy gave an explanation of the
formation of the spirals which bear his name.
1846: Faraday discovered in 1846 that the
plane of polarization may also be rotated when
light passes through an isotropic medium when
it is in a magnetic field.
1857: Des Cloizeaux advanced a general
theory of rotatory polarization. Des Cloiseaux.,
"Memoire sur l'emploi des proprietes optiques
birefringentes, pour la distinction et la
classification des mineraux cristallises," Annaies
des Mines (Paris), ii (1857), p. 261-342.
1864: Stefan introduced the banded
spectrum in the study of rotatory polarization.
1892: Goldhammer gave a theory of
magnetic optics in ferromagnetic crystals.
1893: Drude studied optics in ferromag-
netic crystals.
In 1911 Fredrich E. Wright presented
an investigation undertaken primarily to
determine the influence of certain factors which
underlie the methods for the measurement of
the optic axial angles, especially the method of
Professor Becke and the writer's modification
of the same.! 524 !
[524J p_E_ Wright, "Transmission of light through trans-
parent inactive crystal plates, with special reference to ob-
servations in convergent polarized light," American Journal
of Science, 4th series, 31 (1911), p. 157-211. [Gives a good
number of earlier references at the articles introduction.!
1915: Voigt gave a theory of magnetic
optics in ferromagnetic crystals.
5.6.4 Optical Properties and Heat! 525 '
REWORK: Brewster and Mitscherlich showed
experimentally that, in certain crystals, the
angles between the faces, the angles between
the optical axes, and the direction of the
planes may vary with the external temperature.
Neumann investigated this property in gypsum
and borax, and Des Cloizeaux, working with
biaxial crystals, discovered in particular that
orthoclase changes permanently when the
temperature exceeds 700°C. This discovery was
of great interest to geologists, who had found
that certain volcanic rocks contained what Des
Cloizeaux called 'deformed orthoclase'.
Effect of Heat on the Form and Double
Refraction of Calcareous Spar. — That active
and eminent chemist M. Mitscherlich, observed,
upon measuring the angles of calcareous spar
at different temperatures, that there was a
variation of 8' 30" in passing from 0° to 100°
of the centigrade scale. The dihedral obtuse
angle diminishes by heat, or the short axis of
the rhomboid is more dilated than the other
diagonals, so that its form approaches to that
of a cube. Mitscherlich conjectured that its
double refraction would also diminish by heat,
and this was proved by M. Fresnel to be
the case. The same effect, but in a lesser
degree, was produced in rock crystal ; but
M. Fresnel observes that the experiment was
not repeated. H enee it appears, that heat
uniformly distributed in a crystal diminishes
the double refraction. M. Mitscherlich is of
opinion, that heat should always separate most
the particles of a crystal in the direction in
which they are nearest each other.
M. Fresnel likewise found, that heat dilates
sulphate of lime less in the direction of its
principal axis of double refraction (in the
plane of the laminiE *) than in a direction
perpendicular to it; a difference analogous
to that in Iceland spar, but of a contrary
character, as might ) been expected, from the
[525J pother historical information may be found in:
W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of physical crystallography"
(pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of
crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
126
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5.6 Optical Properties
opposite nature of the double refraction two
minerals. See Bulletin des Sciences, Dec. 1823,
p. 181.
Other minerals containing rare earths
(thorite, gadolinite, euxenite, etc.) become
incandescent at a fixed temperature. Des
Cloizeaux called them 'pyrognomic' minerals
and, in collaboration with Damour, studied
their optical properties. In the 20th century it
was shown that the special properties of these
minerals are linked to the presence in them of
radioactive elements.
In 1824 ElLHARDT MlTSCHERLICH [1794-
1863] published a memoir describing the effects
of temperature change on the dimensions of a
number of crystals of various substances.! 526 ]
First, he demonstrated that crystals that
were regular geometric solids, like the cube,
the regular octahedron, and the rhombic
dodecahedron, expanded uniformly in all
directions upon a temperature increase and
evidenced no change in the value of their
interfacial angles. Second, crystals having
rhombohedra or hexagonal prisms for their
primitive forms displayed unequal expansion
in one direction when they were heated. For
example, calcite expanded nonuniformly in
the direction of its vertical axis, whereas its
expansion was uniform in the other two axial
directions. Hence, crystals with one axis
of double refraction reacted in exactly the
same manner to heat as to light. Third, all
crystals shown to possess two axes of double
refraction expanded unequally in all three
directions when heated. Mitscherlich concluded
from his experiments that the expansion of
crystals upon heating was related to the
axes of crystallization and that these axes
corresponded with the optical axes.
Neumann not only established a rapid
change in the angle between the optical axes
of the gypsum as a result of its heating, but
also attained the interference pattern of the
uniaxial crystal of the as a result maximum
rapprochement of these two axes. To it, in
1833 g. analogous phenomenon in the crystals
I 526 ] E. Mitscherlich., "Ueber das Verhaltnis der Form der
kristalliserten Korper zur Ausdehnung die Warme," in: A.
Mitscherlich., Gesammelte Schhften von Eilhard Mitscherlich.
Berlin, 1896, p. 195.
of glauberite described d. Brewster (in the
red light glauberite optically of [dvuosen], A
in violet- it is uniaxial).
1832: Duhamel gave the first experiments
on thermal conduction in crystals.
1847: Senarmont introduced the method
of plotting isothermal surfaces surrounding
a point source of heat in a crystal plate.
He made observations on many crystals and
measured the ratios of the coefficients of
thermal conductivity for different directions
of heat flow. Between 1847 and 1850
the French crystallographer and mineralogist
Senarmont [1808-1850] who was a tireless
researcher of minerals, began studying the
optical properties of crystals, and is perhaps
the first to understand the importance of
optical methods. He established in his studies
the analogy between the optical properties of
crystals and their thermal conductivity.
1851: Stokes made an analysis and raised
questions as to how heat flowed in the crystals.
1864: Fizeau used an optical interference
method to make measurements on many
crystals. The measurements of the change
of interfacial angle and the expansion of cut
plates and bars were applied to crystals of all
symmetries.
1884: Stenger made experiments to
determine the heat flow in crystals.
1898: Tutton used a highly developed
interferometer for measurements on a num-ber
of sulfates of various metals.
5.6.5 Pleochroism & Absorption! 527 ]
REWORK: The color of a transparent mineral
is due to the residual color of the light
spectrum left after the substance has absorbed
a certain part of it. Many colored anisotropic
crystals have the property of absorbing
different amounts or kinds of light in different
! ] Further historical information may be found in: T.
Crook., "Some observations on pleochroism and idiophany
in mineral plates," Mineralogical Magazine, 16 (1911), no.
73, p. 1-29. [See the "Historical resume" section, p. 22-
28.] • J. A. Mandarine, "Absorption and pleochrosim: Two
much-neglected optical properties of crystals," American
Mineralogist, 44 (1959), p. 65-77. • Shafranovskii, Istoriia
kristallografii XIX vek, 1980, p. 86. . W.A. Wooster.,
"Brief history of physical crystallography" (pp. 61-76), in:
J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of crystallography. New
York, Elsevier, 1990.
127
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5.6 Optical Properties
directions. Absorption has reference to the
amount or intensity of light absorbed and hence
may be tested in monochromatic light while
pleochroism refers to the kind of light absorbed
and so must necessarily be tested in white light.
Some crystals, viewed by transmitted
light, present different colors in different di-
rections. This property is termed pleochro-
ism, (from the Greek "Xeos" , full, and "xxxx"
color), or dichroism, (from "xxx", two-fold, and
"xxxxx") when the colors are different in two
directions only. This property is exhibited by
crystals which have at least two kinds of axes;
the colors are the same in the direction of like
axes, and different in the direction of unlike
axes, lolite owes its name (dichroite) to this
property. Mica is nearly opaque in one direc-
tion, while it is transparent and of a differ-
ent color in another. Monometric crystals are
sometimes pleochroic, the color differing in the
direction of unlike diagonals.
In uniaxial crystals with monochromatic
light the two rays corresponding to any
direction of transmission are in general
absorbed at a different rate. The faster
ray may be either more absorbed or less
absorbed than the slower, the absorption of
the ordinary ray being independent of the
direction of transmission, while that of the
extraordinary varies with the inclination to
the optic axis, but is constant for the same
angle and differs most from that of the
ordinary for transmission normal to the optic
axis. With white light the color seen in
any direction will be due to a combination of
the ordinary and extraordinary rays, and this
combination will give different tints in different
directions. Pleochroism is the property of a
mineral to exhibit different colors in different
crystallographic directions on account of the
selective absorption of transmitted light. The
measurement of pleochrosim is made with a
device called the dichroscopic (see §14.6.3).
In 1809 the French mineralogist Pierre
Louis Antoine Cordier [xxxx-xxxx] during
his investigation of a new mineral he named
dichroite revealed the phenomenon of pleochro-
ism.! 528 ] The mineral was remarkable because
[52s] pL j^ Cordier., "Description du dichroite, nouvelle
it exhibited the curious property that its crys-
tals showed two distinctly different colors when
viewed along two different axes: a dark blue
parallel to the [001] axis, and a pale yellow per-
pendicular to it. In 1813 Jean-Andre-Henri
Lucas [xxxx-xxxx] , a supporter of Haiiy, re-
described the mineral, changing its name from
dichroite to cordierite in honor of its discov-
erer. I 529 l Haiiy and his supporters retained the
essence, however, and coined the word "dichro-
ism" to describe the property of a crystal show-
ing two different colors. As a note of interest,
other investigations of the interaction of light
with cordierite showed that along the third
axis [010] the color was altered to a yellowish-
gray. I 530 ! Therefore the term "trichroism" was
coined, becoming a companion word to "dichro-
ism."
Starting in 1817 David Brewster, [xxxx-
xxxx] made a general study of the light
absorption and pleochroism in varoius minerals.
According to his observations, the prism of
bluish-green beryl seemed in polarized light
to turn blue, when its axis was oriented
perpendicular to the plane of polarization, and
greenish when the axis was parallel to this
plane. Analogous phenomena were noted by
the scientist for other minerals. By 1819
Brewster had completed a systematic study of
the absorption of light by crystals, and showed
that, in uniaxial crystals, the absorption is
smallest in the direction of, and greatest at
right angles to, the optical axis. I 531 ! Among
the minerals he examined with both normal
and polarized light were sapphire, epidote,
mica, and cordierite (dichroite). He was,
however, unable to discover the more complex
especes minerale," Journal des Mines, 25 (1809), p. 129-???.
[The mineral was named after GREEK xxx, 'double,' and
GREEK xxxxx, 'color,' because it transmits two colors.]
1 529 J J.A.H. Lucas., Tableau Methodique des Especes
Minerales, 2, 1813, p. 219.
[530] yy Haidinger., "Ueber den Cordierit," Annalen der
Physik (Poggendorff), 67 (1846), p. 441-467.
[531J Y) Brewster., "On the Laws which regulate the
absorption of polarised light by doubly refracting crystals,"
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
1819, p. 11-28.; ibid., "On the absorption of polarised
light by doubly refracting crystals," Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal, 2 (1820), p. 341-348.; ibid., "On the phenomena
of dichrosim," Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, 3 (1820), p.
244-???.
128
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5.6 Optical Properties
laws governing absorption in biaxial crystals.
Later investigations by John Frederick
William Herschel [xxxx-xxxx] confirmed
the property of pleochroism, and brought about
further substantial progress to the knowledge
of the optical characteristics, particularly
absorbtion of light in biaxial crystals. I 532 l His
paper also gives an elegant explanation for the
interference rings first observed by Brewster
in 1818 and which are the keystone to the
foundation of optical mineralogy studies of the
19 th and 20 th centuries.
The absorption of light in crystals
continued to be investigated in the 19 th century,
but it did not progress beyond a rule-of-thumb
system until much later. Among the earlier
investigators was Jacques Babinet [xxxx-
xxxx] , who in 1838 discovered that the greatest
absorption in a crystal generally coincided with
the direction of greatest refractive index. I 533 l
He found many exceptions to this rule,
however.
In 1845, Wilhelm von Haiginger
[xxxx-xxxx] made a general account of
pleochroism in crystals. I 534 l Haidinger also
published again on pleochrosimJ 535 !
hi 1854, at the end of his career
Henri Hureau de Senar.mont [xxxx-xxxx]
investigated the property of pleochroism.
Suspecting that the unequal absorption of light
in different directions occurred because of the
coloring agents inside the crystal, he created
some artificial crystals to which he introduced
coloring agents. As he predicted these crystals
[532] jp/yy Herschel., "On the action of crystallized
bodies on homogeneous light, and on the causes of the
deviation from Newtons scale in the tints which many of
them develope on exposure to a polarised ray," Philosophical
Transactions oftheRoyal Society of London, 1820, I, p. 45-100.
[533] j Babinet., "Sur I'absorption dans les milieux colores
birefringents," Comptes Rendus, Acad. Sci. Paris, 7 (1838),
p. 832-833.
[534] -yy^ von Haidinger., "Ueber den Pleochroismus der
Krystalle," Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff), 65 (1845),
p. 1-30.; ibid., "Ueber das Schillern der Krystallflachen,"
Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff), 70 (1847), p. 574-???, 71
(1848), p. 321-343, and 76 (1849), p. 99-??.
[535] -yy^ Haidinger., "Pleochroismus an mehreren einax-
igen Krystallen in neuerer Zeit beobachtet," Sitzungs-
berichte der Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftlichen Classe
(Wien), 13 (1854), p. 3-17; ibid., "Pleochroismus einiger
zweiaxiger Krystalle," Sitzungsberichte der Mathematisch-
Naturwissenschaftlichen Classe (Wien), 13 (1854), p. 306-331.
became extremely pleochroicJ 536 ]
1862: Gustav Rose [xxxx-xxxx] I 537 l
1862: E. Reusch [xxxx-xxxx] I 538 l
1862: Franz von Kobell [xxxx-xxxx] I 539 !
1869: Haushofer [xxxx-xxxx] I 540 !
1869: Kosmann [xxxx-xxxx] I 541 l
1877: P. Glan [xxxx-xxxx] performed
photometric observations on absorption in
1877. I 542 l
1880: H. Laspeyres [xxxx-xxxx] (1880)
pointed out the existence of absorption axes
(directions of least, intermediate, and greatest
absorption) . I 543 l He investigated certain
biaxial crystals and found that the absorption
axes, although subject to the symmetry of the
crystal, did not necessarily coincide with the
principal directions of the indicatrix.
In 1888, Henri Becquer.el [xxxx-
xxxx] made qualitative and quantitative
observations. I 544 l
1890: P. Drude [xxxx-xxxx] gave in 1890 a
theory of the absorption of light in strongly
absorbing crystals. I 545 l
[536] j-[ d e Senarmont., "Remarques sur les proprietes
optiques de quelques sels," Annales de Chimie et de Physique,
3 Serie, 41 (1854), p. 319-335.; ibid., "Versuche fiber die
kiinstliche Erzeugung von Polychroi'smus in krystallisirten
Substanzen," Annalen der Physik (Poggendorff), 167 (1854),
no. 3, p. 491-494.
[537] q Rose., "Ueber den Asterismus der Krystallen,"
Ber. Ak. Berlin, 1862, p. 614-???, and 1869, p. 344-???.
[530] g Reusch., "Ueber das Schillern gewisser Krystalle,"
Annaien der Physik (Poggendorff), 116 (1862), p. 392-???, 118
(1863), p. 256-???, and 120 (1863), p. 95-??.
[539] p_ v _ Kobell., "Ueber Asterismus und die Brewster-
schen Lichtfiguren," Munchen, Sitzungsber, 1862/1, p. 199-
209.; ibid. , "Ueber Asterismus. Stauroskopische Bemerkun-
gen," Munchen, Sitzungsber, 1863/1, p. 65-66.
[540] 77^ Haushofer., "Ueber Asterismus des Calcites," Ber.
Ak. Munchen, 1869, p. ??-??.
[541] 77^ Kosmann., "Ueber das Schillern und den
Dichrosimus des Hypersthens," Neues Jahrbuch fur Miner-
■;ie, 1869, p. 368-??? and p. 532-???, and, 1871, p. 501-
[542] p Qi an-5 "Ueber ein neues Photometer," AnnaJen der
Physikalsiche Chemie, 1 (1877), p. 351-360.
]543] pp Laspeyres., "Mineralogische Bemerkungen," Zeit-
schrift ffir Krystallographie, 4 (1880), p. 433-467.
]544] pp Becquerel., "Recherches sur les variations des
spectres d'absorption dans les cristaux," Ann. Chim.
(Paris), 14 (1888), p. 170-257.; ibid., "Sur les variations
des spectres d'absorption des composes du didyme," Ann.
Chim. (Paris), 14 (1888), p. 257-279.
[545] p_ p) ruc ]e., "Das Verhalten der Absorptions-coefficien-
129
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5.6 Optical Properties
Otto Lehman [xxxx-xxxx] like Senar-
mont studied pleochroism in artificial crystals.
Between 1880 and 1900, W. VoiGT
[xxxx-xxxx] (1885), I 546 ! and P. Drude
(1900) I 547 ! presented the fundamental theories
of absorption in crystals. During this same
period, notable experimental work confirming
these theories was carried out by W. VoiGT
(1885), I 548 l Becquerel (1887),[ 549 1 Ramsay
(1888), P5o] andEhlers (1898).[ 551 1
1898: WOLDEMAR VoiGT [xxxx-xxxx] in-
cluded a great deal of information on pleochro-
ism effect in his important textbook, Die Fun-
damentalen Physikalischen Eigenschaften der
Krystalle (1898).
1902: W. VoiGT [xxxx-xxxx] I 552 !
1906: A excellent summary of crystal
optics was compiled by F. Pockels [xxxx-
xxxx] and published as his Lehrbuch der
Kristalloptik in 1906. He includes information
on pleochrosim.
1911: T. Crook [xxxx-xxxx] ..J 553 !
Literature
1903 Georges Meslin., "Mesure du dichxoi'sme du cris-
taux," Paris, Acad. C. R., 137 (1903), 3 p.
5.6.6 Optical Anomalies! 554 ]
ten von Krystallen," Annalen der Physikalsiche Chemie, 40
(1890), p. 665-680.
[546] -yy Voigt., "Erklarung der Farbenerscheinungen
pleochroitischer Krystalle," Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie,
1885/1, p. 119-141.
[547] p Drude ; Lehrbuch der Optik. Leipzig, S. Hirzel,
1900.
[548] yy Voigt., "Erklarung der Farbenerscheinungen
pleochroitischer Krystalle," Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie,
1885/1, p. 119-141.
[549] j-[ Becquerel., "Sur I'absorption de la lumiere au
travers des cristaux," Bulletin Societe de Mineralogie France,
10 (1887), p. 120-124.
[550] yy Ramsay., "Ueber die Absorption des Lichtes im
Epidot vom Sulzbachthal," Zeitschrift fur Krystallographie,
13 (1888), p. 97-134.
^ J J. Ehlers., "Die Absorption des Lichtes in einigen pre-
ochroitischen Krystailen," Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie,
1898/11, p. 259-317.
[552] ^y_ Voigt., "Beitrage zur Aufklarung der Eigen-
schaften pleochroitischer Krystalle ," Annalen der Physik,
314 (1902), no. 10, p. 367-416.
[553] rp c roo k., "Some observations on pleochroism and
idiophany in mineral plates," Mineralogical Magazine, 16
(1911), no. 73, p. 1-29.
[554] Further historical information may be found in: Bart
Kahr and J. Michael McBride., "Optically Anomalous
REWORK: The optical symmetry of many
crystals is lower than would be expected from
their external form and X-ray diffraction data.
Recently such optical anomalies have been at-
tributed to nonequilibrium structures resulting
from kinetically controlled crystal growth. Im-
purities are incorporated to different extents at
various surface sites that would otherwise have
become symmetry-related within the bulk crys-
tal. After their discovery by Brewster in 1815,
optically anomalous crystals were the subject
of lively debate throughout the 19th century
among some of the most distinguished contrib-
utors to the development of crystallography in-
cluding Biot, Berzelius, Herschel, Mitscherlich,
Prankenheim, Pasteur, Mallard, Klein, Groth,
Wyrouboff, Barlow, Brauns, Rinne, Pockels,
and Friedel. From a sea of wild speculation two
conflicting postulates emerged: that the sym-
metric form resulted from accidental twinning
of segments with lower symmetry, or that the
optical peculiarities resulted from stress due to
impurities or external perturbations. Neither
postulate expresses the present view. Interest
in this research waned at the turn of the cen-
tury, and after 1917 no one pursued Tammann's
alternative correct insight.
1851: From his study of isomorphic
crystals, de Senarmont concluded in 1851 that
salts which were chemically and geometrically
isomorphic may nevertheless have quite distinct
optical properties. He devised experiments in
order to investigate the reason why certain
natural groups of minerals, such as mica and
topaz, have inconstant optical properties.
1880s: Mallard showed that anomalous
crystals are built up of distinct parts, whose
symmetry is less than that of the whole but
which are so arranged as to form a more
symmetrical structure. Pasteur had previously
shown that whenever a mineral species can
produce crystals belonging to two distinct
systems, the more symmetrical form is a
limiting case of the less symmetrical form.
Applying this view to compound systems,
Crystals," Angewandte Chemie International Edition in
English, 31 (2003), no. 1, p. 1-26. * W.A. Wooster.,
"Brief history of physical crystallography" (pp. 61-76), in:
J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of crystallography. New
York, Elsevier, 1990.
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5.7 Electrical Properties
Mallard was able to account for the existence
of twins and to offer a tentative theory of
polymorphism.
1891: Brauns, in his Die optischen
Anomalien der Krystalle (Leipzig, 1891)
published a compendium of all known facts
about optical properties of minerals. But the
new techniques provided by the powerful study
lead to many discrepancies between optical
theory and observed facts. Some crystals
with cubic symmetry are, for example, doubly
refracting when they should theoretically be
isotropic. Others are biaxial when their
symmetry suggests they must be uniaxial.
1910: The study of opaque crystals was
greatly developed by J. Konigsberger
1917: Gaubert (1917) studied the rotatory
power of anisotropic liquids.
1920: Seve (1920) and Gaudefroy (1924)
continued the study of double refraction.
5.6.7 Reflection! 555 ]
REWORK: The study of the optical properties
of opaque substances has been closely linked
with the development of suitable microscopes.
1813: Berzelius introduced the use of
polished and etched surfaces for this type of
study.
1848: Cauchy built a theory of the light
reflected from metals was put forward.
1888: Drude worked on antimony sulfide.
1913-1937: Berek showed what quantities
need to be measured in anisotropic materials.
1972: A survey of the subject is given
by Orcel in Microscopic Study of Opaque
Minerals (1972) by Galopin & Henry.
5.6.8 Infrared Optics
REWORK: 1897: Rubens & Nicois studied the
'Reststrahlen' (residual rays) obtained when
infrared rays of appropriate wavelength are
reflected from surfaces of the crystals.
1927: A summary of the research carried
out between 1918 and 1927 is contained
in Rawlins & Taylor, Infra-Red Analysis of
Molecular Structure (1929).
[555J pother historical information may be found in:
W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of physical crystallography"
(pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of
crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
5.7 Electrical Properties! 556 !
The relative conducting power of electricity
through different minerals was a subject of
minor interest in the early development of
mineralogical science; however, interest in the
property advanced with technological growth.
In the form of either frictional electricity or the
pyroelectrical effect electricity was one of the
earliest qualities used to identify a particular
mineral species. For example, amber was
known in ancient times to attract small feathers
after obtaining a static charge after being
vigorously rubbed. Such curious effects gave
way to many useful applications as electrical
technology and theory advanced. Conductivity
is today a property that is highly valuable in
ore deposit exploration and it is a property
that enables many modern electronic devices
to operate. Every computer has at its heart a
vibrating crystal regulated by the piezoelectric
effect that moderates the flow of electrons
through the circuitry.
5.7.1 Pyroelectricity! 557 ]
REWORK: Pyroelectricity was probably first
observed centuries ago. The Greek philosopher
Theophrastus, who lived in the fourth century
B.C.E., probably wrote the earliest description
of the pyroelectric effect, as exhibited by the
mineral tourmaline. He described a stone called
lyngourion that had the property of attracting
straw and bits of wood. Theophrastus had
[556J pother historical information may be found in:
Edmund Hoppe., Geschichte der Elektrizitat. Leipzig,
Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1884. xx, 622 p. [History
of electricity; Reprinted, Wiesbaden, Sandig, 1969.] •
W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of physical crystallography"
(pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of
crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
I 55 '] Further historical information may be found in: Wil-
helm Gottlieb Hankel., "Uebersicht liber die Entwickelung
der Lehre von der Thermoelektricitat der Krystalle," Ab-
handlung der sachsische Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, 10
(1874), p. 345-??. [Includes a history of pyroelectricity]
■ S.B. Lang., Sourcebook of pyroelectricity. London, New
York & Paris, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1974.
xv, [1], 562 p., biblio., illus., index. [Contains a good his-
tory and excellent bibliography of pyroelectricity] • Pe-
ter Theophil Riess, Die Lehre von der Reibungselektricitat.
Berlin, 1853. [Volume two, page 453 starts a history of
pyroelectricity] • W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of physi-
cal crystallography" (pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed.,
Historical atlas of crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
131
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5.7 Electrical Properties
thus observed the effects of electrostatic charges
due to temperature changes of a pyroelectric
material. Although our present scientific
interests concern the powers of attraction
of lyngourion, Theophrastus and subsequent
authors in the following two millennia were far
more interested in the origin of the stone and its
possible therapeutic properties. Theophrastus
proposed that lyngourion was formed from the
urine of an animal called a lynx. This was not
the cat known today but a doglike animal.
About 300 years later, Pliny the Elder,
a Roman historian of the first century AD,
repeated the story, giving the stone a Latin
name, lyncurium. More than 35 further
works mention lyncurium, largely repeating
the accounts of Theophrastus and Pliny with
some embellishments. These works and authors
include the Greek geographer and historian
Strabo (c. 7BC); a collection of Greek
manuscripts called the Alexandrine lapidaries'
(AD227-400); Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis
on Cyprus (c. AD400); the Spanish historian
Isidore of Seville (c. AD600); and Marbodus,
Bishop of Rennes in France (c. AD 1100).
An especially graphic description of the origin
of lyncurium and its medicinal properties is
given by Dioscorides, a first century AD Greek
herbalist: 'But that [urine] of the Lynx, which
is called Lyncurium, is thought as so one as it
is pist out, to grow into a stone, wherefore it
hath but a foolish report. For it is this that
is called by somme, Succinum pterygopho-ron
[because it drawes feathers to it], which being
dranck with water is good for the stomach &
for a belly that is troubled with a flux.'
One of the most beautiful of the ancient
books on natural history is the 'Hortus sanitatis
major', the 'Garden of health', which describes
the medicinal and therapeutic values of many
plants, animals and minerals. Perhaps written
by Johann Wonnecke of Caub in the fifteenth
century and was published in Latin, German,
French, Dutch and Italian editions. Lyncurium
is described in several chapters.
Eighteenth Century
Two thousand years after Theophrastus, the
unusual physical properties of tourmaline were
reintroduced into Europe through the publica-
tion in 1707 of a book entitled Curiose Spec-
ulationes bey Schlaflosen Ndchten ('Curious
speculations during sleepless nights'). The au-
thor of the book, Johann Georg Schmidt, using
the pen name Immer Gern Speculirt ('Always
Gladly Speculating'), wrote a series of 48 di-
alogues, one of which contained a section de-
scribing hard and glassy bodies which were not
magnetic. An excellent description of the py-
roelectric effect in tourmaline is given in this
passage:
The ingenious Dr. Daumius, chief physician to the
Polish and Saxon troops on the Rhine, told me, that, in
the year 1703, the Dutch first brought from Ceylon in the
East Indies a precious stone called tourmaline, turmale, or
trip, which had the property of not only attracting the
ashes from the warm or burning coals, as the magnet
does iron, but also repelling them again. This sight was
very amusing, for as soon as a small quantity of ashes
leaped upon it, they appeared to be endeavouring to writhe
themselves by force into the stone. Soon a few of the ashes
jumped from it again, as if to leap to the tourmaline again.
For this reason, it was called the ash-drawer by the Dutch.
The colour of it was an orange-red heightened by a fire
colour. When the turf coals were cold, the tourmaline did
not produce these effects, and it required no care like the
magnet ... I have considered whether it would not attract
and repel the ashes of other burning coals as well as those
of turf; and I have no doubt, that, if heated, it would
attract other things besides ashes.
The first description of pyro electricity
in a scientific journal was by a physician
and chemist, Louis Lemery, who exhibited
a tourmaline crystal before the Academy of
Sciences of Paris in 1717. The naturalist Carl
von Linne (Linnaeus) was the first person to
relate the pyroelectric property of tourmaline
to electricity. He called the mineral lapis
electricus. The first serious scientific study
of the electrical properties of tourmaline was
presented to the Royal Academy of Sciences
in Berlin by Dr Franz Ulrich Theodor Aepinus
in 1756. His major observations were that
tourmaline became electrified by being warmed
(rather than by friction which was the common
method in use at the time), and that the
crystal acquired opposite electric charges on
two opposing faces. Aepinus' observations
strongly supported Benjamin Franklin's theory
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5.7 Electrical Properties
of positive and negative electricity, against the
strong and weak electricity theory of Abbe
Nollet.
The usefulness of this new way of
generating electric charges and its relevance
to the rapidly developing understanding of
electricity and magnetism induced many
others to experiment on tourmaline, including
Johann Karl Wilcke, Benjamin Wilson, Joseph
Priestley, John Canton and Torben Bergman.
Canton was apparently the first person to
observe that cooling of tourmaline caused its
electrical polarity to be the reverse of that
found on heating. He also devised a very
novel experiment for demonstrating that the
quantities of positive and negative charge were
equal. He connected a metal cup filled with
boiling water to a pith ball electroscope. A
tourmaline crystal was dropped into the water
and the electroscope showed no sign of electric
charge, either then or during subsequent
cooling of the water. This demonstrated
that the absolute quantitites of positive and
negative charge produced on the crystal were
equal and were neutralised in the water.
During the nineteenth century, research in
pyroelectricity began to become more quan-
titative. As electrical measuring techniques
of greater sophistication were developed, these
were soon applied to pyroelectric studies.
David Brewster, famous for his work in
optics, was the first author to use the term
'pyroelectricity'. It appeared in his 1824 paper
entitled 'Observations on the pyro-electricity
of minerals'. One of the materials studied
by Brewster was the 'tartrate of soda and
potash' - Rochelle salt - which was the material
in which Valasek discovered ferro-electricity
almost exactly a century later. Quantitative
electrometers for charge measurement were
developed by A. C. Becquerel, James D. Forbes
and Wilhelm Gottlieb Hankel. Hankel was
one of the most prolific writers of all time on
pyroelectricity, and published more than 30
very lengthy papers between 1839 and 1899.
Jean-Mothee Gaugain made the first
precise measurements of pyroelectric charges in
1859. He reached some important conclusions:
first, that the total quantity of electricity
produced by a crystal of tourmaline depends
uniquely upon the limits within which its
temperature is varied; second, that within
the same temperature limits, the quantity of
electricity produced during heating is the same
as that produced during cooling, but with the
signs of the charges reversed; and third, that
the quantity of charge produced is proportional
to the cross-sectional area of the crystal and
is independent of its length. The first major
theoretical treatment of pyroelectricity was
published by William Thomson, Lord Kelvin,
in 1878. He was also the first person to
predict the electrocaloric effect, the converse
effect of pyroelectricity. A much used technique
for determining the charge distribution on a
crystal was developed by Kundt in 1883. A
mixture of red lead oxide and sulphur was
dusted onto the crystal. The lead oxide
adhered to the negative parts of the crystal
and the sulphur to the positive parts. Jacques
and Pierre Curie speculated that the electrical
effects due to non-uniform heating of quartz
crystals might be caused by pressure, which
led to their discovery of piezoelectricity in 1880
(see §5.7.3). Woldemar Voigt, professor of
physics at the University of Gottingen from
1883 to 1919, established an outstanding school
of crystallography, thermodynamics and crystal
physics. Many of the publications emanating
from his school are described in his 'Lehrbuch
der Kristalphysik'.
During the latter part of the nineteenth
century and the early decades of the twentieth,
seven Nobel laureates published papers on
pyroelectricity. They are, of course, much
better known for their research in other fields.
Few important papers on pyroelectricity
were published in the first two decades
of the twentieth century. Joseph Valasek
studied the properties of Rochelle salt and,
in 1920, discovered ferro electricity. Interest
in pyroelectricity for a while then virtually
vanished.
5.7.2 Conductivity I 558 l
[558] pother historical information may be found in:
Edmund Hoppe., Geschichte der Elektrizitat. Leipzig,
Johann Ambrosius Barth, 1884. xx, 622 p. [History
of electricity.; Reprinted, Wiesbaden, Sandig, 1969.] •
W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of physical crystallography"
(pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of
133
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5.7 Electrical Properties
REWORK: Towards the end of the 18th cen-
tury the electrical conductivity was one of the
properties studied for mineral determination.
However, little was understood of the nature of
electricity and its value as a diagnostic in min-
eralogy was limited.
In 1787, Rene Just Hauy presented his
first detailed studies of electrical phenomena
in his Exposition Raisonnee de la Theorie
de l'Electricite et du Magnetism e, I 559 l in
which, like Franklin and Aepinus, Hauy
assumed there was a hypothetical electrical
fluid and a magentic one. Electrical
phenomena would intrigue Hauy through out
the remainder of his life, and he would
publish several articles about his investigations
on the electrical properties of minerals and
crystals. I 560 ! Generally, his method was
to determine if a mineral showed positive
and negative electrical charge after being
rubbed with a cloth (static electricity). In
1817, Hauy used his mineralogical electrometer
or ???????????? to study electricity that
developed when he applied pressure to a
crystal. This phenomena is now known as
the piezoelecrical effect and is described in a
subsequent section.
Minerals were also studied for their ability
to generate a current when used in electro-
chemical combinations. In the year 1806
Guy ton tested a variety of minerals for their
electrical production. Using a diamond cathode
submerged in a water solution, he studied
the amount of electricity created when other
cathodes of graphite, stibnite, pyrite, and
chalcopyrite were submerged in the water. He
observed that while a current was created,
some of the minerals also infused the water
with sulfur from the electrolytic breakdown
of the sulfide minerals. Guyton speculates
that a larger version of this process could be
used commercially in the refinement of sulfur
containing ore minerals. He suggests that such
a unit should be built and tested in France, but
crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
[559] p^j Hairy., Exposition Raisonnee de la Theorie de
L'Electricite et du Magnetisme, D'Apres les principes de M.
Aepinus, des Academies de Petersbourg, de Turin, &c. A Paris,
Chez la Veuve Desaint, 1787. xxvii, [5], 238 p., 4 plates.
[560] Add j ist of other ar ti c les here.
this apparently never happened.
The following year, Davy successfully
separated elemental metallic potassium from
potash by using an electrical current as the
reducing agent. This important discovery led
Simon in the year 1808 to reduce many minerals
through the application of an electrical current.
Using this procedure he was the first to
successfully isolate a silicate component (SiO x )
from a more complex compound. Davy was
also able to reduce silicon to its oxide form,
but believed that it was still a compound. But
try as he might, Davy was not able to reduce
it further.
In the year 1812 a pupil of Hauy, Pellitier
presented before the royal university in Paris
his thesis, Essai sur la valeur des caracteres
physiques employes en mineralogiel 561 ] that
evaluated and described each of the physical
properties employed in deterministic mineral-
ogy In his tenth section, he treats electrical
properties specifically. Many of his specula-
tions were later confirmed by other researchers.
Other French mineralogists of the time
used electrical conductivity as a property in
mineral determination, noting if a particular
species was electrically conductive. But the
property was never used as an important
property in determining a mineral's species.
After Pellitier's study a rather long stretch
occurs when no new research in the electrical
properties of minerals are researched. In 1834,
Heinrich and Hausmann in a rather obscure
study recorded the results of their research into
the electrical resistance of minerals. Using a
Leydner Jar they observed whether a spark
was initiated when the mineral in question was
touched to the charge bar.
In 1838, Rosienscheold examined numer-
ous artificial and natural sulfur compounds
for their conductivity by means of an electro-
scope. He followed the procedure of Heinrich
and Hausmann in his approach and also used
the Leyden Jar as a discharge device.
The year 1838 also saw the publication
of Faraday's Experimental Researches on
[561J p lerre Joseph Pellitier., Essai sur la valeur des
caracteres physiques employes en mineralogie. Theses
Universite de Paris. Paris, D. Colas, 1812. 26, [2] p.
134
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5.7 Electrical Properties
Electricity, which collected together his series
of articles that had previously appeared in the
Philosophical Transactions. Faraday's research
presented a strong theoretical foundation for
further studies into electrical phenomena. This
interest slowly bleed off into mineral studies.
Karsten in 1847 showed that a large
variety of sulfide and telluride minerals found
in the mines of Nagyag, Romania to be good
electrical conductors. Likewise, he showed
that quicksilver (native mercury) to be a
conductor, but found its common sulfide ore
species cinnabar to not be a conductor.
Heidmann constructed the "Diagometer"
to test the electrical conductivity of various
substances that had been powdered. This
included minerals. It was developed by
Heidmann as a new variation of Coulomb's
Turning Balance. This was later modified by
Rosseau.
Following Faraday's research, Beoquerel
wrote a textbook on electricity that became
popular and famous.! 562 ] It went far in
clarifying the electrical theory of the time.
Beoquerel also advances the hypothesis that
some mineral formation occurs in the earth
by the action of electrocapillaires drawing in
a mineralized solution and through a process
of natural electrolysis reducing out the ore
mineral. He believed that this formation
occurred over the course of many years.
The electrical conductivity of minerals
still locked within the earth was the focus
of Fox's 1835 study. Working in the mines
of Cornwall, he successfully measured an
electrical current at one location after inducing
the current at another location located much
further away. This was an exciting result.
Fox hypothesised from his experimental success
that some metallic ores are formed by the
deposition from aqueous solutions through
natural electrochemical reactions, and that
new ore deposits are being continually formed
in the earth along channels through which
subterranean water flowed.
Henwood repeated and confirmed Fox's
experiments. Fox's genetic theory of ore
formation was violently attacked and rejected
[562]
by other researchers, however. Reich was hired
by the local mining concern of Freiberg to
evaluate the theory and determine if there was
any practical application to be used. Reich
concluded that there were those individual
cases where the detection of an electrical
current could be successfully used to locate new
ore deposits. It was not until the later half
of the 20th century however, that Fox's use of
mineral conductivity would be widely used as
a tool in geophysics and ore deposit location.
In 1843, Gustav Rose and P. Riess
introduced the concept of electrical axes
or 'polar axes' in crystals, which possess
asymmetric ends on the crystal terminations.
Delafosse explained in terms of strings of
hemihedral molecules. In the well known
physicist A. Kundt [1839-1894] invented a
visual representation of the electrical current.
By dusting the sample with yellow powder of
sulfur and the red dust of minium near the
positive and negative ends of the electrical axes,
the flow of current would cause the particles
to be carried along through electrostatic
processes. The method was successfully
employed by the Russian Kolepko [1856-1946]
in his study of the polar electricity of quartz
with respect to its crystallographic symmetry
(1884). I 563 !
Senarmont attempted in 1849 to define the
electrical conductivity of a series of minerals,
just as he had thermal conductivity two years
previously. He established the directional
dependence of surface conductivity in crystals
in "Memoire sur la conductibilite superficielle
des corps cristallisees pour l'electricite de
tension" (1850). I 564 ! He discovered this
dependence by wrapping a crystal in tinfoil
(which had been grounded) and by placing
a metal point on the crystal surface at a
point where a circular piece of the tinfoil had
been cut out; the point was then connected
to the positive conductor of an electrostatic
machine, and the whole apparatus was placed
under the glass bell of an air pump. At
I 563 ! Shafranovskii, Istoriia kristaUogram XIX vek, 1980, p.
209.
[564] Annaies de Chimie et de Physique, 3rd ser., 28 (1850),
261.
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5.7 Electrical Properties
reduced pressure he was able to observe, in
the dark, circular or elliptical figures of light,
depending on the nature of the crystal. He
stated that: "The continuous and silent flux
of the electricity of the rarefied air does not,
it is true, leave permanent traces; but it
does manifest itself in the darkness by a
faint light that persists throughout the whole
experiment and that makes all its details
visible..." In this way, he examined apatite,
beryl, tourmaline, quartz, rutile, cassiterite,
vesuvianite, sulfur, stibnite, aragonite, calcite,
barite, celestite, topaz, staurolite, gypsum,
selenite, glauberite, epidote, mica, and
feldspar. Senarmont compared the electrical
conductivity he measured to its optical
properties and discovered that the greatest
electrical conductivity occured in a direction
perpendicular to that of the smallest light
transmission.
In 1849, Wiedemann drew figures compar-
ing the optical and electrical properties of min-
erals. He included in the minerals he exam-
ined fluorite, alum, apatite, tourmaline, quartz,
aragonite, barite, celestite, gypsum, borax, epi-
dote, and feldspar. He noted that the con-
ductivity would sometimes vary from Senar-
mont 's results and it was not always in tandem
to the optical axis. GARLIC and Root con-
firmed Wiedemann's observations showing that
this relationship also arises if the crystal face to
be examined is covered in COLLODION.
Riess reported that the best conductivity
occurs along the direction of the crystal's
cleavage or on the freshest surfaces from a
recent fracture. This can be altered due to
the humitity of the atmosphere, however. The
later investigations into the Dielectric effect by
the brothers Curie showed conclusively that the
best conduction in a crystal is in the direction
of the optical axes.
The mineralogist Kobell in 1850 persued
a different method to measure electrical
conductivity in his minerals. I 565 ! He held
his specimens between zinc cathodes that were
submerged in a solution of copper sulfate.
He then measured the current coming off
I 565 ] Franz von Kobell., "??????????????", Munch.
Anzeigen, 1850, 89-90.
the tested mineral in relation to the known
electrical current generated by the zinc and
copper solution alone. It was a simple
method to measure a minerals conductivity.
Unfortunately it often gave Kobell inaccurate
values for the minerals he studied in this
way. They included stibnite, arsenopyrite,
sphalerite, cassiterite, pyrolusite, tetradymite,
among others.
Another researcher that attempted to pro-
vide an exact measurement of a mineral's con-
ductivity was Wartmann. He investigated 319
mineral species and showed that 252 to be elec-
trical insulators. His technique was to apply a
very strong electrical current to the specimen
and measure the resulting transmission of the
current across the crystal face with a very sen-
sitive Rhumkorff Rheometer.
In 1855, the first observations on the
variation of the electrical conductivity with
direction in a crystal were made on bismuth
by MatteucciJ 566 !
Backstrom did research on the conductiv-
ity with direction in a crystal of hematite, a
crystal of rhombohedral symmetry. I 567 !
As for the flow of heat, the same
discussions occurred concerning the equality
of resistance to electric currents flowing in
opposite directions on a given crystal and the
linear or spiral lines of flow from a point source.
The application of a magnetic field can curve
the lines of current flow and this gives rise to
the Hall effect. The Hall effect has in recent
times been successfully applied to the study of
semiconductors because it helps to distinguish
between the positive or negative character of
the carriers of electric charge.
Beijerinckl 568 ] in 1897 contributed an
exhaustive paper upon the electric conductivity
[566j q Matteucci., "Sur certaines proprietes physiques
du bismuth cristallise," C.R..Acad. Sci., 40 (1855), 541-545.
ibid.., "Supplement au memoire com-munique a l'Academie
sur certaines proprietes physiques du bismuth cristallise,"
C.R. Acad. Sci., 40 (1855), 913-914.
[567J j-[ Backstrom., "Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Thermo-
elektricitat der Krystalle," Ofvers. K. Vetensk. Akad. Foerh.,
8 (1888), 553-559.
[568] p_ Beijerinck, "Ueber das Leitungsvermogen der
Mineralien fur Elektricitat," Jahrbuch der Mineralogie,
Beilage Band, 11 (1898), 403-74. [Exhaustive paper on
the electric conductivity of minerals, together with an
interesting historical introduction to the subject.]
136
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5.7 Electrical Properties
of minerals, claiming that electric conductivity
is a "substantial property which in the case
of opaque and heavy or massive minerals
is of the greatest importance" ; that "no
physical property in itself, between wide
limits, can he determined with greater
accuracy than the electrical resistance of a
substance, and that the changes of this
resistance, through other physical influences,
as for instance the temperature, is in the
highest degree characteristic." His tables
embraced 375 substances. He concluded that
the electrical conductivity of minerals varied
between extreme limits, that it was dependent
upon the' chemical constitution of the minerals,
and upon their position in the System.
Chemically isomerous as well as physically
allotropic bodies are greatly contrasted in
their electric conductivity whereas isomorphous
salts are much less contrasted, and differ
amongst themselves no more than different
metals. Slight differences are evident in
different crystallographic axes in anisotropic
minerals as in rhombic Marcasite, in the
direction of the three axes. Monoclinic and
triclinic crystals are non-conductors, above low
resistances, but there is no apparent direct
relation between the class of symmetry and the
galvanic conductivity.
5.7.3 Piezoelectricity! 569 ]
Piezoelectricity is the name given to the
development of an electrical charge on a crystal
when pressure is applied to its surface. This
is only possible in substances that crystallize
with the requiste degree of asymmetry and are
anisotropic.
After the French engineer and physicist
Charles Augustin Coulomb [1736-1806] spec-
ulated that electricity might be produced by
[569J pother historical information may be found in:
W.G. Cady., Piezoelectricity. New York, McMillian and
Co., 1946. • A. Ballato., "Piezoelectricity: old effects
and new applications," IEEE Ultrasonics Transactions,
Ferroelectric Frequency Control, 42 (1995), pp. 916-926. •
ibid., "Piezoelectricity: history and new thrusts," IEEE
Ultrasonics Symposium, 1 (1996), pp. 575-583. • Shaul
Katzir., "The Discovery of the Piezoelectric Effect,"
Archive for History of Exact Sciences, 57 (2003), 61-91. •
W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of physical crystallography"
(pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of
crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
means of pressure, in 1817 the great French
mineralogist Rene Just Hauyl 570 ! and in 1820
Antoine Cesar Becquerel [1788-1878] I 571 ! per-
formed numerous experiments in which they re-
ported certain crystals showed electrical effects
when compressed. However, reviewing their
findings it is not clear that they saw pressure in-
duced electrical current because they reported
the phenomena in such non-peizoelectric crys-
tals as calcite. This suggests that they were
chiefly observing contact electricity.
Credit for the prize winning discovery of
this physical property is therefore awarded to
the brothers Pierre! 572 ! and Paul-Jacques
Curiel 573 ! who established the relationship
between this property and a crystal's symme-
try. I 574 ! Their initial studies observed the
[570J Rene J us t Haiiy., "Sur l'electricite produite dans les
mineraux a l'aide de la pression," Paris, Museum Histoire
Naturelle Memoirs, 3 (1817), pp. 223-228. : ibid., "Nouvelles
observations sur la faculte conservatrice de l'electricite
acquise a l'aide du frottement," Journal de Physique, 89
(1819), 455-462.
[571] a.C. Becquerel., "Sur le developpement de l'electri-
cite dans les corps par la pression et la dilatation," Paris,
Soc. Philom. Bull, (1820), p. 149-155.; ibid., "Sur le
developpement de l'electricite par la pression," Annals de
Chimie, 22 (1823), p. 5-34.
[572] pje rr e Curie (Born: Paris, France, 15 May 1859;
Died: Paris, France, 19 April 1906) After attending the
Sorbonne, where he served as preparator in physics and
received the master's degree and later the degree of doctor
of science, Curie was appointed to a professorship in the
Municipal School of Physics and Chemistry in Paris in
1895, and in the same year he married Marie Sklodowska.
In 1900 he became a professor at the Sorbonne. In addition
to his famous work on radioactivity in collaboration with
Mme. Curie and on piezoelectric and other properties of
dielectrics with his brother, his researches included the
principles of symmetry, the design of various measuring
instruments of great delicacy, and especially the effects of
temperature on magnetism. [DSB].
[573J p au i_j aC q Ues Curie (Born: Paris, France, 1855; Died:
1941) At the age of twenty he became preparator of
chemistry courses in the School of Pharmacy and later
preparator in the laboratory of mineralogy under Friedel,
at the Sorbonne. He was associated with Friedel in a series
of publications on pyroelectricity. It "was in this laboratory
that he and Pierre Curie discovered piezoelectricity in 1880.
For this discovery the two brothers were awarded the Plante
prize in 1895. In 1893 Jacques Curie became head lecturer
in mineralogy at the University of Montpelier. His last
work in physics was his determination of the piezoelectric
constant of quartz in 1910. Suffering from a serious
deafness, he retired in 1925. [Cady, Piezoelectricity, 1946,
p. ??].
I- -I Jacques Curie and Pierre Curie., "Developpement,
par pression, de l'electricite polaire dans les cristaux
137
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5.7 Electrical Properties
phenomena in a number of substances including
halite, boracite, sphalerite, tourmaline, quartz,
calamine, topaz, tartaric acid, cane sugar and
Rochelle salt. In later research, the Curies de-
scribed the effect in other crystals, the first
attempt at a quantitative measurement of the
phenomena in quartz and tourmaline, and the
practical applications of the crystals. In 1881
shortly after the Curies announced their dis-
covery, Gabriel Lippman [1845-1921] predicted
that applying an electrical field in the ap-
propiate directions along a piezoelectric crys-
tal would cause the reverse effect and produce
changes in the dimensions of the crystal.! 575 ]
This converse effect was not foreseen by the
Curies, but in 1881 they quickly confirmed the
theory showing that the piezoelectric coefficient
of quartz had the same value for the converse
of the direct effect. I 576 !
In scientific circles great interest was ini-
tially attached to this discovery. The German
chemist Wilhelm Gottlieb Hankel [1814-1899],
who had done considerable pyroelectrical re-
search did not believe as the Curies did in a
one-to-one relationship between the electrical
effects of thermal and mechanical deformation.
Instead, he believed that this new effect had
special laws of its own and proposed in 1881
the name "piezoelectricity" (Greek piezo-= "to
press") to distinguish it. This term was quickly
adopted by everyone including the Curies.
Perhaps the greatest researcher in the
piezoelectric effect was Woldemar Voigt I 577 !
hemiedres a faces inclinees," C.R. Acad. Sci., 91 (1880a),
294-295. • ibid.., "Sur l'electricite polaire dans les cristaux
hemiedres a faces inclinees," C.R. Acad. Sci., 91 (1880b),
383-387.
[575J Lippmann, G., "Principe de la conservation de
l'electricite," Arm. Chim. (Paris), 24 (1881), 145-178.
l 576 l Jacques Curie and Pierre Curie., "Contractions et
dilations produites par des tensions electriques dans les
cristaux hemiedres a faces inclinees," C.R. Acad. Sci., 93
(1881), 1137-1140.
[577] Woldemar Voigt (Born: 1850; Died: Gottingen,
Germany, 1919) Voigt studied under F. Neumann, to
"whose influence his interest in crystal physics was due. In
1875 he became Ausserordentlicher Professor of physics at
Konigsberg, and in 1883 professor of theoretical physics at
Gottingen, where he remained until his death. He served
twice as Rektor of the University of Gottingen. Besides
his monumental work in the physics of crystals, he made
notable contributions in elasticity, thermodynamics, and
magnetoand electro-optics. [Physik. Zeitschrift, 21 (1920),
who by combining elements of crystal symme-
try with symmetry elements of elastic tenosors
and electric vectors showed in 1890 in which of
the 32 crystal classes piezoelectric effects might
occur. For each of these classes Voigt then de-
rives which of the possible 18 piezoelectric coef-
ficients might have non-zero values. I 578 ! Voigt
continued his research and fully explored this
study in his Lehrbuch der Kristallphysik that
appeared in 1910 and which was for many years
the standard reference in its subject. However,
this was an exception.
For several decades after its discovery the
piezoelectrical effect was a mere curiousity,
unmentioned in many textbooks and regulated
to being the subject of several obscure doctoral
theses; however, some practical applications
became apparent with the start of World War
I. In France, the physicist Paul Langevin [1872-
1946] developed in 1918 the idea of electrically
exciting quartz plates to serve as emitters and
later as receivers of under water high-frequency
sound waves. The "echo method" (later to be
called sonar) has proven an invaluable aid in
locating immersed objects and exploring the
ocean depths. I 579 ! Because of this work
Langevin is justly called a founder of the science
of ultrasonics.
Walter Guyton Cady [1874-1974] used the
vibration of crystal plates under the influence
of an alternating electrical field to invent in
1918 the piezoelectric resonator. Producing
high-frequency vibrations this device that has
at its core a crystal of quartz or tourmaline
has many practical applications and may be
found in quartz clocks and watches, frequency
controllers for radio, television and computers,
and ultrasonic wave generation in gases, liquids
pp. 81-82 by C. Runge; DSB].
[57«J -yy^ Voigt., "Ueber die innere Reibung der festen
Korper, insbesondere der Krystalle," Abh. K. Ges.
Wiss. Gottingen, 36 (1890a), 1-47. * ibid.., "Allgemeine
Theorie der piezo- and pyroelectrischen Erscheinungen an
Krystallen," Abh. K.. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen, 36 (1890b),
47-99.
[579J p^ Langevin., Procedes et appareils pour la
production de signaux sous-marins diriges et pour la
localisation a distance d'obstacles sous-marins." Brevet
Francais, no. 502.913 (29 May 1916). • ibid.., "Procedes
et appareils d'emission et de reception des ondes elastiques
sous-marines a l'aide des proprietes piezo-electriques du
quartz." Brevet Francais, no. 505,703, 17 September 1918.
138
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5.7 Electrical Properties
and solids.
Early attempts at deriving an atomic the-
ory to explain piezoelectricity were described
by the Curries,! 580 ] Riecke,! 581 ! Voigt,! 582 ! and
Lord Kelvin.! 583 ! The renowned physicist Max
Born provided the most rigorous study when he
included the dielectric, pyroelectric and piezo-
electric effects within his general theory of lat-
tice dynamics. He applied the theory to a small
series of cubic lattices, and in 1920, together
with Elisabeth Bormann, he published the first
theoretical calculation of the piezoelectric con-
stant of sphalerite.! 584 ]
5.7.4 Thermoelectricity! 585 ]
REWORK: Thermoelectricity is the direct
conversion of heat into electric energy, or vice
versa. The term is generally restricted to the
irreversible conversion of electricity into heat
described by the English physicist James P.
Joule and to three reversible effects named for
Seebeck, Peltier, and Thomson, their respective
discoverers. In minerlogy it is applied to the
contact of two unlike metals which in general
results in electrifying one of them positively
and the other negatively. If, further, the
point of contact is heated while the other
parts, connected with a wire, are kept cool,
a continuous current of electricity will be
produced.
The earliest observation on thermoelectric-
ity in crystals relates to the sulfides of cobalt
[580] g ee p rev j ous citations.
l 5 81J E. Riecke., "Zur Moleculartheorie der piezoelec-
trischen and pyroelectrischen Erscheinungen," Gottinger
Nachr., 1893, pp. 191-202.
! 1 Voigt, W., "Beitrage zur molekularen Theorie der
Piezoelectricitat," Gottinger. Nachr., 1893, pp. 649-671.
! 58 3] William Thomson Kelvin, (Lord)., "Theorie de la
pyro-electricite et de la piezo-electricite," Paris, C.R. Acad.
Sci., 117 (1893), pp. 463-472. • ibid.., "On the piezoelectric
property of quartz," Philosphical Magazine, 36 (1893), 331-
340.
[584] ]yr ax Born and E. Bormann., "Zur Gittertheorie der
Zinkblende," Annals der Physik, 62 (1920), pp. 218-246.
[585] pother historical information may be found in:
Bernards. Finn., "History of Thermoelectricity," Advances
in Electronics and Electronic Physics, 50 (1980), p. 175-240.
[A detailed discussion of experimental and theoretical work,
based on Ph.D. dissertation.] • W.A. Wooster., "Brief
history of physical crystallography" (pp. 61-76), in: J.
Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of crystallography. New
York, Elsevier, 1990.
and iron. Hankel showed that when certain ex-
ternal faces were developed the crystals were
thermo electrically positive relative to copper,
whereas with other facial forms they were neg-
ative. ! 586 1 This peculiarity remained unex-
plained until recently when it was related to
certain departures from the ideal chemical com-
position.
hi 1843, Gustav Rose and
introduced the concept of electrical axes in
crystals, which possess asymmetric ends on
the crystal terminations. In the
well known physicist A. Kundt [1839-1894]
invented a visual representation of the electrical
current. By dusting the sample with yellow
powder of sulfur and the red dust of minium
near the positive and negative ends of the
electrical axes, the flow of current would
cause the particles to be carried along through
electrostatic processes. The method was
successfully employed by the Russian KoLEPKO
[1856-1946] in his study of the polar electricity
of quartz with respect to its crystallographic
symmetry (1884).! 587 1
In 1850 Svanberg used the trigonal crystals
crystals of bismuth and of antimony to find
the variation of the effect with direction in
the crystal. ! 588 1 These crystals both of
which cleave very readily parallel to the basal
plane, parallel to the cleavage direction and
perpendicular to the trigonal and optic axis
behaved thermo-electrically more positively,
and parallel to the axis more negatively, than
any other of these metals. Also the thermo-
electric current afforded by the two kinds of
bismuth, or by the two differently cut antimony,
was of considerable strength.
Franz, ! 589 1
Thomson put forward a mechanical
theory of thermoelectric currents in crystalline
[586] W .G. Hankel., "Ueber die Thermo-Elektricitat der
Metalle und metallischen Mineralien (Erze)," Poggendorff
Ann. Phys., 62 (1844), p. 197-207.
! 587 1 Shafranovskii, Istoriia kristallograSi XIX vek, 1980, p.
209.
[588] Svanberg, J., "Experiences sur le pouvoir thermo-
electrique du bismuth et de l'antimoine cristallises," C. R.
Acad. Sci., 31 (1850), p. 250-252.
! 589 1 Pogg. Ann., 1851, 83, 374, and 1852, 85, 388.
139
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5.7 Electrical Properties
solids. I 590 !
MarbachJ 591 ! Marbach observed a very
remarkable fact with respect to iron pyrites,
FeS2, which crystallises in the cubic class. It
is often found in actual experiments that the
rules already stated are apparently materially
departed from, owing to the altogether
unexpectedly large disturbing effect of minute
quantities of foreign enclosures, which are so
common in mineral crystals, and which often
generate a current in the opposite direction
to that produced by the pure substance of
the crystal. Even more pronounced, however,
are the apparent deviations when a mineral
exists in two forms like quartz, currents of
opposite characters and of equal strengths
being generated by the two varieties.
In 1864 Bunsen showed that this subject
was important to mineralogy, that the natural
metallic sulphides stand farther off in the series
than bismuth and antimony, and consequently
by them a higher electromotive force is
produced. I 592 '
The thermo-electrical relations of a large
number of minerals were determined by
Walther Flight [18457-1885].
It was early observed that some minerals
have varieties which are both + and - .
Rose attempted to establish a relation between
the positive and negative pyritohedral forms
of pyrite and cobaltite, and the positive
or negative thermoelectrical character. I 593 !
Later investigations by SchraufI 594 ! and
Dana! 595 ! have shown, however, that the
same peculiarity belongs also to glaucodot,
tetradymite, skuttemdite, danaite, and other
[590] -yy Thomson., "A mechanical theory of thermo-
electric currents in crystalline solids," Math. Phys. Pap.,
1 (1854), 324-325. • ibid.., "On thermo-electric currents in
linear conductors of crystalline substances," Math. Phys.
Pap., 1 (1854), 266-291. • ibid.., "On thermo-electricity in
crystalline metals, and in metals in a state of mechanical
strain," Math. Phys. Pap., 1 (1854), 467-468. • ibid.., "On
the dynamical theory of heat. Part V. Thermo-electric
currents," Trans. R. Soc. Edinburgh, 21 (1854), 123-171.
I 591 ! Compt. rend., 1857, 45, 705.
[592] Bunsen. Pogg. Ann., 123, 505, 1864.
I 593 l Rose. Pyrite and cobaltite. Pogg. Ann., 142, 1, 1871.
I 594 ! Schrauf, Ber. Ak. Wien, 69 (1), 142, 1874.
I 595 ! E. S. Dana, Am. J. Sc, 8, 255, 1874.
minerals, and it is demonstrated by them that
it cannot be dependent upon crystalline form,
but rather upon chemical composition.
FriedeU 596 ]
In 1888 Backstrom carried out a thorough
study on hematite. I 597 ! Backstrom studied the
thermo-electricity of haematite with the same
magnificent specimens as were used for the
electrical conductivity. Two boxes constructed
of copper foil were attached to two wooden
discs, the upper of which was movable by
means of a screw, and the crystal bar was laid
between the boxes, good contact being attained
by means of the screw. Through the upper
box steam at 100° was blown, and through the
lower box ordinary cold water was led, in which
a thermometer was immers.d. To each box a
copper wire was soldered, and connected to a
Lippmann capillary electrometer as soon as the
boxes had attained a constant temperature, the
thermo-electric power being directly measured
in volts.
The Peltier effect was also discussed
(Liebisch, 1889). I 59 **]
Perrot,! 5 "! Perrot's researches are also of
special interest, as he had at his disposal some
large and very homogeneous prisms of bismuth,
which is the metal most easily obtained in
good and sufficiently large crystals It will be
remembered that the crystals of bismuth are
trigonal, with basal plane cleavage. But the
metal has a very low point of fusion, so that
it has only been possible to study its thermo-
electrical properties up to 100° C.
During the years 1847 to 1850 Senar-
MONT [1808-1850] established the relationship
between the optical properties of crystals and
their thermal conductivity. Covering the sam-
ple crystal face to be investigate with a thin
flat layer of wax and then touching the end of
a heated silver wire to a point on that surface,
circular or elliptical pits of melting wax were
obtained elsewhere on the face that depended
[596] Ann ch phys., 17, 79, 1869; C. R., 78, 508, 1874.
[597] of vers. K. Vetensk.- Akad. Fork, 1888, No. 8, 553.
[598J Li e bisch, T., "Ueber thermoelektrische Strome in
Krystallen," Nachr. Ges. Wiss. Gottingen, 1889, pp. 531-
535.
[599] Arch ScL pnys> et nat Geneve, 1898, 6, 105 and
140
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5.8 Magnetism
on the planar symmetry of the crystal. Sub-
sequent investigations were made by Viktor
von Lang (1866) and E. de Jannetez (1873).
As a result it was shown that thermal conduc-
tivity in a crystal may be expressed in the gen-
eral case as a 3-dimensional ellipsoid.! 600 ] For
cubic crystals the surface or shape of thermal
conductivity takes the form of a sphere, while
for optically uniaxial crystals it is an ellipsoide.
Orienting these surfaces in crystals corresponds
to orienting optical indicatrices.I 601 ]
Investigations into the expansion of
crystals by heating were conducted in 1865
by the French physicist A. FlZEAU [1819-
1896]. He found that for typical crystals the
amount of expansion in 3-dimensions may be
expressed as the surface area of the ellipsoides
of revolution. I 602 !
5.7.5 Dielectric Property! 603 '
REWORK: In the case of non-conducting
crystals, instead of variation of conductivity,
there is measured the variation in the dielectric
constant. This is the measure of insulation
or lack of conductivity, and the ability of the
mineral to hold an electric charge on its surface.
Wiedemann! 604 ]
Senarmontl 605 ! 28 (1850), p. 257.
In 1851 the first experiments on the
behavior of crystals in an electric field were
carried out by Knoblauch in a manner similar
to that used for the study of magnetic
properties.! 606 ] The conductivity of the
crystals, both over the surface and through the
body of the crystal made these experiments
unreliable.
I 600 ! Shafranovskii, Istoriia kristaUograSi XIX vek, 1980, p.
208-209.
I 601 ! Shafranovskii, Istoriia kristaUografJi XIX vek, 1980, p.
208.
I 602 ! Shafranovskii, Istoriia kristallografii XIX vek, 1980, p.
208-209.
[603J pother historical information may be found in: H.D.
Megaw., Ferroelectricity in crystals. London, Methuen, 1957.
E.A.H. Tutton., Crystallography. London, 1922, 2, p. 1390-
1394.
[604] p gg en dorffs Annalen, 76 (1849), p. 404 and 77
(1850), p. 534.
I 605 ! Ann. Chim. Phys.
[6U6J ]ir Knoblauch., "Ueber das Verhalten krystallisierter
Korper zweischen elektrischen Polen," Poggendorff Ann.
Phys., 83 (1851), 289-299.
In 1876 Root avoided some of these
difficulties by employing a rapidly alternating
field between parallel plates. I 607 !
Hopkinson gave a list of dielectrical
constants of various crystals and glass. I 608 !
In 1893 Pockels gave an account of the
abnormally large piezoelectric constants of
Rochelle salt (C 4 H 4 KNa0 6 . 2H 2 O).[ 609 l
In 1919, R. Fellinger determined the
dielectric values for the axial directions of the
precious stones, including topaz, beryl, ruby,
and sapphire. I 610 !
hi 1920 Valasek found the same kind
of hysteresis loop, when plotting electric
polarization versus the applied electric field, as
was well known in ferromagnetism.I 611 ]
The dielectric constant in the ferroelectric
phase of any given crystals is usually several
orders of magnitude greater than that of
nonferroelectric materials. This has important
applications in the manufacture of capacitors.
The dielectric loss in ferroelectric materials is
relatively high and this to some extent limits
their usefulness.
Some dielectric materials can retain their
electric polarization for relatively long periods
and in this condition are called electrets.
Examples of this are magnesium titanite and
some forms of crystalline sulfur. In such
materials the electric dipole is the analogue of
the magnetic dipole. In most dielectrics the
charge leaks away in hours or minutes, so that it
is possible to obtain electrets with only a small
number of materials.
5.8 Magnetism! 612 ]
L &07 l E. Root., "Zur Kenntniss der dielektrischen Polarisa-
tion," Poggendorff Ann. Phys., 158 (1876), p. 1-35, 425-461.
[ 608 ] Phil. Mag., 13 (1882), p. 242.
[609] p^ Pockels., "Ueber den Einfluss des electro-
statischen Feldes auf das optische Verhalten piezoelek-
trischer Krystalle," Abh. Gottingen Ges. Wiss., 39 (1893),
1-204.
[ 61 °] Fellinger, Annals de Physique, 1919 60, p. 181.
I- -I J. Valasek., "Piezoelectric and allied phenomena in
rochelle salt," Phys. Rev., 15 (1920), 537-538.
I- -I Further historical information may be found in:
Edmund Hoppe., Geschichte der Physik, p. 337-344. •
Stephen T. Keith and Pierre Quedec, "Magnetism and
magnetic materials" (pp. 359-442) in: Lillian Hoddeson,
ed., Out of the Crystal Maze: Chapters from the History of
Solid State Physics. New York, Oxford University Press,
141
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5.8 Magnetism
REWORK: A few minerals in their natural
state are capable of being attracted by a strong
steel magnet; they are said to be magnetic.
This is conspicuously true of magnetite, the
magnetic oxide of iron; also of pyrrhotite or
magnetic pyrites, and of some varieties of
native platinum (especially the variety called
iron-platinum) .
A number of other minerals, as hematite,
franklinite, etc., are in some cases attracted
by a steel magnet, but probably in most if
not all cases because of admixed magnetite.
Occasional varieties of the three minerals
mentioned above, as the lodestone variety of
magnetite, exhibit themselves the attracting
power and polarity of a true magnet. They are
then called natural magnets. In such cases the
magnetic polarity has probably been derived
from the inductive action of the earth, which
is itself a huge magnet.
In a very strong magnetic field, as
that between the poles of a very powerful
electromagnet, all minerals, as indeed all other
substances, are influenced by the magnetic
force. According to their behavior they are
divided into two classes, the paramagnetic and
diamagnetic; those of the former appear to be
attracted, those of the latter to be repelled.
Iron, cobalt, nickel, manganese, platinum are
paramagnetic; silver, copper, bismuth are
diamagnetic. Among minerals compounds
of iron are paramagnetic, as siderite, also
diopside; further, beryl, dioptase. Diamagnetic
species include calcite, zircon, wulfenite, etc.
The magnetic oxide of iron, magnetite, was
known and used by the Greeks and Romans.
In the 13th century the basic properties of
magnetic poles were under-stood. I 613 ! Up
1992. • P.F. Mottelay., Bibliographical history of electricity
& magnetism chronologically arranged. New York, 1922. xx,
673 p., index. [Reprinted, Mansfield Centre, Martino Fine
Books, 1993. An essential bibliography of electrical and
magnetic phenomena from 2637 B.C. to 1821 A.D. Contains
at the end, biographical notes on the people mentioned.] •
W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of physical crystallography"
(pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of
crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
[613J E Wiedemann., "Beitrage 2, Uber Magnetismus,"
Sitzungsberichte der Physikalisch-medizinischen Sozietat in
Erlangen, 36 (1904), 322-331.
to the 19th century crystals were regarded
either as magnetic or nonmagnetic. The
magnetic crystals are now called ferromagnetic
to distinguish them from the several other kinds
which have since been discovered.
1728: Charles-Francois De Cister-
NAI Du FAY wrote on magnetism ( 1728)J 614 ]
1826: Poisson gave a theory of magnetism
as applied to crystals and predicted the
behaviour of crystals in a magnetic field
which was verified by Pliicker in 1847. I 615 !
He determined the magnetic attraction of a
number of substances compared with iron taken
as 100,000. For example, for magnetite he
obtained 40,227; for hematite, crystallized, 533,
massive, 134; limonite, 71; pyrite, 150.
He studied quartz, zircon, beryl, vesuvian-
ite and corundum, and related the reaction of
the crystal to a magnetic field to its symmetry.
All these crystals were repelled from a strong
field, unlike the ferromagnetic crystals. They
were therefore called diamagnetic.
1850: Several investigations were carried
out by Pliicker & Beer using torsion balances
to measure the small forces involved in most
observations.! 616 ] Not only were some
crystals repelled from a strong field but there
were others which were slightly attracted.
These were called paramagnetic. By the
end of the 19th century the three types of
crystal ferro-, dia- and paramagnetic, were well
established and successful theories had related
dia- and paramagnetic crystals to their crystal
symmetry.
1896: Weiss studied ferromagnetic proper-
ties who explained the hysteresis by supposing
the atoms to have permanent magnetic poles
which are normally randomly arranged but be-
come more and more parallel under the influ-
ence of an applied magnetic field. On remov-
ing the field the mutual effect of the parallel
dipoles tends to maintain the magnetized state.
He further postulated that there were domains
within which all the atomic dipoles were simi-
[614] ????? C.-F. Du Fay, "Observations sur quelques
experiences de l'aimant," 1728, p. 355-369.
I 615 ! Pogg. Ann., 74, 343, 1848.
I 616 ! Pliicker and Beer. Pogg. Ann., 81, 115, 1850; 82, 42,
1852. and Pogg. Ann., 72, 315, 1847; 76, 576, 1849; 77,
447, 1849; 78, 427, 1849; 86, 1, 1852.
142
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5.9 Elasticity
larly orientated and that the N-S axis could be
differently orientated in neighbouring domains.
This theory was widely accepted but no physi-
cal proof of the existence of these domains was
given until 1931 with the theory of Bitter.
The magnetic properties of minerals
became a subject of special interest in the
middle of the 19th century. In a paper on the
polar magnetism of minerals and rocks (1849),
Achille Delesse noted that many non-ferrous
minerals are magnetic and that, in crystals, the
distribution of the magnetic poles is unrelated
to the crystallographic axes. I 617 ! Studying the
action of magnetism on different substances,
Edmond Becquerel was led to introduce the
effects of the surrounding medium into the
explanation of magnetic phenomena.
Faraday studied magnetism ..J 618 !
Lord Kelvin also was interested in the
subject. I 619 !
Knoblauch and Tyndall studied damag-
netism in crystallization. I 620 !
1879: Rowland and Jacques. Bismuth,
Calcite. Am. J. Sc, 18, 360, 1879. Tumlirz.
Quartz. Wied. Ann., 27, 133, 1886.
1883: Stenger. Calcite. Wied. Ann., 20,
304, 1883; 35, 331, 1888.
1887: Koenig. Wied. Ann., 31, 273, 1887.
Another reference ...I 621 !
5.9 Elasticity! 622 !
[617]
I 618 ! Faraday. Phil. Trans., 1849-1857, and Experimental
Researches, Series XXII, XXVI, XXX.
[619] w ^ Thomson (Lord Kelvin). Theory of Magnetic
Induction. Brit. Assoc, 1850, pt. 2, 23; Phil. Mag., 1,
177, 1851, etc. Reprint of Papers on Electrostatics and
Magnetism, 1872.
[620] Tyndall. Phil. Mag., 2, 165, 1851; 10, 153, 257,
1855; 11, 125, 1856; Phil. Trans., 1855, 1. Researches on
diamagnetism and magne-crystallic action. London, 1870.
and Knoblauch and Tyndall. Pogg. Ann., 79, 233; 81, 481,
1850 (Phil. Mag., 36, 37, 1850).
[621] Alfred Still., Soul of lodestone; the background of
magnetical science. New York, Toronto, Murray Hill Books,
Inc., 1946. x, 233 p. [History of magnetism.; Written as a
companion volume to the authors, Soul of Amber.}
[622] pother historical information may be found in:
Dana's Textbook, p. 195. • Tutton, Crystallography,
London, 1922, 1, p. ??. * W.A. Wooster., "Brief history of
physical crystallography" (pp. 61-76), in: J. Lima-de-Faria,
ed., Historical atlas of crystallography. New York, Elsevier,
1990.
REWORK: Elasticity, or the ability of a crystal
to stretch when pulled was also studied. Some
minerals (e.g. a sheet of mica) are highly
elastic, springing back to their original shape
after being bent. Others (e.g. talc) may
be readily bent, but do not return to their
original form when released; these are said
to be pliable or flexible. Sectile minerals
(e.g. chlorargyrite) may be cut with a knife
without being fractured: related characters
are malleability (e.g. argentite) and ductility
(e.g. silver). The tenacity, or degree of
frangibility of different minerals varies widely:
they may be brittle, tough, soft or friable.
The fractured surface produced when a mineral
is broken is called the " fracture," and the
kind of fracture is often of determinative value;
descriptive terms are: conchoidal (e.g. quartz,
which may often be recognized by its glassy
conchoidal fracture), sub-conchoidal, uneven,
even, splintery (e.g. jade), hackly or with short
sharp points (e.g. copper), &c.
General principals of te theory of the
elasticity of solid bodies were developed in the
1820s by the mathmeticaians and physicists:
M. Mauleg [1785-1836], S.D. Poisson [1781-
1840], and O.L. Cauchy [1789-1857]. Later
F. Neumann and his student G. Voigt gave
an expanded study of elasticity in crystals.
From their conclusion they demonstrated their
existed a coefficient of elasticity in crystals. For
a cubic crystal this has identical maximums
and minimums in the 3 dirctions of the axes
of symmetry. Plotting the coeffienent of the
faces of they crystal shows the geometric shape
of the property. Those surfaces that correspond
to the eight faces of an octahedron correspond
to a circle. [623]
[Get images from Shafranovskii, istohia
kristallografii XIX vek, 1980.]
1827: Navier developed a theory based on
the mutual action of a regular arrangement of
particles was advanced for an isotropic body.
1823
1829
1837
Cauchy studied noncubic bodies.
Poisson also studied it.
Green introduced the limitation that
the force between any two elements of a crystal,
[623] Shafranovskii, Istoriia kristallografii XIX vek, 1980, p.
209-211.
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6.1 Technological Background
however small, must lie along the line joining
their centres.
1887: Rontgen & Schneider made mea-
surements of the cubic compressibility of NaCl
and KC1.
1874: Baumgarten made measurements
based on bending bars of calcite as did Voigt.
1874: Untersuchung der Elasticitatsver-
haltnisse des Steinsalzes, Inaugural dissertation
von Woldemar Voigt (1874).
1876: Voigt made measurement based
on twisting bars or rods. For a number
of cubic crystals all three elastic constants
(or moduli) were thus determined. Voigt
continued these investigations over the next 13
years and determined the properties of crystals
of hexagonal, trigonal and orthorhombic
symmetry (Voigt,
Elasticity Tester (c1900)
Minerals are at their core naturally occurring
chemical compounds, and the greatest strides
in understanding them occurred in conjunc-
tions with developments in chemistry. In fact
some of the earliest knowledge of chemistry
comes from the methods used in resting use-
ful metals from their host rock, as happened in
antiquity during the Copper, Bronze, and Iron
ages. Additionally, the compounds most read-
ily available to early chemists were minerals,
which therefore made them ripe for study.
6.1 Technological Background
REWORK: The technological arts, particularly
assaying and metallurgy, made significant
contributions to the advance of chemistry.
However, the early miners and assayers were
largely illiterate and left no documentation —
the techniques they used being passed by word
of mouth from worker to worker. But in
sixteenth century Europe, when mining had
become an important economic activity, there
appeared books dealing with these subjects.
These texts are valuable in showing the state
of the technical arts at the time.
The books vary from the utilitarian "do
it yourself" booklets to complete treatises.
They are all characterized by a practical
approach, which is not suprising having been
written by practical men. Little or no theory
can be found in their pages, the object
being to teach workable techniques. This
was highlighted early in the century by the
appearance of the Ein nutzlich bergbuchley
(Little Book of Ores) that was frequently
6.0 Chemical Mineralogy! 624 )
I- -I Further historical information may be found in: Jo-
hann Friedrich Gmelin., Geschichte der Chemie. Gottin-
gen, 1797-9. 3 vols, viii, 777 p.; [2], 790 p.; [4], 1288,
[96] p. [Reprinted, Hildesheim, Georg Olms Verlagsbuch-
handlung, 1965; An early comprehensive history of chem-
istry, written only a few decades after Lavoisier's contribu-
tions, by a leading scientist of the time.] • Hermann Kopp.,
Geschichte der Chemie. Braunschweig, Friedrich Vieweg und
Sohn, 1843-7. 4 vols., 4 portraits. [Comprehensive history
of chemistry to 1840.] • A. A. Manten., "Historical foun-
dations of chemical geology and geochemistry," Chemical
Geology, 1 (1966), p. 5-31. • Seymour H. Mauskopf., "Crys-
tals and compounds: molecular structure and composition
in nineteenth-century French science," Transactions of the
American Philosophical Society, 66 (1976), p. 1-82. • Robert
P. Multhauf., "The beginning of mineralogical chemistry,"
Jsis, 49 (1958), p. 50-53. • David R. Oldroyd., From Parcel-
sus to Haiiy: the developement of mineralogy in its relation
to chemistry. Ph.D. Dissertation. University of New South
Wales (Australia), 1975. • James R. Partington., A history
of chemistry. London, Macmillian, 1961-70. Vol. 1, pt. 1,
2-4. xlv, 370 p.; xxiv, 795 p.; xxiii, 854 p.; xxxi, 1007 p.
[No more published. Indispensable standard reference in
the history of chemistry.] • Theodore M. Porter., "The
promotion of mining and the advancement of science: The
chemical revolution of mineralogy," Annals of Science, 38
(1981), p. 543-570. • J.M. Stillman., The story of early
chemistry. New York & London, D. Appleton and Com-
pany, 1924. xiii, [1], 566 p., biblio., index. • F. Szabad-
vary., History of analytical chemistry. Translated by Gyula
Svehla. Oxford, London, etc., Pergamon Press, 1966. ix,
[1], 418 p., illus., notes, indexes.
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6.1 Technological Background
reprinted. It deals primarily with the location
of ores. Of greater significance to chemistry
were the Probierbuchlein that began to appear
around 1510. These small books gave the
techniques used to assay the metal content of
ores, but also discuss balances and weights,
sampling techniques, the touchstone, furnaces
and crucibles, cupellation, the separation of
gold, silver, and copper, cementation, recovery
of precious metals from scrap, and other
miscellaneous operations on silver and gold.
Printing was not even a century old when
in 1540 the first work on metallurgical science
appeared. The De la Pirotechnia written
by Vannuccio Biringuccio [1480-1537] was
one of the first technological treatises ever
printed. Biringuccio acquired his knowledge
of metallurgy by traveling extensively through
Italy and Germany and reviewing the mine and
metal works he encountered. He was interested
in the practical aspects of metal technology.
His book shows a man amazingly lacking of
superstitious believes, and the contempt he
holds for alchemy marks him as one of the first
real chemists.
A comprehensive treatise on metallurgy,
the Pirotechniais divided into ten books. Book
I discusses the treatment of the ores of gold
and silver, copper, lead, tin, and iron. It
describes their location, surface markings, and
recovery. Book II is devoted to mercury, sulfur,
antimony, alum, arsenic, salts, and borax. In
Book III cupellation, roasting, and testing are
treated. The preparation and use of aqua
fortis in parting is found in Book IV. Alloys,
casting, furnaces, and molds are the subjects
of Books V through VIII. The last two books
are of chemical interest, containing details
on sublimation, distillation, pyrotechny, and
allied subjects. The first description of the
recovery of silver by amalgamation is found
in Book X. The method for the preparation
of saltpeter in the Book X is the earliest
complete account. Agricola's process was taken
from this source, as was his description of the
distillation of mercury and sulfur, glass and
steel manufacture, and the preparation of alum
and vitriol.
The Pirotechnia appeared in seven Italian
and three French editions and was apparently
widely used. Its unattractive format and poor
illustrations, as well as to the author's crude
literary style, and it never appearing in a Latin
edition all contributed to its influence being less
than it could have been. In fact, its principal
influence comes mainly from later metallurgical
publications that reference Biringuccio's work.
Georgius Agricola's De Re metallica
was published posthumously in 1556. It is a
work that describes in a very lucid manner the
various metallurgical and mining procedures of
the time and is richly illustrated with hundreds
of woodcuts. Although Agricola borrowed
liberally from previous authors, sometimes with
only minor acknowledgement, he also includes
much of his own rich experience that he
accumulated observing the mining operations
of Saxony. Agricola deals factually with his
material giving complete and detailed accounts
of problems and solutions in mining and
metallurgy. For a long time it remained the
standard work in its field, with a German
translation appearing in 1557, an Italian
in 1563, and numerous reprints published.
Like the Pirotechnia, it contains sections on
assaying, salt preparation, niter, and related
subjects, in addition to a good discussion of
general metallurgy. Agricola's contributions
to chemistry were of lesser influence and are
largely confined to Book XII of the De re
Metallica. It is unquestionable, however,
that the sharp clarity and practical focus of
his accounts had a wide influence on the
development of chemical science.
Another major work of high quality was
the Beschreibung Allerfilrnemisten Mineralis-
chen Ertzt vnnd Berckwercksarten written by
Lazarus Ercker [c1530-1594] and published
in Prague in 1574. It is a systematic review
of the methods used in obtaining, refining, and
testing the alloys and minerals of gold, silver,
copper, antimony, tin, mercury, and lead. He
covers the preparation of acids, salts, and other
useful compounds, as well as describing and il-
lustrating the apparatus. As inspector general
of the mines of the Holy Roman Empire, Ercker
was able to travel extensively and observe min-
ing and metallurgical operations of all types,
and his work is based on his own practical ex-
perience. It covers much the same ground as
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6.1 Technological Background
Agricola, but Ercker gives more emphasis to as-
say methods. Like the treatises before him he
emphasises the practical aspects of the opera-
tion, and in particular, Ercker discusses how to
refine precious metals to remove impurities like
lead and copper. Other books on metallurgy
appeared, but none of them were as innova-
tive as the these classic works, which suggests
the technology was not advancing much. This
would remain the condition until chemistry de-
veloped to a point where it could impact prac-
tical technology.
The assay methods described in the works
of Biringuccio, Agricola, and Ercker are the
first group of quantitative tests in chemistry.
The techniques outlined imitate the overall
smelting process and their objective was to
accurately determine the amount of gold and
silver that could be recovered from an ore
rather than the exact quantity of metal present.
This approach could also be used to figure
out purity of the metal used in coins and
jewelry. It was a useful and practical approach
to chemistry that the alchemy of the time was
lacking.
Apparatus used in the assayors office of
the time included muffle furnaces and balances,
with the necessary compliment of items like
weights, cupels, crucibles, flasks, and tongs.
The best balances were well crafted devices that
were sensitive to 0.1 mg and were encased in
a box with a beamlifting apparatus to protect
the knife edge of the scale. Weights were not of
standard sizes but represented fractions of the
amounts used in large scale operations. Using
these insturments and much skill, the assayor
of the time recognized antimony, arsenic,
bismuth, and zinc as metals distinct from the
seven known in antiquity. Previously, these
four had been thought of as stong alloys of one
of the known metals with other materials like
lead and mercury.
Technological books of the time also
treated other subjects like the making of glass,
pottery, gunpowder, salts, and acids. Some
of these arts were reexamined in light of the
practical changes being introduced. BERNARD
PALISSY [c1510-1589] experimented with clays
and enamels used in pottery and developed
a distinctive glazed stoneware that became
popular with the French aristrocracy. In 1540,
Christoph Schirer. of Saxony introduced the
use of cobalt compounds in the production
of blue glassJ 625 ! The element cobalt
was itself was not recognized for another two
centuries, although miners had encountered
diffculty recovering copper from it refractory
ores using standard procedures. Superstition
caused the miners to believe such material
was bewitched by the gnomes or Kobalds of
the mountains. Nickel was causing similar
problems, and was therefore referred to as
Kupfernickel, or "Old Nick's Copper."
Substantial changes characterized the
Renaissance with respect to the development
of chemistry. The old alchemy transformed into
the iatrochemistry founded by Theophr ASTUS
BOMBASTUS VON PlOHENHEIM [1493-1541],
who later called himself PARACELSUS. Trained
as a physician, he looked skeptically at the
alchemists, but recognized that chemistry
could play a useful role in medicine. He
introduced iatrochemistry (from iatro meaning
doctor in Greek), which marks the beginning
of chemistry as an independent science. It
turned attention away from alchemy and was a
preeminent study throughout the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. In his time, Paracelsus
was a forceful presence, and his doctrines,
which opposed the teachings of Galen and
Avicenna, were viguroiusly championed or
vehmently opposed by those that came after
him.
Paracelsus works were published after his
death. They are difficult to understand because
of his obtuse and contradictory writing style.
He shows belief in some of the alchemical
concepts and incorporated mysticism into his
writings. His direct contributions to chemistry
are small, however, because he was a reformer
of medicine. Yet his embracing of chemistry
stimulated his followers to experiment, observe
and ultimately think for themselves, which led
to the overthrowing of long held learnings.
Much of Paracelsus' chemistry revolved
around minerals, because they were the
chemical compounds available. His Ettliche
Tractat Philippi Theophrasti Paracelsi ...
I 625 ! Stillman, The story of early chemistry, 1924, p. ??.
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6.1 Technological Background
von naturlichen Dingen that first appeared
in 1570 was prepared by Michael Toxites
from previous publications and unpublished
manuscript material. It is the fullest statement
about Paracelsus' theory of minerals. His ideas
about the origin of minerals are typical of
the age. He believed that the seven planets
influenced the production inside the earth of
the various minerals. That the metals and
minerals grew like roots within the earth, from
congealing elemental water and comprise: (1)
metals, (2) gems, (3) salts, (4) mineral springs,
(5) silver and golden marcasites, (6) common
stones, including marble, slate, alabaster and
jasper, (7) sulfurous earths such as yellow
(amber) and black (jet), and (8) coral, eagle-
stone, most petrifications and 'lusta naturae'
(sports of nature) . The colors of gems are due
to included metal impurities, thus the green of
emerald comes from copper, the golden hue of
carbuncle is due to gold, the red of ruby to
iron, the blue of sapphire to silver, the white
sapphire to tin, the hyacinth to mercury, and
each in turn corresponding to particular planet.
This is how each substance derives its medicinal
virtue. Paracelsus' view on the generation of
metals, stones and minerals owes much to the
Arabic authors. He criticised the old theory
that they were composed of only mercury and
sulfur, believing that salt also entered into
their composition. He recognized seven metals,
corresponding with the planets, of both male
and female types, thus iron was female while
steel was male. He also recognized that many
undiscovered metals might exist.
After its introduction, the iatrochemistry
enjoyed a growing reputation, and became the
dominate theory of chemistry.
Andreas Libavius (Andreas Libau)
[1550-1616] wrote a number of books on
medicine, alchemistry, and metallurgy, includ-
ing his Alchemia (1597) that is considered the
first textbook in chemistry. There is little
doubt that Agricola's clear treatment of tech-
nological matters paved the way for the sys-
tematic approach of its subject taken in the
Alchymia. Libavius was a teacher and physi-
cian of the later iatrochemical school, yet he
was not a disciple of Paracelsus and vigorously
denounced many of the latter's doctrines. Al-
though the Alchymia includes some of Llbav-
ius's own discoveries, he contributed little orig-
inal material to chemical theory. It is an at-
tempt to systematize chemistry with a nomen-
clature that although strange, is clear and log-
ical in its setting. The term 'alchemia' as in-
voked in the title of the book is used in much
the same way the word chemistry is used today.
Libavius divides his study into 'encheria' that
deals with the methods, and 'chymia' that deals
with the materials and their properties. 'Mag-
isteria' encompasses the substance, its proper-
ties, and the forces that act upon it.
It was the practical approach taken in
the Alchemia that was an innovation. The
work remained for many decades the most
important chemical book of its type, emboding
a complete survey of the chemistry of the
period and written in clear language with no
attempt at obscurity. It was a basic text
studied for chemical techniques by physicians
and other scientists and included procedures
for the preparation of zinc, lead nitrate, and
anhydrous stannic chloride ("fuming liquor
of Libavius"). His description of chemical
apparatus is the most complete of its time.
In many respects, Libavius' intelligent and
practical discussions are modeled after the
form of those found in Agricola's De re
Metallica. They illustrate a transitional
phase of chemical science being a mixture of
alchemical and chemical learning, and thus
among much rational material Libavius admits
that the transmution of metals is possible. Like
Paracelsus, Libviaus also wrote considerablly
on mineralogical matters. His Singulariarium
Liber IV, quorum I et III de Metallis,
Lapidibus et Fossilibus (1599-1601) publishes
lecture notes about the chemical nature of
minerals, including separation techniques and
analytical procedures.
A prominent disciple of Paracelsus was
Jan Baptist Van Helmont [1577-1644].
An extended trip through Europe impressed
him with the importance of chemistry. He
gave up his medical interests and devoted the
remainder of his life to chemical investigations.
As a scientist, he strove to understand the
chemistry that made the world around him.
Van Helmont rejected the theories of the four
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6.1 Technological Background
ancient elements and the three Paracelsian
principles. Instead, he believed that air
and water were the only basic elements.
Since air, he believed, underwent no chemical
changes, water was the basic element of all
things. Van Helmont is said to represent
the transition from alchemy to chemistry. He
was the first to speculate correctly on the
composition of complex chemical compounds,
by reducing them to simpler bodies. He
utilized quantitative procedures in his studies
and showed for example, that when silver is
dissolved in nitric acid, it does not loose its
essence, but only changes form.
Some alchemists believed that the fact
that metallic copper appeared when a piece
of iron was placed in a blue vitriol solution
was an example of a transmutation. Angelo
Sala [1575-1640] who was the first to correctly
recognize that the precipitation of copper form
a solution of copper sulfate by the introduction
of iron was not a transmutation of iron into
copper, but a displacement of the copper from
solution by iron. I 626 ! Daniel Sennert [1572-
1627] showed that gold could be precipitated
from acids in which it had been dissolved,
because gold atoms retained their fundamental
essence inside the solution. He also postulated
four kinds of atoms corresponding to the four
elements, and suggested that substances of the
second order were formed by the combination
of primary atoms.
The Benedictine monk BASIL VALENTINE
of St. Peter of Erfurt, probably never
existed. I 627 ! The many works published under
his name were probably authored by JoHANN
Tholde of Hesse, who wrote them during
the early years of the seventeenth century.
Tholde claims to have found manuscripts which
had been written by Basil Valentine in the
first decades of the sixteenth century, but no
mention of them is made prior to that time.
Further evidence is contained in the works
themselves which reference many chemical
procedures that were known only a century
later. Also, lengthy searches of the records of
[626] Gmelillj Qeschichte der Chemie, 1788, 1, p. 586.;
Partington, History of Chemistry, 1961, 2, p. 276-280.
[627] p artington; History of Chemistry, 1961, 2, p. 183-203.
the monasteries in Germany and the archives at
Rome by science historians have not turned up
a monk by that name. Finally, the name Basil
Valentine, or the "mighty king," has the sound
of a pseudonym about it. Tholde probably
invented the identity to secure prestige for his
publications, and thus make their mystical and
practical content even more appealing to their
readership.
The works of Basil Valentine clearly show
the influence of Paracelsus and contain no
chemistry which was not known to Tholde
and his contemporaries, although many of
the methods described are written in the
symbolic and imaginative language of alchemy.
The Triumph-Wagen des Antimonii (The
Triumphal Chariot of Antimony), one of the
most important books from the fictious pen,
first appeared in Leipzig in 1604. It contains
much good genuine chemical knowledge, but
makes extravagant claims for the effectivness
of medical remedies containing antimony while
giving clear directions for the preparation of
the compounds. The work is generally cited as
the first scientific monograph on the chemical
compounds of a single metal. However, a
study of Biringuccio's Pirotechnia shows that
most of the material the Triumph-Wagen des
Antimonii covers was well described a century
before its publication. Other sources were also
probably used. It is nevertheless an important
work that disseminated much useful chemistry
to a wide audience through its translation into
Latin and other languages.
Interestingly, the Haligraphia, das ist,
Grundliche und eigendliche Beschreibung
published in 1603, a year before the Triumph-
Wagen des Antimonii appeared, is the only
work published by Tholde under his own name.
It treats the salt works of Lueneburg, with a
description of the surrounding village, mining
operations, mineralogy, purifiying, economics
(including yeilds, costs, wages), etc. It has
been pointed out that this work bears a
strong resemblence to the Letztes Testement
attributed to Basil Valentini and published in
1626. I 628 ! It was perhaps the slight reception
the Haligraphia that caused him to publish
[628]
Hoefer, Histoire de Chemie, 1866, 1, p. 481.
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6.1 Technological Background
under the name of Basil Valentini.
One of the last important members
of the iatrochemists whose contribution has
been underestimated was Johann Rudolph
Glauber [1604-1670]. As a medical man,
he acquired extensive knowledge about acids
and salts and their interrelationships, but was
otherwise without formal training. He focused
his energy on chemistry becoming a very able
and practical chemist who may justifiably be
called one of the first chemical engineers.
Glauber improved the methods of preparing
several mineral acids, and may have been
the first to recognize metathesis, or double
composition reactions. He followed Paracelsus'
teachings to such a degree he is sometimes
called "The Paracelsus of the Seventeenth
Century." He bases his chemical philosophy
on the three principals of salt, sulfur, and
mercury, which he follows through out the wide
range of his publications. Glauber's books,
like those of Paracelsus and van Helmont, also
contain much superstition and mysticism, but
he keeps to a practical approach where chemical
experimentation is concerned.
Glauber devised improved methods for
the preparation of sulfuric, nitric, acetic, and
hydrochloric acids. The last he called muriatic
acid (meaning brine) because of the salt
used in its manufacture. Prior to Glauber,
hydrochloric acid was created by distilling a
mixture of ferrous sulphate and salt. Instead,
he used sulphuric acid and salt to prepare
the acid and sodium sulphate simultaneously.
Glauber was the first to describe this sulphate
product, also known as "Glauber's salt" , a
substance that he thought was so remarkable
he called it sal mirabile (miracle salt). By
dissolving various metals in hydrochloric acid,
Glauber investigated the medical properties of
the resulting compounds. It was during the
preparation of these chlorides that he grouped
some of the fundamental truths of chemical
affinity It is clear, even though he uses mystic
language to describe them, that he grasped
the nature of several chemical reactions. His
far ranging interests included explosives, wines,
and poison gases, about which he predicts their
use in chemical warfare. He discusses ideas
about industrial chemistry linked to a national
economy that were much advanced for their
time. Glauber's writings may have influenced
Otto Tachenius [c1620-1690] who developed
a clear idea that salts are the end result of a
chemical reaction between an acid and a base.
The iatrochemists were the pioneers in
revising the ancient theories. In their writings
they expressed their view of chemistry, by
describing what was observed in the laboratory,
and when necessary breaking with the old
doctrines. For the first time they made
scientific discovery through experimentation,
a philosophy that would soon dominate not
only chemistry but the whole of science. The
results of their experiments would show that
even complex compounds could be broken down
to manageable components. They showed
for example, that salts were the product of
a chemical reaction between an acid and a
base, and they began to view minerals as the
results of similar reactions inside the earth.
These new discoveries were slow to penetrate
the fabric of daily life and the alchemical
ideas of transmutation was well as believes
that minerals grew like roots on some giant
subterranean bush continued to dominate.
6.1.1 The Housecleaningl 629 !
REWORK: The iatrochemistry of the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries brought a practical
foundation on which the science of chemistry
could be erected, but the concepts of the old
alchemy still prevailed. Before the science could
flourish, a general housecleaning of the old
ideas had to occur. From the mid-seventeenth
to the end of the eighteenth century just
such an expurgation happened. The centuries
worth of accumulated chemical concepts and
theories were critically reviewed and on an
[629J Further historical information may be found in:
Helene Metzger., Les doctrines chimiques en France du debut
du XVIIe a la fin du XVIIIe siecle. Nouveau tirage. Paris,
Albert Blanchard, 1969. [1J-496 p. [History of chemical
theories in France from the beginnings of the 17th century
to the close of the 18th century] • David R. Oldroyd.,
"Some phlogistic mineralogical schemes, illustrative of the
evolution of the concept of "earth" in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries," Annals of Science, 31 (1974), p. 269-
305. • ibid., "Mechanical mineralogy," Ambix, 21 (1974),
p. 157-178. • ibid., "Some neoplatonic and stoic influences
on mineralogy in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,"
Ambix, 21 (1974), p. 128-156.
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6.1 Technological Background
individual basis either accepted or discarded.
Unfortunately, the process was painfully slow
because there was a tendency to set the garbage
to the side rather than toss it completely
away. This meant that periodically the old
concepts reappeared in a modified form, thus
handicapping the sciences actual progress.
During the seventeenth century, chemistry
was not the only study submerged in the
ancient ideas. This led to a growing support
for the experimental approach to science that
was championed not by scientists but by
philosophers. Francis Bacon [1561-1626]
had an optimistic vision of science that he
expressed in his Novum Organum and New
Atlantis. He pioneered in leading science
away from Aristotelian ideas to a study based
upon fact collecting. In a somewhat different
fashion the 1637 Discours de la Methode
by Rene Descartes [1596-1650] introduced
the principle of systematic doubt, which says
accept nothing that cannot be established to be
true. From this certain reality one then would
deduce an outcome by dividing the problem
into as many parts as possible and moving
from simple to complex. This approach was
successfully applied to studies in mechanics and
optics.
Support for the Baconian view led to
important chemical work being carried out
by Robert Boyle [1627-1691], a wealthy
Englishman whose enthusiasm for science
stimulated the formation of the Royal Society.
In 1661 Boyle published The Sceptical Chymist
in which he set out to demolish the concept
of the four elements and the three principles.
He showed that there was no sound basis
for regarding these substances as elemental.
Boyle knew from his experiments with acids
that dissolved sulfates could be precipitated by
calcium salts, and solutions containing silver
by the addition of hydrochloric acid. He
further observed the color of ammonium copper
oxide resulted from the actions of ammonium
and hydrochloric acid vapors on copper, the
amalgamation of gold and silver through the
introduction of mercury, the reaction of iron
salts to tannic acid, by which Boyle was able
to detect iron in haematite. He was able to
separate gold from copper through treatment
with nitric acid, and silver from copper through
precipitation with copper. I 630 ! Boyle's
works are an excellent source as regards the
chemical knowledge of his time. He was one
of those who laid the foundations of qualitative
analysis. In his ????? of 1672 he utilized
flame colors, spot tests, fumes, precipitates,
specific gravity, and solvent action as analytical
tools. His work with indicators like syrup
of violets led to the association of various
acidic and alkaline substances. The value of
these experiments did not greatly influence
the contemporaries of Boyle, the theme of the
period being quantitative analysis, applicable
only to a particular study or use. Alchemy
still governed chemistry and chemical studies
of minerals remained vague and insignificant.
The principal problem that had to be faced
was chemical identity. Different substances
had been confused with one another since
antiquity, and identical substances were known
under a variety of names and considered to be
different. There was no clear recognition of the
fact that some substances were building blocks
of which other substances were composed, or
that subtle replacements could take place in
chemical reactions.
In Germany, where chemistry was closely
associated with mining and smelting, there
arose a new theory to take the place of the
ancient believes. Johann Joachim Becher
[1635-1682] in his Physicae Subterraneae
(Subterranean Physics) of 1669 concluded
that all bodies were composed of three
earths: terra lapidae (stony or vitreous earth),
terra mercurialis (mercurial earth), and terra
pinguis (oily earth). According to his theory,
combustible bodies contained "oily earth" that
was released during combustion, leaving behind
only "stony or vitreous earth." When charcoal
is consumed by fire, the oily earth is driven
off, leaving behind only a few ashes. Charcoal
must therefore be very rich in the oily earth. A
calx or a metallic compound can be returned
to its metallic state by heating it with charcoal
because the charcoal is a rich source of oily
earth, which is absorbed by the calx (oxide)
to produce the metal. With his new theory as
I 630 ! Kopp, Geschichte der Chemie, 1866, 2, p. 59.
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6.1 Technological Background
support, he zealously attacked the Aristotelean
philosophy in so far as their belief that elements
with a peculiar properties exist.
Furthermore, Becher's theory could ex-
plain how the different mineral species origi-
nated within the earth. In fact, he recognized
that they were many mixtures that were a com-
bination of two or more substances, and that
one approach to understanding them was to
separate the various substances and system-
atically study them. Becher believes that by
knowing the components of the combinations,
one learns a kind of alphabet from which the
book of nature could be read. Becher advo-
cates having on hand a collection of minerals
and compounds made from them to employ as
comparison material during the analysis. He
was a proficient chemist, and Becher claims in
one day to have made 50 such comparisons. He
further says that in two years time, he had per-
formed more than 3,000 analysis of minerals,
that had cost him the small sum of 100 ducats
spent on the purchase of coal, glass, etc. This
was exceptional, he remarks, because others
had spent many thousands without any return.
It is remarkable and unfortunate that Becher's
many experiments on the chemical characteris-
tics of minerals did not led to further research.
Georg Ernst Stahl [1660-1734] was
one of the leading chemists of his age.
He greatly extended Becher's theory in his
Specimen Beccherianum of 1703. In that book,
Becher's ideas are developed into an elaborate
chemical system in which the term "phlogiston"
replaced the terra pinguis, thus inventing the
phlogiston theory. Stahl theorized that the
metals and other combustible substances were
formed in a combustible earth and described
that combustion by air driven away from the
combustible earth. He believed the principle
of combustion is in the fuel rather than in
the air. When Stahl asked foundry men what
function the charcoal played in reducing the
calx (oxide) to its metal, he was told that the
metal buried itself in the charcoal to escape
the heat of the fire. To observe firsthand the
action of charcoal, he heated a calx of lead
in a furnace, then dropped small pieces of
charcoal onto the calx. Wherever the charcoal
fell on the heated mass, a small bit of lead
appeared. It seemed obvious that the charcoal
added some ingredient that was absorbed by
the calx to create the metal. Stahl theorized
therefore, metals all contained phlogiston,
which explained their common properties of
density, luster, and malleability. It required
sometime for the theory to accepted, but by the
mid-eighteenth century, it was predominant.
The potential comprehensiveness of the
phlogiston theory proved amazingly good in
a world in which chemistry was still held
together by ancient theories. Not only did
the theory explain combustion and calcination
as being caused by the loss of phlogiston, it
explained the smelting of ores equally well.
Since the oxide of a metal is converted into
metal by heating with charcoal, a substance
rich in phlogiston. Stahl argued that phlogiston
was transferred from the charcoal to the
calx, converting the latter into the metal.
Respiration, as well as many other chemical
changes, were also explained in terms of
phlogiston concepts.
Swedish chemists began to dominate
mineralogical studies. URBAN HlAERNE [1641-
1724] in his Een kort Anledning till Atskillige
Malm-och Bergarters Mineraliers Wdxters
(1694) presents the first important contribution
to mineralogy, which focused the activities
of other Swedish researchers to the chemical
anaylsis of minerals and mineral waters. Many
subsequent naturalists considered this work
to be one of the key publications setting
mineralogy on a chemical foundation. The
monograph describes the results of various
analyses on stones and mineral waters that
Hjarne performed. For example, he notes
that carbon dioxide evolves from some minerals
after treatment with acid. Underlying the
descriptions is a classification showing elements
of a traditional type. The author distinguishes
seven divisions: water, earths, stones, metals,
semi-metals, salts and sulphurs. Other
subdivisions are noted under some of these
categories including common stones, precious
stones, figured stones, useful stones, and stones
derived from animals.
Magnus von Bromell [1679-1731] wrote
a modest, little mineralogy that had a profound
influence upon the subsequent development
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6.1 Technological Background
of mineral classification, but because it was
based on a chemcial approach to mienralogy,
also affected that area. Designed as a
handbook to help the Swedish naturalist in
their mineralogical studies it is written for
a threefold purpose. First, to distinguish
and recognize the principal minerals, and to
instruct the reader upon the proper names
of rocks and ores, their nature, habit and
use. Second, to describe which types of useful
minerals should be found in Sweden, and third,
which metals and minerals had already been
found in the kingdom. This last section
emphasises those minerals and ores for which
additional deposits needed to be located.
In this work, Bromell uses chapters to
separate the divisions of the minerals, ores
and petrifications. Within each chapter the
properties of the group are described. By
this method, the author developed a mineral
classification that employs both physical and
chemical properties. He divides minerals
into earths, salts, sulphur and sulphurous
rocks, stones, minerals and semimetals, and
ores and metals. These divisions parallel
the classifications of John Woodward and
Urban Hjarne. Like Agricola, Bromell
subdivides the earths according to their use,
into medicaments, earths used by painters and
dyers, earths used for cleaning and polishing,
earths used in ceramics, fertilizers, earthy ores,
and fuels. However, in this early attempt
at physical-chemical distinction, for the class
of stones, Bromell is the first mineralogist to
group together species according to the more
consistant property of the minerals behavior in
fire.
Through his father, Bromell became a
passionate collector of minerals and fossils. He
had inherited the cabinet begun by his father
and had considerably added to its numbers.
While studying the collection, he became
curious about the effect fire had on various
specimens. Employing the crude qualitative
techniques of the era, various samples of what
were classified as stones by Bromell were placed
in fire and the resulting reactions recorded.
This lead Bromell to categorize stones into four
subdivisions: fire-resistant stones, stones that
calcine, stones that become harder and stones
that fuse and become glass. Since a stone's
chemical composition ultimately determined
its reaction in the fire, and therefore the
category to which it was assigned, Bromell
foreshadowed the more elaborate chemical
classification system to be developed later by
Fr.iedr.ich Axel Cronstedt. Bromell also
demonstrates by his emphasis upon describing
the properties of minerals his interest in an
orderly description of their natural characters.
Another Swede, contemporary to Bromell
was the famous naturalist CARL LINNAEUS
[1707-1778], who was a physician and one
of the organizers an first president of the
Swedish Academy of Science (1739). He
developed important systematic classification
of plants and animals that was based on
the clear subordination of taxons: class,
genus, type, species, and variation. This
systematic approach that may be still found
today in the scientific nomenclature of plants
and animals was applied by Linne to minerals.
This application of a naturalistic approach to
making the study of mineralogy systematic
had great influence through out the eighteenth
century into the nineteenth century, but the
approach really was not suited for mineral
studies. Since minerals do not birth like
plants and animals the idea of similar
families of minerals based solely on external
appearance was doomed to failure. It would
require a chemical approach to direct mineral
systematics along a correct path, and this
only after chemical techniques and theory
sufficiently developed. However, Linne's focus
on studying the external forms of minerals,
particularly their crystal shapes, would led to
important discoveries.
The Chymische Untersuchungen (1746)
of Johann Heinrich Pott [1692-1777] and
its two supplements gave the results of a
reported 30,000 experiments performed by Pott
to discover the secret of making porcelain.
The King of Prussia had commissioned Pott
to discover the secret for making Meissen
porcelain. To achieve his goal, he employed
the "dry method," that consisted of heating
to high temperature in a furnace all manner
and mixture of substances, mostly mineral in
nature. The range of reactions recorded was
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6.1 Technological Background
a model of comprehensiveness in the chemical
study of the time and showed conclusively that
relative reactivity could be discovered through
planned, interrelated analysis. Pott did not
discover the secret to making porcelain and fell
out of favor with the King. But his published
results had wide relevance to manufacture, and
were invaluable for the further development of
theories regarding chemical affinity, especially
with regard to minerals.
One of the most widely known opponents
to Linne's approach to mineralogy was the head
of the department of chemistry and mineral-
ogy at Upsala University, JoHAN GoTTSCHALK
Wallerius [1709-1785]. His Mineralogie,
efter Mineralriket of 1747 enjoyed wide popu-
larity being translated from Swedish into Ger-
man, French, Latin, and Russian. It is consid-
ered the first detailed textbook of mineralogy
published, and it contains a systematic mineral-
ogy based on both. Chemical composition and
physical characteristics, together with concise
descriptions of the minerals it describes.
Another Swedish chemist and metallurgist
of the time was Axel Friedrich Cronstedt
[1722-1765], who was the discoverer of the
element nickle in 1754. He wrote a little
mineralogical volume the advocated the use of
chemical composition to develop a classification
of minerals. He advocated this approach based
upon the results he and other were obtaining
with the use of the mouth blowpipe in chemical
analysis. His book, Forsok Till Mineralogie,
Eller Mineral= Rikets Upstallning of 1758
was quickly translated into German, English,
French, Italian, and Russian. It is the first
time mineral systematic were based strictly on
a chemical basis. Cronstedt also improves the
mineralogical nomenclature, and is the first
to separate fossils and other geological objects
from minerals. He was a keen observer, and
based on chemical tests says that graphite and
molybdenite are not the same minerals, as was
then thought, but in fact two totally different
species.
[ADD MORE ON CRONSTEDT]
Torbern Olaf Bergman [1735-1784]
was another Swedish chemist who left his
mark on mineralogy. Bergman was a docent
of physics (1759-1761), adjunct professor of
mathematics (1761-1767), and head of the
departments of chemistry and minerlaogy
(1767-1784) of Upsala University. He
developed a chemical classification of minerals,
and attempted to revise the mineralogical
nomenclature. His last contribution was the
theory that large crystals were being built
up of smaller units all of the same shape,
and that these particles gave the crystal its
physical properties, such as cleavage. This idea
had significant impact on the morphological
description of minerals, that crystals were
built up from elementary particles shaped like
rhombohedrons in the case of calcite. In this
work on the structure of crystals, Bergman
anticipated Haiiy. In chemical mineralogy his
fame rests in the techniques he developed in
qualitative analysis of samples using both dry
analysis, notably with the blowpipe, an wet
methods. He led the way in the use of the
blowpipe, requiring his students to learn its
use, and making modifications to the tool
that improved its usefulness. Bergman also
introduced a large number of reagents to be
used in analysis, and stressed the importance of
weighing results during the intermediate steps
to determine if any material had been gained
or loss. He was one of the best chemists and
mineralogists of his day when he died at a
rather young age.
6.1.2 The Chemical Revolution! 631 ]
REWORK: Before 1750 chemistry could not
really be regarded as an independent science.
[631J pother historical information may be found in:
Archibald Clow and N.L. Clow., The chemical revolution. A
contribution to social technology. London, The Batchworth
Press, 1952. xvi, 680 p., 110 plates. • E. Grison, M.
Goupil, and P. Bret, eds., A scientific correspondence during
the chemical revolution: Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau and
Richard Kirwan, 1782-1802. Edited by Emmanuel Grison,
Michelle Goupil, and Patrice Bre. Berkeley, Office for
History of Science and Technology, University of California
at Berkeley, 1994. vi, 257 p., illus. • James W. Liana., "A
contribution of natural history to the chemical revolution
in France," Ambix: Journal of the Society for the History
of Alchemy and Chemistry, 32 (1985), p. 71-91. [On a
major impetus toward a new view of the elements derived
from Swedish mineralogy and chemistry, especially the
work of Axel Cronstedt and Torbern Bergman.] • David
R. Oldroyd., "Mineralogy & the 'Chemical Revolution',"
Centaurus, 19 (1975), p. 54-71. • Theodore M. Porter.,
"The promotion of mining and the advancement of science:
The chemical revolution of mineralogy," Annals of Science,
38 (1981), p. 543-570.
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6.1 Technological Background
It had always been ancillary to other fields.
Alchemy its progenitor was the source for
man of its recipes, apparatus and theory, but
that information was purposely shielded in
the unwieldy allegorical language used by the
alchemists in their books. Chemistry was
becoming, however, a tool of the apothecary
and physician. This was reflected in the many
theories, which were closely related to medical
issues. Also, the local apothecary is where the
chemist of the time purchased their materials.
The industrial revolution had greatly
increased the demand for certain chemical
materials such as mineral acids and alkalis, and
the need to discovery more efficient methods
of production placed tremendous pressure on
practical chemistry. One of the principal
stumbling points that was hindering chemistry
was an inadequate theory to explain how the
science actually worked. The phlogiston theory
that seemed to have explained so much at
the start of the eighteenth century, was by
the 1770s showing its inadequacies. Clearly,
some fundamental assumption in the idea of
the phlogiston was not correct, and chemical
science could not advance until the flaw was
shown.
On to this scene appeared the Frenchman
Antoine Laurent Lavoisier [1743-1794].
He had an exceptional mind that worked out
theory, while at the same time he could devise
practical experiments to either support or
disprove his theory. However, It should be
emphasized that Lavoisier discovered no new
substances and devised no improved apparatus.
Instead, he correctly interpreted the facts
already known. When he began his chemical
research, chemistry was still controled by
the phlogiston theory and was essentially a
collection of unorganized observations. The
affinities of substances towards one another had
been investigated, and acids and bases had
been described fairly well, but it was hardly a
science. Using the results of his contemporary
chemists, in conjunction with experiments of
his own design, he discovered the role of oxygen
in combustion and overthrew with impeccable
logic the doctrine of phlogiston. This laid the
foundation of modern chemistry. It has been
said Lavoisier accomplished for chemistry what
Isaac Newton had done for mechanics a century
earlier.
NEED TO ADD DATA ABOUT THE
IMPACT OF THE REVOLUTION
6.1.4 Science of Chemistry
REWORK: Carl Wilhelm Scheele [1742-
1786] as well as a pharmacist and chemist who
was self taught in the chemical analysis, but
managed anyway to discover the five chemical
elements , , , , and . Because
of the many papers he published on organic
compounds he is considered one of the founders
of organic chemistry. It is his detailed and
meticulous analysis of minerals that gave him
lasting fame.
Louis Nicolaus Vaquelin [1763-1829]
was a French pharmacist before becoming
a chemist. He carried out many chemical
analytical studies, and is considered one of the
founders of qualitative analysis. In the School
of Mines in Paris, where he was a professor, he
conducted studies on many minerals, which he
conducted in concert with the crystallographic
studies of Haiiy. In 1797 his analysis of the
new mineral crocoite from Berezovsky, Russia,
derived the presence of an unknown metal.
By 1798 he had isolated the metal naming it
chromium. In that same year he first isolated
from a Siberian beryl crystal a sweet tasting
element that was later named beryllium by
Klaproth.
Martin Heinrich Klaproth [1743-
1817] was the first professor of chemistry at the
University of Belin and the best chemist of his
time. He stressed the importance of repeatable
results i hi chemical analysis as well as full
documentation of the qualitative methods used
in the procedure. His careful precision led him
in his analysis of various minerals to discover
the new elements: zirconium (1789), titanium
(1795, and independently of Gregor), tellurium
(1798), chromium (1798, independently of
Vaquelin), uranium (1789), and cerium (1803,
independently of Berzelius) .
[MAYBE SHOULD BE TABLE?]
He published his mineral analysis in
various German journals and periodically
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6.1 Technological Background
collected them into volumes in his important
(6 vols., 1795-1815). He also
authored his Chemical Dictionary (5 vols.,
1807-1809).
Johann Gottlieb Gahn [1745-1818]
was a Swedish chemist and friend of Scheele.
He operated a mine in the Faluna Region and
by his expert use of the mouth blowpipe he
was able to chemically analysis its minerals.
From pyrolusite he was perhaps the first to
produce metallic balls. These he sent to Scheele
who further purified the metal and confirmed
the discovery of the new element manganese.
Together with Scheele, Gahn participated in
obtaining phosphorus from the ashes of horns
and the bones of animals.
Hans Gadolin [1760-1852] a professor of
chemistry at Abo, Finland isolated from the
black mineral yttrbite in 1787 an unknown
earth.
[ADD MORE ON GADOLIN]
At the end of the eighteenth century
there was an explosion of developments in
chemistry connected with the work of Antoine
Lavoisier [1743-1794]. He was the first to
create a scientific explanation of combustion
and show conclusively that no material is lost
or gained during the oxidation process. This
reversed ideas about the phlogiston theory, and
in fact destroyed the theory.
[SEE PARTINGTON, p. 122]
6.1.5 Nineteenth Century! 632 !
REWORK: The development of mineralogy in
the nineteenth century continued in lock step
with the progress of chemistry, with the basic
concepts and methods being common to both
sciences. The study of crystallography helped
create a method for mineral determination, as
well as connecting information about chemical
composition with the characteristics of the
crystal shape and different physical properties.
[bsz\ pusher historical information may be found in: J.
Lafaille., "Contribution de la naissance de la Chimie
minerale au developpement de la Mineralogie ed de la
Petrographie a la fin du XVHIe siecle," Travaux du Comite
francais d'Histoire de la Geologie, First Series, 1978, no. 14,
4 p. • E.M. Melhado., Jacob Berzelius. The emergence of his
chemical system. Madison, University of Wisconsin Press,
1981. 357 p.
Early in the century, a dispute arose be-
tween Berthollet and Proust concerning the
constancy of the composition of chemical sub-
stances that would have important repercus-
sions in mineralogy. The dispute that erupted
in 1801 developed from analytical chemists and
the ratio of specific chemical elements (base and
acid) with in the salts they analysed.
Claude Louis Berthollet [1748-1822]
revealed in his publications that he thought
chemical composition was variable, and that
the effect of temperature on the density of a
body would cause the attractive force of the
chemical elements to change, thereby making
the chemical composition variable. Berthollet
supported this view about variable composition
in chemical compounds in his (1801) and
(1803) that found many chemists writing
in support of his view or warring against it.
The charge against Berthollet was led by
the French chemist, Joseph Louis Proust
[1754-1826], who preformed numerous chemical
analyses on specimens from his own excellent
mineral collection. In particular, Proust
studied the properties of silver minerals. He
believed that Berthollet did not perform his
analysis on pure samples, but on crystals that
were composed of different layers that caused
the chemical composition to vary. Through his
excellent chemical analysis, Proust conclusively
showed by 1808 that all chemical compounds
were always mixed in the same proportions.
The chemical controversy between Proust
and Berthollet reflected a deeper schism in
early nineteenth century science. Scientists
were finally freeing themselves from the
heritage and old traditions, in this case
alchemy. The theorists that defended either the
iatro chemistry of the phologiston were by and
large being replaced by the experimentalists
who developed theory from what was seen
in the laboratory. For the first time in the
development of chemistry, the science grew
through experimental advancements, which led
to bright prospects for further development.
A significant role in chemistry was played
by the Italians Luigi Galvani [1737-1798]
and Anasasio Volta [1745-1827] with their
experiments in electricity. They generated
their electrical current by placing a conducting
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6.1 Technological Background
fluid between two different metals. This
Galvanic pile or battery was another tool
available to the chemist that led to many
new discoveries, including the decomposition
of water, electrolysis of some metals, and the
discovery of new elements like sodium.
Chemical developments continued to be
linked to the study of minerals in the work of
the Swedish chemist and mineralogist, JoHAN
Jakob Berzelius [1779-1848]. He was the
president of the Swedish Academy of Science,
and one of the greatest scientists of his age. His
greatest contribution was his development of an
atomic theory and the correct determination
of the atomic masses of most of the chemical
elements known at the time (36 of the known
49). He applied his atomic theory to the
devolvement of another chemical theory that
linked chemistry and electricity, which he
called 'electro- affinity'. Berzelius developed
a nomenclature of chemical elements, and a
method of writing the chemical formulas of
compound substances and reactions between
them.
With his determination of atomic masses
of chemical elements, Berzelius had the
fundamental component to correctly determine
the formula of many substances, including the
minerals the he experimented with. To develop
his theory, he preformed over 2,000 analyses
of substances that contained the 43 known
chemical elements. This allowed him to publish
in 1814 the first compilation listing the atomic
masses, which was revised with corrected values
when his table was published in 1826. From
his experimental data he was able to establish
a theoretical framework for various oxides and
say that oxide compounds are of the form: X 2 0,
X 2 3 , X 2 , X 2 O s , and X 2 O y .
Berzelius viewed all chemical compounds
as having both positive and negative charged
components, and that the substance was held
together by the mutual attraction of these op-
positely charged elements. These electroposi-
tive and electronegative parts corresponded to
the base and acid, respectively, of the sub-
stance. His theory made it possible to explain
the integration of substances with each other,
their behavior in solution, an the reason for the
formation of chemical compounds in strict pro-
portions. To facilitate the communication of
his ideas, Berzelius proposed in 1813 to des-
ignate the element by the first two letters of
the Latin name of the element, and dropping
the old alchemical symbols completely. He also
championed the writing of chemical formulas,
to consist of the electropositive (base) portion
followed by the electronegative (acid) part. A
practice followed to this day.
In his work, Berzelius investigated the
chemical composition of many minerals. To
expedite his investigations, he made liberal use
of the blowpipe, which he had been taught
by J.G. Gahn, but which nevertheless was
improved by Berzelius. Using this useful tool
he discovered several elements, and was able to
isolate in an elemental form for the first
time.
Berzelius was a prolific writer, announcing
his theories, discoveries, and innovations
through his numerous scientific papers and
textbooks. Due to the nature of his
research, many of these works deal directly
with the chemical composition of minerals.
After being sent a large gift of minerals by
Andreas Ekeberg, Berzelius analysised them,
and established the large role a flint like
material played in their composition. He
proposed the general name "silicates" to define
this type of mineral formation. Not satisfied
with the classification of mineral species by
their physical forms as was then the prevailing
method, he developed his own classification
system based on chemistry. In particular,
he divided the silicates into groups depending
on the relationship of metals to the silicate
component (Si x O ), where x is in the ratio to y
as 1:1, 1:2, or 1:3.
Although Berzelius was the most signifi-
cant chemist and mineralogist of the early nine-
teenth century, others noticeably contributed
to the chemical analysis of minerals, and in the
process discovered new chemical elements.
Carl Gustav Mozander [1797-1858]
was another Swedish chemist and mineralogist
who investigated and discovered several rare
earth elements. In 1839, he showed that the
cerium earth analysised previously by Klaproth
and Berzelius actually contained several similar
elements, one of which he named lanthanum.
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6.2 Mineral Analysis & Analysts
In the same year he obtained a pure cerium
oxide, but metallic cerium (Ce) was only
obtained in 1875 by the American chemist
U.F. Hillebrand. Mozander also isolated the
earth, whose heterogenous nature
was proven spectroscopically by Bauner, and
which Auer von Welsbach in 1885 finally
reduced to the elements praseodymium (??)
and neodymium (??). Mozander's interest
and success in studying the rare earth series
encouraged others to investigate their ores and
thus were discovered:
[ADD TABLE HERE.]
Reference... I 633 !
6.2 Mineral Analysis & Analysts! 634 !
REWORK: The beginnings of mineral analysis
are lost in the fog of history. Assyrian,
Babylonian, Sumarian, Egyptian and Biblical
records show that a form of fire assay for gold
and silver dating back to before 2500 B.C.E.
was generally known, and it can be supposed
that metallurgists evaluated any new ore by
assaying a sample. The fire assay of gold and
silver probably came close to modern standards
of accuracy by 600 years ago if not earlier, and
other methods of assaying for other metallic
[bss\ g j gt Beckmann., "Mineralogische Beschriebung
und chemische Untersuchung eines griinen, ausserlich dem
Chrysopras ahnlichen Fossils aus dem Zillerthal in Tyrol.,"
Neue Journale der Pharmacie [Trommsdorff] , 20 (1830), 31-7.
^ J Further historical information may be found in:
Frank Greenaway., "The early developement of analytic
chemistry," Endeavour, 21 (1962), p. 91-97. * Max H. Hey,
"Mineral analysis and analysts," Mineralogical Magazine, 39
(1973), p. 4-24. • Herbert A. Laitinen and Galen W. Ewing,
eds., A history of analytical chemistry. Washington, Division
of Analytical Chemistry of the American Chemical Society,
1977. xiv, 358 p., illus. * David R. Oldroyd., "Some
eighteenth century methods for the chemical analysis of
minerals," Journal of Chemical Education, 50 (1973), p. 337-
340. • ibid., "A note on the staus of A.F. Cronstedt's
simple earths and his analytical methods," Isis, 65 (1974),
p. 506-512. • James R. Partington., A history of chemistry.
London, Macmillian, 1961-70. Vol. 1, pt. 1, 2-4. xlv,
370 p.; xxiv, 795 p.; xxiii, 854 p.; xxxi, 1007 p. [No more
published. Indispensable standard reference in the history
of chemistry.] • G. Rath., "Die Mineralquellenanalyse
im 17. Jahrhundert," Sudhoffs Archiv, 41 (1957), p. 1-
9. • Eberhard Schmauderer., "Kiinstliches Ultramarin
im Spiegel von Preisaufgaben und der Entwicklung der
Mineralanalyse im 19 Jahrhundert," Technik Geschichte,
36 (1969), p. 314-333. * Ferenc Szabadvary., History of
analytical chemistry. Translated by Gyula Svehla. Oxford,
London, etc., Pergamon Press, 1966. ix, [1], 418 p., illus.,
notes, indexes.
ores have been developed since then. Assaying
is an early qualitative approach to the problem
of chemical composition. R tells if a specific
metal is present it does not say if there are other
elements present. In the eighteenth century
chemistry developed new techniques of analysis
that allowed for the quantities of every element
contained in a substance to be determined
with accuracy. This had a profound impact in
mineralogical science.
The task of the analyst is to choose a line
of attack for the material on hand, to modify
existing analytical methods, or if necessary
invent new ones to carry the chemical analysis
to completion, and properly interrupt the
results. In the beginning, even the procedures
had to be invented, before the chemists could
show their true skill. Between 1757 and 1781
Andreas Sigismund Marggraf [1709-1782]
made many advances of analytical significance,
including distinguishing between soda and
potash, the use of ferrocyanide as a reagent
for iron, the use of the blowpipe and the
microscope as an aid in the identification of
salts. I 635 ! Many of his papers were collected
together in the Chymischer Schriften (2 vols.,
Berlin, 1761-7), which was also translated into
French by Formey. He was skilled at chemical
analysis, and studied phosphorus, silver, zinc,
barite, potash, gypsum, etc. Before his time,
qualitative chemical analysis of minerals was
hardly ever attempted, and in fact, although
Marggraf analyzed many mineral compounds,
he appears never to have published a complete
analysis of a mineral.
Among the first scientific publications
of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier [1743-
1794] were his chemical analysis of gypsum,
submitted to the Paris Academie des Sciences
in 1765 but published in 1768. I 636 ! In
his analysis Lavoisier correctly determines that
gypsum (CaS0 4 ) is a combination of vitriolic
acid with a calcareous earth and that it has
the same composition as selenite. He showed
that plaster, which is made from the dust
[635] p artmgton; History of Chemistry, 1961, 2, p. 723-729.
[bSb\ Antoine L. Lavoisier., "Analyse du gypse," Memoires
de VAcademie Royale des Sciences, Paris, 5 (1768), p. 341-
357.; Partington, History of Chemistry, 1962, 3, p. 378-379.
157
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6.2 Mineral Analysis & Analysts
of gypsum, hardened due to its combination
with water. He also provides full geological
data concerning where the material is found.
The scholarship displayed in this paper brought
Lavoisier to the attention of Guettard, who
invited him to assist in the preparation of
the Atlas et Description Mineralogiques de la
France (1780), which mapped the mineralogical
wealth of France. Interestingly, in a second
memoir on gypsum that Lavoiser delivered to
the Academie in 1766, but which was only first
published in 1865, he shows that gypsum can
be artificially formed in the laboratory from the
reaction of chalk and sulfuric acid. I 637 '
By the middle of the eighteenth century,
then, there was a large accumulation of data
about qualitative analysis that could be drawn
upon to form a general scheme for mineral
analysis. However, the trick to a good analysis
was to place the entire sample into a solution,
which it was discovered could be achieved by
fusion with an alkali. This technique had been
known since the earliest glass makers colored
their products, but it was not an obvious step.
Once discovered, however, these procedures
collectively became known as the wet method
of analysis. Because the chemical precipitates
at the various stages could be weighed on a
balance, it was also called gravimeteric analsis.
The first chemist-mineralogist to use these
procedures in his chemistry was the Swedish
Torbern Olaf Bergman [1735-1784] J 638 !
A brillant man, who had persistant ill-
health, Bergman prepared in a period of
less than two decades a chemical analysis
of seemingly every substance that came into
his posession, including many minerals .
Among the large collection of papers and
dissertations published by Bergman and his
students are essays on: ankerite, I 639 ! tin
sulphide (1781), I 640 ! stibnite (antimony sulfide,
1782), I 641 l volcanic products (1777), in
[637] Antoine L. Lavoisier., "Sur le gypse," Memoires de
l'Academie Royale des Sciences, Paris, 3rd Serie, 8 (1865), p.
128-136.; Partington, History of Chemistry, 1962, 3, p. 379.
[638] p ar tington, History of Chemistry, 1962, 3, p. 179-199.
I 639 ! X; A, ii, 184.
I 640 ! XLI; A, iii, 157.
I 641 l XLII; A, iii, 164.
which he gives an analysis of basalt (silica
52, alumina 15, calcium carbonate 8, iron
25),I 642 1 lithomarge (1782), I 643 ! asbestos
(1782), I 644 ! the hydrophane (oculus mundi)
(1777), [645] tourmaline (1779), I 646 ! cassiterite
(tin) from Siberia (1781), I 647 ! observations
on minerals (1784), I 648 ! mineral waters of
Medevi (1782), I 649 ! the precipitation of cobalt,
nickel, platinum, and manganese (1780), I 650 !
magnesia nitrate (1777), I 651 ! and with
little success, complete analyses of emerald,
ruby, sapphire, topaz, and hyacinth (probably
idocrase).! 652 !
Bergman is also the first to issue a manual
that explained the steps in analysing a mineral
in a general way, Dissertatio Metallurgica de
Minerarum Docimasia Humida (1780). It
is an important disseration responded to by
Petrus Castorin, which is a greatly expanded
and revised edition of Bergman's earlier
paper, "Chemisk Afhandling om Jarnmalmus
Proberande" (1777). The text gives detailed
and practical methods for qualitative and
quantitative analysis of 15 different metals
found in ores, including silver, mercury, lead,
iron, copper and zinc. The wet method of
analysis is preferred, he says, because of its
accuracy even though it takes considerably
longer to perform than the dry assay method.
Sadly, the published analyses of Bergman
are not as accurate as they could have been.
There were several reasons for this. He
tended not to consider the contribution of
some of the less common "earths" in the
analysis. Sometimes, he would include the
less accurate results of his students in his own
work, and finally, the mortar he used to crush
particularly hard samples would contaminate
I 642 ! XVIII; A, iii, 184-290.
I 643 ! XLIV; B, iv, 142.
I 644 l XLV; B, iv, 160.
I 645 ! XX; KAH, 1777, xxxviii, 347; A, 11, 54.
I 646 ! XXXI; KAH, 1779, xl, 224; A, ii, 118.
I 647 ! KAH, 1781,ii,328.
I 648 ] XLIX; KAH, 1784, v, 109; B, v, 98.
I 649 ] 15 XLVI; KAH, 1782, iii, 288; B, iv, 346.
I 650 ! XXXVI; KAH, 1780, i, 282; B, iv, 371.
I 651 ! XXIV; KAH, 1777, xxxviii, 213; B, v, 111.
I 652 l XXL; A, ii, 85.
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6.2 Mineral Analysis & Analysts
the test sample with silca, which tricked
Bergman into believing the original substance
contained the element. His authority was
considerable, and his analytical work was not
questioned until better chemcial techniques
were developed, which happened shortly after
his death. Nevertheless, Bergman and his
pioneering procedures of the "analysis in the
humid way" was of fundamental significance.
After Bergman, progress in mineral
analysis was rapid. Others soon began
to investigate minerals and precious stones
chemically, and they began publishing papers
and books that described their findings:
Achard,! 653 ! Bindheim,! 654 ! Forster, I 655 !
Gerhard, I 656 ! Scheele,! 657 ! Withering, I 658 !
among them. In Ireland, RICHARD KlRWAN
[1733-1812] used "humid" techniques in his
mineral analyses. By 1784 he was able to
tabulate 74 analyses of rocks and minerals
completed by himself and others in the first
edition of his Elements of Mineralogy. He also
includes in the book a useful description of his
analytical procedures.
By 1800, 32 elements were recognized,
many of these having been discovered through
analysis of minerals. The greatest strides in this
direction were made in Germany by MARTIN
Heinrich Klaproth [1743-1817], the greatest
practical chemist of his age. He did not make
sweeping theories about his science, but instead
his work reformed chemcial analysis techniques.
He published many papers on the chemistry of
minerals that included detailed descriptions of
his laboratory methods, which show his careful
and accurate techniques. Periodically, these
papers were collected together and published
[653J pY anz c ar ] Achard., Bestimmung der Bestandtheile
einiger Edelsteine. Berlin, 1779. 128 p., 2 plates.; ibid.,
"Chemische Untersuchungen der Edelsteine" Abhandlungen
des Miinchen Akademie, 1800, p. 219-350.
I 654 ! Johann Jacob Bindheim., "???". See Weeks 7th
edition.
1 655 J Johann Reinhold Forster., An Easy Method of Assaying
and Classing Mineral Substances. London, 1772. 44 p.
[656J (j aI \ Abraham Gerhard., Beitrage zur Chymie und
Geschichte des Mineralreichs. Berlin, 1773. 2 vols.
I 657 ! Carl Wilhelm Scheele., "???".
[658] \villiam Withering., Outlines of Mineralogy. London,
1783, being an English translation of T.O. Bergman's
Sciagraphia.
Chemical Elements Known In 1800
as a volume of the important, Beitrage zur
chemischen Kenntniss der Mineralkorper, of
which six volumes appeared between 1795 and
1815.
Klaproth extended mineral analysis in a
number of new directions. Whereas earlier
chemists habitually recalculated their result to
always total 100 percent, Klaproth insisted
that his results be accurately reported, even
if they did not total exactly 100 percent. He
includes information on the weights of his
samples and reagents, and was at pains to
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6.2 Mineral Analysis & Analysts
remove any potential source for error. Purity
of his chemical reagents is emphasised, and in
this era when the chemist had to make his
own, Klaproth describes processes for purifying
them. He also chose his apparatus carefully,
so that unwanted contaminants were not
introduced to the test sample. He introduced
the use of agate, flint, and diamond mortars,
correcting for weight losses in the mortar and
crucible. He initiated the technique of drying
precipitates to constant weight, and if ignition
created a stable residue without alteration, this
technique was used. Before Klaproth, Bergman
had suggested the idea of precipitating metals,
i.e., silver as the chloride, calcium as the
sulfate, and lead as the sulfide. This idea was
expanded by him to incorporate other metals.
Showing his tremendous skill during his
mineral analyses, Klaproth frequently found
samples for which the analytical procedures
failed to total close to 100 percent. This
suggested the presence of some additional
element contained in the mineral that had not
previously been recognized. Leads such as
this were persued by Klaproth, which led to
him either discovering or confirming a recent
discovery of the elements: zirconium, uranium,
tellurium, and titanium. For example, in
his 1789 analysis of zircon from Ceylon he
discovered an earth (oxide) that made up 70
percent of the composition of the sample.
Bergman had previously thought this material
was a combintation of aluminum, calcium and
iron oxides; however, Klaproth recognized it as
actually the oxide of a new metal, which he
named zirconium, which was only first isolated
in elemental form by Berzelius in 1824.
In France, Nicolas Vauquelin [1763-
1829] used "humid" techniques in his mineral
analyses. Haiiy at the Fcole des Mines
supplied him with samples of minerals for
analysis. Generally, these analyses were inferior
to Klaproth's because Vauquelin paid less
attention to impurities in reagents and to the
purity of his samples. Nevertheless, he did
produce good results. Analysing crocoite from
Siberia, he isolated a new metal that because
of the vibrant colored compounds it formed was
given at the suggestion of Haiiy and Fourcroy
the name chromium. In the decompostion
of beryl crystal given him by Citizen Patrin,
he was the first to recognize the oxide of
beryllium, an element not isolated until 1828
by F. Wohler.
By the late eighteenth century, quantita-
tive mineral analysis had become recognized
as an important branch of mineralogical chem-
istry and many books on the subject soon be-
gan to appear. Carl Fribdrich August
Hochheimer authored the 2 volume Chemis-
ette Mineralogie, oder vollstdndige Geschichte
der analysischen Untersuchung der Fossilien
(1792-3), in which he covers the development
of mineral analysis, together with reviews of
the various techniques so far established, hi
1801, LAMPADIUS published what is generally
considered the first textbook on mineral analy-
sis with the Handbuch zur chemischen Analyse
der Mineralkorper (Handbook to the Chemi-
cal Analysis of Mineral Bodies). The Prac-
tical Essay on the Analysis of Minerals of
1804 was prepared for the English readership
by Friedrich Accum to describe the appa-
ratus, preparation, purification, and testing of
reagents, and giving procedures for the analy-
sis of a considerable number of minerals. Fur-
thermore, Accum taught classes in chemistry to
an eagar public at the Royal Institute(?). The
techniques available were still being perfected,
and the insturments, in particular the balances,
were still not accurate enough. Klaproth used,
for example, a balance that appears to have
been accurate to one grain (about 30 mg) so
that although he usually used 5 to 10 grammes
of a mineral for analysis, his best results could
only be accurate to one percent, which he
clearly recognized. Many later workers were
less cautious.
In England, William Hyde Wollaston
[1766-1828] an enthusiastic and talented
investigator in various fields of chemistry and
physics investigated the new platinum metal
being imported from South America since
about 1750. It aroused the attention of
chemists because of its chemical inertness,
and the extremely high temperatures needed
to melt it — virtually beyound the furnace
technology of Wollaston's time. He instead
found a method to prepare a platinum mass
by the thermal decomposition of ammonium
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6.2 Mineral Analysis & Analysts
chlorplatinate. The process kept secret until
his death brought him a steady income.
However, during his studies of native platinum,
he discovered the two metals palladium and
rhodium in 1803. Together with osmium and
iridium, discovered by Smithson Tennant
[1761-1815] in 1804, they form the platinum
group of metals.
With the work of Swedish Jons JAKOB
Berzelius [1779-1848] the modern period
of gravimetric analysis is entered. Though
many improvements were still to come, and a
large number of chemical separations still gave
trouble, Berzelius the best chemist of his age.
In his mineral analyses he devised many new
procedures and introduced new reagents such
as hydrofluoric acid for the decomposition of
silicates and the determination of silica. He also
greatly improved the technique of analysis by
introducing the use of a filter paper that when
burned left little ash behind and the cleaning
of precipitates by the use of a convenient
wash bottle. His technical improvements were
so great that he was the first researcher to
determine the elemental atomic weights with
accuracy — a study he used in part to base his
system of mineral classification (see §9. ).
In 1821, Friedrich Stromeyer [1776-
1835] published his Untersuchngen iiber die
Mischung der Mineralkorper, which was the
first in a proposed series of volumes describing
the chemical makeup of minerals. In the
forward, he writes that it was the influence
of Berzelius' researches that motivated him
to prepare this book. It is a collection of
investigations into the analyses of minerals that
he has made with the best technique of the
time. Thirty species are treated including
aragonite, aluminite, magnesite, strontianite,
boracite, apophyllite and spodumene. In
several cases Stromeyer presents analyses from
multiple localities to show that the composition
of a mineral species does not vary much deposit
to deposit. Unfortunately, no more volumes
were published, although Stromeyer continued
publishing papers dealing with the chemical
analysis of minerals.! 659 ]
]659J j^ complete list of Stromeyer's papers can be found in
the Royal Society Catalogue of Scientific Papers, ??, p. ??-??.
By the first decades of the nineteenth
century, as is shown by the 1829 first edition
of the Handbuch der analytischen Chemie
of Heinrich Rose [1795-1864], a set of
workable methods for the separation and
determination of each of the known elements
was available. The techniques and instruments
used in wet gravimeteric analysis had advanced
to a point where the priority shifted from
manipulation of the samples to discovering
new procedures and chemical reagents that
would give results of greater accuracy. The
remainder of that century saw hundreds of new
procedures devised, many of which arose out
of the discovery of new minerals, elements,
and compounds. Still others came from
the application of chemistry to problems in
industry, agriculture, and medicine.
Among the many important new pro-
cedures were, for example, the molyb-
date method for phosphorus, introduced
by Franz Leopold Sonnenschein [1819-
1879],[ 66 °1 and the method for the deter-
mination of alkalies in silicate minerals and
rocks, devised by J. Lawrence Smith [1818-
1883]. I 661 ! Elaborate schemes were also de-
vised for the analysis of complex materials, a
notable example being that of William Fran-
cis HlLLEBRAND [1853-1925] for the complete
analysis of silicate and carbonate rocks. I 662 !
The chemist Karl Remigius Fresenius
[1818-1897] is generally recognized as the leader
in the development of chemical analysis in
general and gravimetric analysis during the
second half of the nineteenth century. He
opened in 1848 a laboratory that became
a center for training analytical chemists,
for research on methods of analysis, and
for commercial analytical work done for
individuals, government bodies, and industry.
Students there used his textbook, Anleitung
zur qualitativen chemischen Analyse first
published in 1846, that contains instructive
procedures for the qualitatitive analysis of all
[660] pL Sonnenschein., "???," Journ. prakt. Chem.
(Erdmann), 53 (1851), p. 339.
^ J J.L. Smith., "???," American Journal of Science, series
2, 15 (1853), p. 234; 16 (1854), p. 53.
[662] WF> Hillebrand., "???," Journal of the American
Chemical Society, 16 (1894), p. 90.
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6.3 Chemical Compostion of Minerals
the known elements. Because pure reagents
were not commercially available at the time,
detailed directions for their preparation are
also included.! 663 ] The book was
immediately recognized as a work of superior
merit. Six editions were published until 1898,
the year after Frensenius' death, together
with translations into Chinese, Danish, Dutch,
English, French, Polish, Russian, and Spanish.
It became (and still is) the best textbook
on chemical analysis written.! 664 ] Much
information on the chemistry of minerals is
contained within its pages, with the first part
devoted to qualitative analysis of minerals.
Together with the newly devised proce-
dures, new inventions stimulated analysis. Un-
til the mid nineteenth century, charcoal was
often used as the fuel for furnaces and ovens
and alcohol for laboratory burners. In 1855
Robert Wilhelm Bunsen [1811-1899] in-
vented the convenient and clean gas burner that
still bears his name. In 1878, Frank Austin
Gooch [1852-1929] invented the glazed porce-
lain filter crucible that is used in high temper-
ature analysis.
6.3 Chemical Compostion of Minerals
REWORK: Lavoisier's new theory of chemistry
was gradually accepted, and by the end of
the 18th century even England and Germany,
where any ideas originating from revolutionary
France were treated with grave distrust, had
accepted the new theory. But at this time
the laws governing stoichiometry, despite the
valuable work of Richter, Proust and Dalton
were not conclusive enough to be used for
exact calculations. Dalton's atomic theory, and
also the laws of stoichiometry, only became
an integral part of quantitative analysis after
accurate values of the atomic weights had been
established. This work was carried out by
Berzelius at the beginning of the 19th century,
[bbs\ The first reagents of guaranteed purity were placed
on sale by the Kahlbaum Co. in Germany in 1880.
[664J K ar ] Remigius Fresenius., Quantitative chemical
analysis, by the late Dr. C. Remigius Fresenius ... Authorized
translation of the greatly amplified and revised 6th German
edition, by Alfred I. Cohn. New York, J. Wiley & Sons,
1904. 2 vols. [The great quantitative chemistry textbook,
translated into English.]
and his invaluable work marks the start of a
new period in chemical history.
Berzelius's work was furthered in that
he was able to rely on a large amount of
analytical information, which had not been
available to Wenzel or Richter. This was largely
due to the rapid development of mineralogy
between the years 1790-1810. During this
time the quantitative composition of a large
number of minerals and naturally occurring
salts was established with a fair degree of
accuracy. Mineral analysis was the primary
concern of chemists throughout Europe at this
time, but three names stand out above the
others. Kirwan, Klaproth and Vauquelin,
although only slightly more illustrious than
most of their contemporaries, give a good
impression of the manner in which analysis was
carried out in Europe at that time.
Richard Kirwan was born in Ireland in
1735, where he first studied and practiced law.
However, being a rich man he soon retired and
lived in London and Dublin, and at his country
estate, where he engaged himself in the study
of science as a hobby. His main interest was
in analysis. He was a member of the Royal
Society, and for a long time he supported the
phlogiston theory in opposition to Lavoisier,
but eventually realized that it was untenable.
He died in Dublin in 1812.
Kirwan describes many types of salts,
and the results of his analyses were extremely
accurate, a fact which assisted both Richter
and Berzelius in their investigations on
stoichiometry. However, there was little in
his work which was new, the main object
being to make Bergman's methods of water
analysis quicker and more simple. His work was
published in London in 1799, under the title An
Essay on the Analysis of Mineral Waters.
Kirwan's book is outstanding, mainly
because of its comprehensive list of references,
which summarize all the work carried out in
the field of water analysis since the time of
Bergman. The first part of the book describes
the various compounds which can be found in
water. Some of his observations in this section
are remarkable. For example, he noted that:
Aerated lime is itself soluble in an excess
of fixed air (C02), as Mr. Cavendish
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6.3 Chemical Compostion of Minerals
first discovered, and here two questions arise
important to subsequent calculations, namely
what quantity of aerated lime can be held
in solution by a given volume of water fully
aerated ... (p. 17).
He also compared the available informa-
tion concerning this problem, but did not arrive
at a definite conclusion.
In the second part of his book he describes
the various tests that can he applied to
identify the various compounds. There is
little or no reference to any new reactions,
the only difference being that the book is
classified according to the different compounds,
and alongside each is given the test for its
identification. Carbon monoxide, which was
discovered by Priestley, is also referred to in
the section on gases; Heavy inflammable air or
carbonated hydrogen. This air is distinguished
by the fact that it burns without explosion
when mixed with common air. It is not
absorbed by limewater, but water over which it
is burned precipitates lime-water, as fixed air is
produced.
As can be seen, Kirwan had discontinued
the use of the phlogiston nomenclature. One
of the reagents that he used was boric acid,
and he observed that it gave a precipitate with
lead nitrate, but that carbonates and sulphates
must first be removed (p. 84).
Kirwan also carried out interference
studies (p. 136) and records the salts which
cannot be present for a given salt being
determined, although he mentions the fact
that in some cases small quantities of the
interfering salt do not have much effect. As
examples of salts which cannot be determined
in the presence of each other, he gives the
alkali carbonates and metal salts, the alkali
sulfates and the alkaline earth salts, magnesium
sulphate and calcium nitrate or chloride, and
magnesium nitrate and calcium nitrate or
sodium nitrate (?). The reasons for some of
these salt pairs being classified as interfering is
not very clear.
Kirwan suggests a simple procedure for
the determination of the total salt content
of water without the need for a quantitative
examination
There is a method of calculating the
quantity of salt in 1000 parts of a saline solution
whose specific gravity is known, which,
however inaccurate, is yet useful in many cases
as the error does not exceed 1 or 2 per cent, and
sometimes is less than 1 per cent. It consists
simply in subtracting 1000 from the given
specific gravity expressed in whole numbers,
and multiplying the product by 1.4. It gives
the weight of the salts in their most desiccated
state and consequently freed from their
water of crystallization. The weight of fixed air
(C02) must also be included, thus for a solution
of common salt having its specific gravity
1.079, I find the difference from 1000 is ...
79 and 79 x 1.4 = 110.6, then 100 gr of such
solution contain 110.6 gr of common salt ... (p.
145).
He also mentions the error involved in the
analysis carried out with "tests" which had
been mentioned by other authors, that it does
not give any indication which acid reacts with
which base to form the salt. He concludes by
saying that
The usual method of applying tests is
similar to that of sending out adventurers to
an unknown country to see what discoveries
they can make, hence that indications are
vague and unconnected. Whereas if they
were limited to some particular object, and so
combined and arranged to prove or disprove its
existence, their indications might be rendered
certain and precise; and such information I
have already shown them capable of conveying,
when employed with single and definite views
(p. 162).
He elaborates this view later in his book.
After this Kirwan deals with the practical
aspects of analysis, and differences between
qualitative and the quantitative examinations
The Analysis of a Mineral Water embraces,
as I have already noticed, two objects: the
discovery of the different species of ingredients
contained in it, and the determination of the
weight of each. How the species are discovered
I have already set forth in the chapter of Tests.
The quantities of solid ingredients I determine
in most instances by estimation, as being the
least laborious, in many cases equally and in
many the most exact (p. 175).
Kirwan attempted to resolve the problem
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6.3 Chemical Compostion of Minerals
that he had previously stated: the problem
of finding out which acid, and which base has
reacted to form a salt.
He attempts by using different reagents
to determine the nature of the salt, as well
as its concentration, but his method is rather
unreliable and complicated. It is scarcely
of practical importance, although Thomson
discusses it a quarter of a century later in
his work System of Chemistry [1]. Kirwan
supposed that the single sulphates can be
separated from one another with the help
of calcium, barium and strontium salts, for
example, magnesium sulfate precipitates with
a strontium salt, while potassium sulfate does
not.
Kirwan 's analytical work was famous in
his time, and his results were cited all over
Europe. However, at the turn of the 18th
century another great chemist, Klaproth played
an even greater part than Kirwan. There are
very few books published during this period
which do not refer to some aspect of Klaproth's
work.
Martin Heinrich Klaproth (1743- 1817)
was the son of a provincial tailor; after leaving
the grammar school for some unknown reason
at the age of 15 he became, like so many great
chemists before him, an apprentice pharmacist.
He first worked at an apothecary's shop in
Quedlinburg, but later became an assistant in
Hanover, Berlin and Danzig. In 1771 he went
to work at the pharmacy of Valentin Rose in
Berlin. Rose at this time was a famous chemist,
but died only four weeks after Klaproth had
joined him. He entrusted the education of his
children and the direction of his pharmacy to
Klaproth, who faithfully carried out his last
wish. He was in charge of the pharmacy for ten
years, until Rose's son had grown up. In 1780
he married a niece of Marggraf, and used the
not inconsiderable dowry to purchase his own
laboratory. Previously he had only carried out
his research in addition to his pharmacy, but
he now gave up pharmacy and devoted himself
entirely to research. Nearly all of his work was
devoted to mineral analysis. In 1788 he was
elected a member of the Berlin Academy of
Sciences, and in 1800 he was appointed leader
of the chemical laboratory of the Academy in
succession to Achard. In addition he was a
Professor at the Artillery Officer Academy. In
1809 King Friedrich Wilhelm founded the new
University of Berlin, and Klaproth was called
to be the first Professor of Chemistry there.
According to the time-table of the university
he lectured on "Practical chemistry" for four
hours a week for the first term, in the second
term, also for four hours a week, he lectured on
the subject "Introduction to chemical analysis"
[2]. hi his later years he had many domestic
troubles and was subject to fits of apoplexy.
He was ill for a long time, and had to give up
his lecturing. He died on New Year's Day 1817.
Klaproth lived in the same period as the
great phlogiston chemists, and like many of
them he was self-taught and did not attend a
university. His scientific career did not really
start, however, until he was about 40 years of
age, and by this time Lavoisier had expounded
the new chimie francaise so that Klaproth was
not bound to the phlogiston theory. After
confirming several of Lavoisier's experiments,
he became an exponent of the antiphiogiston
theory, and was the first important German
chemist openly to accept the views of Lavoisier.
Klaproth was essentially a practical
scientist; he had complete faith in his
experiments, and mere suppositions did not
interest him. He lived at a time when
violent debates were going on in chemical
society concerning the various chemical views.
Klaproth never took part in these, and never
gave any indication of his own opinions.
Klaproth examined a wide variety of minerals
with great thoroughness and published his
results, but here his interest ended. The
accuracy of his analysis, however, was an
important factor in the establishment by
Proust of his law of constant proportions.
Klaproth's point of view is best charac-
terized by his de bate with Ruprecht. An-
tal Ruprecht, who was Professor at the
Selmecbanya Mining Academy, found that he
could obtain metals from the earths (alkaline
earth oxides) by reduction with carbon. This
an nouncement aroused great interest in the
world of chemistry and produced a bitter con-
tro versy because hitherto earths had been
considered to be elemental substances which
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6.3 Chemical Compostion of Minerals
could not be decomposed further. Klaproth
carefully repeated Ruprecht's experiments, and
proved that the metals formed did not origi-
nate from the earths but from the contamina-
tion of the chemicals, and concluded that the
simple earths do not contain metals. Although
Ruprecht's experiments were incorrect, the idea
behind them proved to be right [3]. This was
confirmed a few years later by Davy, when he
succeeded in reducing the earths to the metals
with the help of an electric current. Klaproth
did not believe this. This was an often repeated
and unfortunate occurrence in the history of
the sciences, of the older scientist who is in-
grained with the old concepts and refuses to
accept the new developments. This was the
fate of the phlogiston chemists, who had spent
their lives creating a theory and were quite nat-
urally reluctant to abandon it even in the face
of irrefutable evidence.
A very clear appraisal of Klaproth's
contribution to chemistry is the following
He was an incorruptibly accurate re-
searcher, but was lacking only in ingenuity or
intuitive thought; had he possessed this also
then he would have taken his place among the
greatest chemists [4].
He discovered three new elements, ura-
nium, zirconium and cerium, and although tita-
nium, strontium and tellurium had previously
been observed by other workers, he examined
these discoveries in more detail, and also gave
a name to these elements. His contemporaries
credit him with the discovery of tellurium al-
though in fact this had already been discov-
ered in 1782 by the Hungarian, Ferenc Miiller
[5], in the gold-ores of Transylvania [6], who
had sent a sample of this ore for confirmation
by Klaproth. The orator, who delivered the
memorial speech for Klaproth, before the Berlin
Academy in 1819, was wrong when he was car-
ried away with the power of his rhetoric and
said: "Klaproth increased the number of ele-
ments with which the Lord God created the
earth, by four" [7].
Klaproth made many contributions to
various periodicals, most of them giving an
account of the analysis of a single mineral. He
also published his collective results regularly
in book form under the title : Beitrdge zur
chemischen Kenntniss der Mineralkorper, and
this work extended to six volumes. The first
of these was published in 1795, and the last
in 1815, and in them Klaproth recorded the
analysis of minerals originating from all parts
of the world. In his books Klaproth departed
from the earlier procedure of stating the
experimental details very briefly, and often of
publishing only the result without the inclusion
of any relevant data such as sample weight,
weight of precipitate, etc. He describes every
step in the procedure in great detail, and in the
introduction he explains his reason for doing so.
For those who want to repeat my
experiments, I have written the procedure in
as great detail as possible without exposing
myself to a charge of loquacity. Those who
are acquainted with this topic will perhaps
recognize my intention, that is to find simple
and reliable procedures for the analysis of
minerals [8]. In another book he states, the
experiments must be carried out in such a
manner that if they are repeated by other
chemists, who work with the same accuracy,
then the result will always be the same [9].
An example of the methods of Klaproth
are now given, without the introduction. It
concerns the analysis of zoisite Chemical test:
the specific weight of the ore is 3300. When
heated on a carbon block with a blow pipe it
shows a foam-like effervescence, and the color
of the ignited part becomes reddish and it is
transformed into a fine powder. During the
course of the ignition the loss is insignificant.
If his results differed much from 100
per cent, then Klaproth searched for the
cause of the divergence, and in this way he
discovered new elements or found unsuspected
components. In this way he found that
potassium occurs not only in vegetables, but
also in minerals. When examining the
mineral leucite he found that there was a
21 per cent discrepancy in the total after
the determination of aluminium oxide and the
silicon dioxide. This was far greater than the
possible experimental error, so he tested for
the presence of borax, phosphoric acid and
other less frequent components, but could not
detect anything. Finally he evaporated and
crystallized the residue remaining after the
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6.3 Chemical Compostion of Minerals
separation. The shape of the crystals formed
was quadratic, and they did not affect litmus,
nor were they affected by ammonia nor soda
solution. Klaproth noted, however, that the
taste of the crystals was similar to potassium
chloride, so he evaporated with sulfuric acid
and was able to obtain crystals of potassium
sulfate, and potassium nitrate crystals with
nitric acid. This established the presence of
potassium in this mineral. He also discovered
that this gives a precipitate with tartaric acid,
which upon ignition forms potassium carbonate
[11]. As a result of this discovery he proposed
to change the now obsolete names alkali
vegetable (Pflanzenalkali) and alkali minerale
(Mineralalkali) for natron and kali [12], which
unfortunately were accepted neither in the
French nor in the English languages.
Klaproth also originated the technique of
alkali fusion, for which he used silver vessels.
He also mentioned the use of platinum vessels in
connection with the fusion with soda [13]. An
indication of the exactness with which Klaproth
carried out his analysis, can be judged from
the fact that he carried out an analysis of the
composition of the mortar he used to grind
his samples, and thus found it was composed
of almost pure silica. Also, after he had
ground his sample for analysis he re-weighed
it to ensure that it did not contain any of
the material from the mortar, and if there was
any increase in weight, then he subtracted an
equivalent amount from the silicic acid content.
Another important point that Klaproth was
the first to note was that precipitates must be
dried or ignited to constant weight, and in order
to obtain the high temperatures sometimes
required, Klaproth used the furnaces of the
porcelain factory in Berlin [14].
It can be clearly seen how Klaproth
developed his own ideas on stoichiometry.
In the course of a silver ore test in 1795
he reduced silver chloride to silver metal,
and he also reduced hydrated antimony oxide
with potassium carbonate and carbon to pure
antimony, and weighed them both in the
metallic form [15]. Later he left out the
reducing process, but still carried out an
occasional reduction as a control test. For
example, he dissolved 100 gr of antimony
in 4 parts of hydrochloric acid and added
some nitric acid to it, and after diluting with
water found that he had obtained 130 gr of
antimony lime (oxide). Using this proportion
he calculated back his results to give metallic
antimony [16]. After a while he must have
realized that the control tests were superfluous
as the results obtained were constant, so that
in the last volume of his book he simply
records that a certain weight of precipitate
corresponds to a definite weight of metal or
oxide. Moreover, he used these conversion
factors for identification purposes.
An ingenious example of this is the
proof that the mineral strontianite contains
strontium and not barium. He placed 100
gr of strontianite in a small dish on the pan
of a balance and saturated it with a weighed
amount of hydrochloric acid. To the other
pan of the balance he added an equal amount
of hydrochloric acid. After the evolution of
carbon dioxide was complete the weight of
the sample was only 70 gr, therefore 30 gr
of carbon dioxide had been evolved. If the
substance had been barium carbonate then the
weight of carbon dioxide evolved from 100 gr of
sample would only have been 22 gr. The other
proof he applied was that 100 gr of strontianite
when treated with sulfuric acid formed 114 gr
of strontium sulfate, of which 2??/2 gr were
soluble in 8 oz of hot water, whereas of the
amount of barium sulfate formed from an equal
amount of barium carbonate, none was soluble
in hot water.
Klaproth also changed the established
methods of water analysis, wherever possible
entirely omitting the separations based on
fractional crystallization ... because that does
not give a sure result. So I have devised a more
reliable method which first of all involves the
saturation of the free mineral alkalis with acid,
and then
I decompose the neutral salts which are
formed with a suitable reagent; at the same
time I carry out a trial experiment in order to
make clear the relationship, and on the basis of
this I calculate the result [17].
An example of his trial experiment is as
follows:
(a) He ignited 1000 gr of freshly crystal-
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6.3 Chemical Compostion of Minerals
lized sodium carbonate on a sand bath when
363 gr of dry powder were formed.
(b) 100 gr of this saturated 382 gr of a
sulfuric acid solution, which contained 1 part
of acid (density 1.85) and 3 parts of water.
(c) The weight of Glauber's salt formed,
after evaporation and drying, was 132/2 gr.
(d) 1000 gr of crystallized Glauber's salt,
after ignition, formed 420 gr of dry salt.
(e) 100 gr of this when precipitated
with barium acetate gave 168 gr of barium
sulfate. Therefore 1000 gr of barium sulfate are
equivalent to 595111, gr of water- free Glauber's
salt.
(f) 100 gr of rock salt are equivalent to
2331/2 gr of silver chloride, therefore 1000 gr
of silver chloride are equivalent to 4281/4 gr of
sodium chloride.
After this he added sulfuric acid to
the water, until it was just saturated
(neutralized), and then precipitated the sulfate
with barium acetate, and subtracted the
amount corresponding to the added sulfuric
acid from the weight of the precipitate. Then
he precipitated the chloride with silver nitrate,
and after filtration evaporated the filtrate and
dissolved the residue in hydrochloric acid.
Lime was precipitated from this solution with
ammonium carbonate, and the iron with
potassium ferrocyanide solution. The insoluble
residue was silicic acid. On an analysis of 1
cubic inch (290 gr) of Karlsbad water, Klaproth
obtained 39 gr of mineral alkali (Na2C03),
345/8 gr of rocksalt, 701/2 of Glauber's salt,
21/2 gr of of silicic acid and 21/2 gr of iron.
For reasons of space, Klaproth's analytical
methods cannot be described in their original
detail. When examining silicate ores he
separated the silicate after fusion by repeated
evaporation with hydrochloric acid; he then
separated the metals with ammonia and,
finally, he precipitated magnesium in the form
of the hydroxide. Ores containing sulfides
he dissolved in nitric acid and filtered the
separated sulfur, which he determined by
ignition. He also questioned whether part of
the sulfur does not form sulfuric acid during
the solution process. He determined the sulfur
content of a silver ore by this method, and
then determined the sulfate-content separately,
but was unsure whether any of the sulfate had
been formed from sulfur. As the dissolution
process was rather slow, and as only a very
small amount of nitrous fumes was evolved,
he considered it unlikely. In order to solve
the problem he determined the sulfate after
dissolution of the silver in hydrochloric acid
when no oxidation of the sulfur could take
place, and found that this result corresponded
satisfactorily with the former, so he concluded
that the nitric acid does not change the sulfide
into sulfate [18].
Klaproth attempted a fusion of tin oxide,
similar to the Freiberg method; he mixed
the finely powdered cassiterite with an equal
quantity of sulfur, and heated the mixture
in a glass retort on a sand bath. However,
the experiment was not very successful, so
he repeated it using potassium hydroxide to
fuse the sample [19]. He also observed the
molybdenumblue reaction, when he treated
molybdenum ores in hydrochloric acid medium
with tin [20]. He hydrolysed iron with sodium
succinate in the presence of manganese and
aluminum [21], and then precipitated the
phosphate and arsenate as the lead salts, and
the chromium as silver or mercury chromate.
The mercury was removed from the latter
by ignition, and the chromium weighed as
the oxide [22 ]. There was no reference to the
use of hydrogen sulfide in Klaproth's work,
but he makes one reference to the use of
ammonium sulfide for the identification of
antimony [23]. Klaproth applied the corrosive
action of hydrogen fluoride as a test for fluoride
ion. He also utilized it for making glass
micrometers for astronomical purposes [24].
Finally, we can see how the analytical data
of Klaproth compare with present-day values
(Table 7).
Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (1763-1829) was a
peasant child, who also became an apprentice
pharmacist at the age of 15. Later he
went to Paris and worked as a laboratory
assistant to Fourcroy, the famous chemist. He
soon progressed from laboratory technician to
become the co-worker of Fourcroy, and in 1791
he was elected a member of the Academy. He
became a Professor of the College de France,
and later at the University. He was the
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6.5 Isomorphism & Dimorphism
discoverer of beryllium and chromium, but in
addition to his research he was engaged in the
production of chemicals on an industrial scale.
The novelist Balzac portrays him as a scientist
and industrialist in one of his novels [251. His
chemicals were in great demand because of
their purity and reliability, so that Vauquelin
can be regarded as a pioneer in the production
of analytically pure chemicals.
The work of Vauquelin is similar to that of
Klaproth in that he analyzed a large number
of minerals by methods similar to those of
Klaproth, except that there were fewer original
methods. Vauquelin studied the reactions of
chromium and chromate very thoroughly; he
found that chromium becomes yellow when
fused with alkali, and that this solution gives
a red precipitate when treated with mercury,
and a yellow precipitate with lead; and that the
addition of a tin chloride (stannous chloride)
solution causes the solution to become green
again.
6.5 Isomorphism & Dimorphism! 665 !
REWORK: The studies an crystallography be-
ing made at this time commonly held that iden-
tity of crystal form implied identity of com-
position. This principle had been enunciated
by Haiiy, the founder of crystallography, and
it had many adherents, in spite of certain ex-
ceptions which had been observed. Klaproth in
1788 established the chemical identity of cal-
cite, which occurs in the rhombohedral form,
and aragonite, which occurs in the rhombic
form (both are CaC0 3 ). In 1816 Gay-Lussac
observed that crystals of potassium alum grew
normally in a solution of ammonium alum,
and about the Same time Gehlen succeeded in
preparing typical alum crystals from a sodium-
containing solution. In 1817 J. N. von Fuchs
[665J pother historical information may be found in:
Aaron J. Ihde., The development of modern chemistry. New
York, Evanston, & London, Harper & Row Publishers,
1964. xii, 851 p., notes, illus., index. [Isomorphism and
dimorphism, p. ??-??.] • E.M. Melhado., "Mitscherlich's
discovery of isomorphism," Historical Studies in the Physical
Sciences, 11 (1980), p. 87-123. * H.-W. Schiitt., Die
Entdeckung des Isomorphismus. Eine Fallstudie zur Geschichte
der Mineralogie und der Chemie. Hildesheim, Gerstenberg
Verlag, 1984. [1J-324 p., biblio., indexes. [History of the
discovery of isomorphism and its impact on chemistry and
mineralogy]
called attention to the similarity of crystal
forms in aragonite, strontianite (SrC0 3 ), and
cerussite (PbC0 3 ).
It was ElLHARDT MlTSCHERLICH (1794-
1863) who clearly established the relationship
between chemical composition and crystalline
forms. This was formulated in his law of
isomorphism which was published after work
done in 1819. In order to determine if
crystalline form depends upon the chemical
nature of the elements, he studied salts of
the phosphates and arsenates. (Berzelius
had already established the close relationship
of these two Sets of saits in properties.)
Mitscherlich found that the phosphates and
arsenates each formed three distinct series of
salts, and he reported that "every arsenate
has its corresponding phosphate, composed
entirely in the same proportions." He observed
similar analogies in the various Sulfates and
carbonates.
The law of isomorphism, which states that
compounds which crystallize in the same form
are similar in chemical composition, was well
received. Mitscherlich recognized that similar-
ity in chemical composition resulted in approx-
imate rather than absolute isomorphism. Sup-
porting data accumulated rapidly.
Mitscherlich's career in chemistry was
delayed by his early interest in Oriental
philology. While he was a student at
Gottingen he came under the influence of
Friedrich Stromeyer (1776-1835), noted for
his discovery of cadmium in 1817, and for
his early support of laboratory instruction
in chemistry. Mitscherlich went to Berlin
in 1818 for further studies in chemistry in
the laboratory of H. F. Link, the botanist.
It was here that he began his studies
an arsenates and phosphates of potassium
and confirmed Berzelius' reports regarding
properties and composition. In starting his
work an crystals he received instruction from
Heinrich Rose's brother Gustav, mineralogist
at the University of Berlin. The promising
nature of Mitscherlisch's work led to his being
invited to work in Berzelius' laboratory in
Stockholm.
Soon after his return from Sweden
Mitscherlich was appointed to the chair of
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6.7 PSEUDOMORPHS
chemistry, once held by Klaproth, at the
University of Berlin. Here he continued his
researches and wrote his Lehrbuch der Chemie
(1829-1830). In his crystallographic studies he
observed the variation in thermal expansion
along dissimilar axes of a crystal, and the
different crystal forms of sulfur. The property
whereby a given substance could have more
than one crystal form he called dimorphism.
In 1827 he prepared selenic acid and showed
that the selenates are isomorphous with the
Sulfates. Later he demonstrated isomorphism
in the manganates, chromates, and sulfates,
and the permanganates and perchlorates. The
isomorphism of the two latter salts revealed
the composition of perchloric and permanganic
acids.
Mitscherlich utilized the isomorphism of
the sulfates and selenates to determine the
atomic weight of selenium ; he reasoned that
sulfate and potassium selenate have identical
atomic ratios, except for the atom of sulfur in
one, and of selenium in the other. As Table
6.3 shows, the weights of sulfur and selenium
combined with equal weights of potassium and
oxygen thus are 18.39 and 45.40 respectively.
Since the atomic weight of sulfur is 32, that of
selenium must proportionately be 79.
Berzelius meanwhile used the law of
isomorphism in connection with his atomic
weight estimations. The isomorphism of
sulfates and chromates led him to revise the
formula of green chromic oxide from Cr03
to Cr203; he assigned the formula Cr03
to chromic anhydride. The isomorphism of
chromic oxide with the oxides of aluminum,
iron, and manganese enabled him to assign
correct formulas to the oxides of these metals.
This led to his halving the atomic weights of
these metals that he published in 1818. He
subsequently halved the atomic weights of the
other metals as well, thus bringing the results
into accord with the law of Dulong and Petit.
However, there were four exceptions. In the
Gase of silver and cobalt, he doubted the
validity of the law; and in the Gase of sodium
and potassium, no specific heats were available.
Already in 1815, J.N. Fuchs had observed
that in gehlenite iron and calcium could mu-
tually replace each other; he also pointed out
the analogy with potassium- and ammonium
alum. Four years later, E. Mitscherlich ob-
served the similarity in crystal form of the
potassium and ammonium salts of arsenic and
phosphoric acid. Several investigators after-
wards concerned themselves with the problem
of isomorphic replacement of elements in crys-
tals and proposed hypotheses for an explana-
tion of the discoveries. However, a final solu-
tion could only be reached after M. von Laue's
discovery of X-ray diffraction (for which he re-
ceived a Nobel prize, in 1914) and the fuller
interpretation thereof by W.H. Bragg and his
son W.L. Bragg, in the years 1912-1913. This
made possible the determination of the atomic
struc-ture of solid substances. But it took some
time before geochemists realized the impor-
tance of this discovery. When the last edition
of Clarke's The Data of Geochemistry appeared
in 1924, it contained nothing about crystal-
structure determinations. Once more, it was
V.M. Goldschmidt who saw the importance of
crystal chemistry, and in particular, the impor-
tance of ionic radii for geology, which is so much
a science of solids. The entry of any atom or
ion into the lattices of crystals was found to
depend upon its size. The particles dissolved
in a magma or in an aqueous solution are thus
sorted by the lattices of crystallizing minerals
according to their sizes, which can be defined
with sufficient accuracy by their atomic or ionic
radii. Goldschmidt found that standard values
of these radii could be determined for the vari-
ous particles which occur in crystal structures;
the standard state chosen by Goldschmidt and
later adopted by other scientists being that of
the ions in a lattice of the sodium-chloride type
(Goldschmidt, 1923, 1924, 1954).
6.7 Pseudomorphsl 666 !
[666J Further historical information may be found in: Si
Frazier., "Pseudomorphs," Journal of the Geoliterary Society,
?? (2004), p. 11-11. • Max Johs., "Pseudomorphososen
ein kurzer geschichtelicher Uberblick," Lapis, 6 (1981), no.
11, p. 36-37. • Georg Schulze., "Die Entwickelung der
Lehre von den Mineral-Pseudomorphosen." Jahresbericht
des Neustadter Realgymnasiums zu Dresden (Dresden, C.
Heinrich, 1891), pp. 3-23. • G. Spiess, "Zur Geschichte
der Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs." Leopoldina, 14
(1873?), pp. 11-11.
169
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6.7 PSEUDOMORPHS
Every species of mineral when crystallized has
a distinct and characteristic form. In the
18th century, when the concept of mineral
chemistry was developing there were sometimes
noticed specimens that had the form both
as to the angles and general habit of a
certain species, and yet differed from that
species entirely in chemical composition. It
was also observed that although the outward
appearance showed a complete crystal, the
internal structure was often granular, or waxy
with no distinct cleavage. Such crystals
are today called pseudomorphs (from the
Greek pseudo=fsAse+morph^ form) and owe
the existence to their original mineral being
transformed through natural processes to a new
compound. The new substance is said to be a
pseudomorph after the original mineral.
Among the first to write a description
of a pseudomorphic mineral is Rome de
L'Isle, who described the over crustation of
galena and pyrite by quartz which consequently
gave quartz the shape of the other minerals.
He furthermore observes in metallic minerals
the shape of another mineral and suspected
that such transformations were similar to the
formation of petrified wood or other fossilized
animal bodies where by the form remains
eventhough the the material is completely
transformed. Rome wrote:
This must make feel how much the connoissance
forms suitable for differens mixed can more jetter of day
on the nature of these mixed one, since the forms often
indicate the origin of certain substances to us which of all
that they possedoient in a former state preserved only this
only character. I 667 !
In another section Rome describes the
well known pseudomorphs of galena after
pyromorphite from Zschopau, Germany as a
special type of lead ore, mine de plomb
noire cristallisee. He adds, however, that it
seems to be the product of decomposed green
pyromorphite and he expresses the opinion
[ 667 1 J.B.L. Rome de L'Isle, Cristallographie, 1, 1783, p. 93:
"Ceci doit faire sentir combien la connoissance des formes
propres a differens mixtes peut more jetter de jour sur la
nature de ces mixtes, puisque les formes nous indiquent
souvent l'origine de certaines substances qui de tout ce
qu'elles possedoient dans un etat anterieur n'ont conserve
que ce seul caractere."
that the original mineral has been converted
to galena by the action of hydrogen sulfide
gas . [668]
Around this time Abraham Gottlob
Werner also took notice of pseudomorphs. He
recognized that there was a substantial differ-
ence between authentic crystals and their pseu-
domorphic form. He could only explain them
as the product of some unknown mineraliz-
ing force. Therefore in his descriptive miner-
alogy he placed these disquised minerals imme-
diately after what he considered authentic crys-
tals. In 1792 the renowned author and enthu-
siastic mineral collector WOLFGANG Goethe
proposed the term Afterkrystallen to gener-
ally describe this class of mineral.! 669 ] Werner
together with other early German researchers
such as Estner, Hausmann, Hoffmann, and Bre-
ithaupt soon adopted the term.
However, in 1801 Rene Just Hatjy first
introduced the term pseudomorph to miner-
alogical science with the following statement:
There is a third order of concretions, which we will
call pseudomorphoses, i.e. bodies which have a false and
misleading figure, because the substances which belong
to this order present in a recognizable manner very foreign
forms which they in some fate concealed with other bodies
which swage them received nature. I 670 !
Further on, Haiiy observes:
One finds some substances of this reign (mineral
kingdom) in crystalline forms that is borrowed, and it
is rather probable, that at least in certain cases, the
new substance gradually replaced that which yielded the
place to it, as one thinks of the replacement of petrified
wood.! 671 !
I 668 ! Rome de L'Isle, Cristallographie, 3, p. 400.
1669] Johann Grim and W. Grim, Deutsches Worterbuch.
Neubearbeitung Herausgegeben von der Akademie der
Wissenschaften der DDR. Leipzig, S. Hirzel Verlag, 1986,
vol. 2, col. 17, "Afterkrystall".
I 670 ! R.J. Haiiy, Traite de Mineralogie, 1, Paris, 1801, p.
140: "II existe un troisieme ordre de concretions, que nous
appellerons pseudomorphoses, c'est a dire corps qui ont une
figure fausse et trompeuse, parce que les substances qui
appartiennent a cet ordre presentent d'une maniere tres
reconnoissable des formes etrangeres qu'elles ont en quelque
sort derobes a d'autres corps qui les avoient recues de la
nature."
I 671 ! Haiiy, Traite de Mineralogie, 1, Paris, 1801, p. 143:
"On trouve quelques substances de ce regne (regne mineral)
sous des formes cristallines qui ne qu'empruntees, et il est
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6.7 PSEUDOMORPHS
Because of Hatiy's stature in mineralogical
science, "pseudomorph" was the term soon
adopted by reseachers outside Germany, which
lagged sometime in accepting it.
In 1815 Werner's Bergakademie colleague
Johann August Friedrich Breithaupt
was the first to thoroughly study these inter-
esting mineralogical formations, publishing his
researches under the title, Uiber die Achtheit
der Krystalle (On the Authenticity of the Crys-
tals).! 672 ! Hi his book, Breithaupt recognized
different types of pseudomorphs including those
instances where there had been a gradual re-
moval of the original material and simultane-
ously a replacement with the new mineral with-
out any chemical reactions occurring between
the two species. He also recognized alteration
pseudomorphs where the original material had
been changed to a different mineral species by
the loss or addition of another chemical ingre-
dient. For example, the loss of oxygen is the
cause for native copper to form in the shape
of cuprite crystals and the addition of carbon
makes cuprite alter to malachite. Breithaupt's
early interest in pseudomorphism foreshadowed
his most important work and the research he is
best remembered for today, mineral paragensis
(see §6.8). After Breithaupt other researchers
would begin to focus their attention on psuedo-
morphic minerals.
In the year 1816 a chemical text of JOHANN
Ludwig Carl Gravenhorst appeared, I 673 !
in which he focused his research at arriving
at an understanding of the transformation
process. He believed the transformation to
be a gradual transition from one substance to
another based upon enviromental conditions.
Unfortunately, the writing is so obscure
that his innovative ideas were overlooked by
mineralogists of the time.
Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann
deviates little from Breithaput in his opinion
assez probable, qu'au moins dans certains cas, la nouvelle
substance s'est substitute graduellement a celle qui lui a
cede la place, comme on pense que cela a lieu pour le bois
petrifie."
I 672 ! J.A.F. Breithaupt, Uiber die Achtheit der Krystalle.
Freiberg, 1815.
[673] j l c Gravenhorst, Die anorganischen Naturkorper,
nach ihren Verwandschaften und Uebergangen betrachtet und
zusammengestellt. Breslau, 1816.
about pseudomorphosenJ 674 ! He differentiates
likewise three kinds of "after-crystals" , and
recognizes that they were formed by a chemical
transformation of the original crystal.! 675 ] In
his largest class, which he calls metamorphic
crystals, he notes that the specimens retain
the shape of the original material perfectly,
being fully transformed, but are usually not as
smooth and lusterous as the original due to a
much more porous surface. In his two other
types, Hausmann observes that one is formed
by the original mineral being coated and this
material filling out, leaving a core of the original
mineral. In other observations, he recognizes
how a coat wraps around a crystal that is
then destroyed, leaving an empty area that can
in some instances be filled by another totally
different mineral. This formation process leaves
a distinctive specimen showing impressions of
crystals.
Friedrich Mohs, one of the most
important pupils of Werner, and his successor
as rofessor of the Mining Academy in Freiberg,
is the first to differ substantially from his
contemporaries with regard to pseudomorphs.
He thinks that the pseudomorphic crystals
principally form by first being an encrustation
on the original mineral, which is in time
is dissolved away, and the resulting shell is
then filled in by the same mineral as the
encrustation.
In this case, the shape which the mineral assumes
is not a consequence of the properties inherent in the
mineral, or peculiar to its nature, but it merely belongs
to that space serve as support for this individuals.
[676] j n gonie cases, he also believed
that pseudomorphs formed from the loss of
chemicals in the minerals composition, usually
sulfur.
Carl Friedrich NaumannI 677 ! agrees
with Mohs in his evaluation of the space
[674] jpL Hausmann, Untersuchungen iiber die Formen der
leblosen Natur. Gottingen, bei Bandenhoeck und Ruprecht,
1821. viii, 677, [1] p., 16 folding plates (crystal drawings).
[675] Hausmann, Untersuchungen, 1821, p. 667.
[676] pYiedrich Mohs., GrundriB der Mineralogie, Berlin, 1
(1822), p. 316-320.; ibid., Treatise on mineralogy, translated
by Wilhelm Haidinger. Edinburgh, 1 (1825), p. 258-263.
[6'7J Naumann, Lehrbuch der Mineralogie. Berlin, 1828, p.
209.
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6.7 PSEUDOMORPHS
filling pseudomorphoses. He recognized three
categories.
I. The "Umhullung-Pseudomorphosen" , or enveloping
or encasing pseudomorph. It usually is applied to the
case where a crystal is encrusted by another mineral
and then the crystal is later dissolved away, either
partially or completely. This type of psuedomorph
forms commonly as quartz after calcite, and is today
often called a perimorph (the new mineral is on the
periphery of the first one).
II. The "Ausfiillungs-Pseudomorphen" , that is literally
a filling in or filling up pseudomorph, where one
mineral fills in the space left by another crystal.
III. The "Metasomatish-Pseudomorphosen" , which is
the almost similtaneous replacement of one mineral
with another. It is the principal method of ore
deposit formation.
Naumann continued to review and evalu-
ate the latest theory of pseudomorphs in the
many editions of his popular and influential
textbook, Elemente der MineralogieA 678 ^
Wilhelm Haidinger provided substan-
tial knowledge to pseudomorphs through a se-
ries of descriptive papers that he published
through out his career. I 679 ! He concentrated his
research on the chemical processes that formed
the pseudomorphs and especially the effect of
oxygen, carbonic acid and water in the process.
In 1827, he conclusively showed that some min-
eral psuedomorphs are formed by the alteration
of the original mineral from the outside in. For
example, magnetite altering to haematite. In
particular Haidinger's work contributed early
on to drawing attention to the importance of
pseudomorphism in geochemical processes in
the earth's crust and the formation of miner-
alized deposits.
Frantisek Xaver Maximilian Zippe
believed that the pseudomorphs were created
[678] First edition; 1846 . 15th edition, 1907.
[679J Haidinger, W., "On the parasitic formation of
mineral species, depending upon the gradual changes
which take place in the interior of minerals, while their
external form remains the same," Edinburgh Journal of
Science, 9 (1828), p. 275-292; 10 (1829), p. 86-96;
Edinburgh Royal Society Transactions, 11 (1831), p. 73-118;
Schweigger's Journal, 55 (1829), p. 257-317; Froriep Notizen,
26 (1830), cols. p. 17-25, 36-40; "Notiz von einer neuen
Pseudomorphose," Prag, Jahrbuch des Bbhmische Museum, 1
(1830), p. 16-19.
with in the earth by chemical decomposi-
tion.! 680 ] He assumed this was some how in-
fluenced by the galvanic rivers, and he imag-
ines the process. If a pyrite cube (FeS 2 ) is pro-
tected by the surrounding rock and comes into
contact with water in a chlorinated state, then
the sulfur compound is not changed. On the
other hand, if the penetrating humidity acts as
a galavanic conductor to the surrounding rock
then elements in the pyrite are replaced either
partially or completely, and the pyrite changes
to other hydrous iron oxides, such as limonite
(2Fe 2 3 ) . 3H 2 0).
A substantial writing on pseudomorphs
appeared in 1841 with the publication of
Georg Landgrebe's Ueber die Pseudomor-
phosen im MineralreicheA 681 ^ In his forward
Landgrebe writes that mineralogy has no field
of study more interesting. Then after clearly
defining what a pseudomorph is he divides the
text into two large parts. The first covers
mineral pseudomorphs and contains sections
on mineral casts and mineral metamorphosis
through chemical exchange. In the second part
Landgrebe theorizes on the chemical transfor-
mation that occurs to create petrified wood
and fossilized bones and plants. Incorporated
within the body of the text are all citations to
pseudomorphs that the author uncovered while
conducting a systematic review of both German
and foreign mineralogical literature.
Landgrebe divides the second category
metasomatishe into the following classes of
pseudomorphs.
I. Formed by molding (Abformung)
A. Molding by being coated e.g., quartz encrusting
calcite that then disappears.
B. By having the new mineral totally replace the
original one (Abforming durch Ausfiilung). e.g., the
famous talc pseudomorphs after quartz crystals from
Gopfersgrun, near Wunsiedel in Bavaria.
II. Formed by alteration (durch Umwandlung).
A. Alteration without gain or loss of new components
(Umwandlung ohne Abgabe oder Aufnahme von
Stoffen). e.g., aragonite altered to calcite
1 1 Zippe, "Ueber einige in Bohmen vorkommende
Pseudomorphosen," Verhandlungen der Gesellschaft des
vaterlandischen Musuems in Bohmen, Prag, 1832, 43ff.
[681J q Landgrebe, Ueber die Pseudomorphosen im
Mineralreiche. Cassel, 1841.
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6.7 PSEUDOMORPHS
B. Alteration with the loss of a component (Umwand-
lung mit Verlust von Bestandtheilen). e.g., laumon-
tites loss of water turning it into a crumbling powdery
mess.
C. Alteration with the addition of components
(Umwandlung mit Aufname von Bestandtheilen)
e.g., anhydrite altered to gypsum.
D. Alteration with exchange of components (Umwand-
lung mit Austausch von Stoffen) e.g., feldspar altered
to cassiterite.
A few years later a more extensive and
complete work appeared. Based upon previous
research and augmented with the author's
own observations Johann Reinhard Blum's
Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs is the
most comprehensive treatise on pseudomorphs
ever published.! 682 ] This book begins with
a review of previous studies on the subject
together with a discussion of the same, and
the author's reasons for dividing the subject
into the two broad classes of alteration
pseudomorphs and replacement pseudomorphs.
The text then presents detailed descriptions
of the 263 known pseudomorphs, for which
Blum provides a thorough discussion of
previous research, rich references, and locality
information. Through his writings Blum
reenforced the importance of chemistry in
several pseudomorphic processes, especially in
the replacement process, which was shown
later to be one of the principle processes
involved in forming economic ore deposits.
Blum maintained and heavily augmented the
basic text over the next 36 years by the
publication of four supplements that appeared
in 1847, 1852, 1863, and 1879. Today, this
work is still considered the classic, fundamental
work on pseudomorphs, which has never been
surpassed in its treatment of the subject.
Interestingly, the collection of over 1,700
pseudomorph specimens Blum accumulated
during his research was acquired in 1871 by
Yale University where they may still be found.
James Dwight Dana wrote on pseudo-
morphism in 1845. I 683 ! In the fourth edition of
l b ° 2 \ J.R. Blum, Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs. Stutt-
gart, 1843.
[683J Dana, J.D., "On pseudomorphism," American
Journal of Science, 48 (1845), ???????
his famous System of Mineralogy he summa-
rizes previous work in the area, and compiles
a list of the pseudomorphs reported to that
time.! 684 ] He recognizes four distinct types
of pseudomorphs.
1. Pseudomorphs by alteration: Those that
formed by the gradual change of composition in a
species, e.g., change of augite to steatite, or azurite
to malachite.
2. Pseudomorphs by substitution: Those that
formed by the replacement of a mineral which has
been removed or is gradually undergoing removal,
e.g., petrifaction of wood.
3. Pseudomorphs by incrustation: Those
formed through the encrustation of a crystal which
may have subsequently dissolved away; often the
cavity afterwards is filled [or partially filled] by
infiltration; e.g., change of fluorite to quartz.
4. Pseudomorphs by paramorphism: Those
formed when a mineral passes from one [dimorphous]
state to another e.g., change of aragonite to
calciteJ 685 !
Causes of change in the crystals Dana
principally attibutes to the solvent power of
ordinary ground water, the reactions according
to chemical principles, of the ingredients,
dissolved in those waters, the process of gradual
oxidation to which the crystals are liable, and
the reaction of substances thus formed on
the ingredients at hand, and the action of
exhaling gases from the earth, with or without
volcanic action. This opinon follows mainly the
observations given in Bischof's extensive work.
The important German mineralogist and
crystallographer, George Amadeus Carl
Friedrich Naumann [1797-1873] defined a
pseudomorph (1846, 96) as a "crystalline or
amorphous body that without itself being a
crystal shows the crystal form of another
mineral." I 686 ! He favored a more
restrictive definition than that used by many
of his colleagues: "The crystal forms of
[684] j D j)ana ., System of Mineralogy. New York, 1854, p.
222-226.
[685] D ana . ; System of Mineralogy. Fourth edition. New
York, 1854, p. 223.
[ 686 J Naumann, Elemente der Mineralogie, 1846, p. 96:
"so nennt man namlich diejenigen krystallinischen oder
amorphen Mineralkorper, welche ohne selbst Krystalle zu
sein, die Krystallform eines anderen Minerals zeigen."
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6.7 PSEUDOMORPHS
pseudomorphs are usually quite well preserved
[erhalten] and easily recognized with sharp,
well-formed faces." I 687 ! He distinguished three
different types of pseudomorphs.
1. Umhullung-Pseudomorphosen
2. Ausfiillungs-Pseudomorphosen
3. Metasomatische Pseudomorphosen
Naumann attributed the formation of all
pseudomorphs to two processes:
A. A new mineral coats the surfaces of a crystal that
forms out ("hypostatische pseudomorphosen").
B. Transformation of a crystal into a new mineral
( "metasomatische pseudomorphosen" ).
With the last type, he differeniates the
same four groups distinguished by Landgrebe:
1. Hypostatishen Pseudomorphosen, 2. Exoge-
nous Pseudomorphosen, 3. Amphigene Pseudo-
morphosen, and 4. Esogenen Pseudomorpho-
sen.
By the middle of the ninteenth century,
research into the processes of pseudomorphism
was still not well known. Only the simplest
mechanisms were clear, but transmutation of
complex mineral compounds remained only
conjecture. Clearly it required an extremely
delicate chemical reaction to proceed inside the
earth and that a solvent, usually thought to
be water was involved. In addition, heat in
the form of volcanic warmth, electrical forces,
and other unknown qualities contributed to
pseudomorphism. During that time research
into chemical processes inside the earth were
becoming important areas of study, leading to
the development of the field of geochemistry.
In 1847 Karl Gustav Christoph
BlSCHOF began to publish his Lehrbuch
der chemischen und physikalischen Geologie,
which was completed in 1855. I 688 ! This
enormous work soon became the standard text
in geochemical studies, and helped found the
sciences of geochemistry and petrology. The
first volume in particular is concerned with the
various aspects water plays in the geological
process and at the core of these processes are
1 J ibid., "Diese Krystallformen der Pseudomorphosen
sind meist sehr wohl erhalten und leicht erkennbar, ja
zuweilen ganz sharfkantig und glatt."
[688] K.G.C. Bischof, Lehrbuch der chemischen und physikal-
ischen Geologic
the mechanisms of pseudomorphism applied to
rocks and minerals on a regional scale. In
particular Bischof like Haidinger examined the
effect of oxygen, water and carbonic acid on
mineral alteration.
Another researcher who extended the re-
search in to mineral alterations was Theodor
Scheerer, who authored Der Paramorphis-
mus und seine Bedeutung in die Chemie, Min-
eralogie, und Geologie^ 689 ^ Here Scheerer dif-
ferentiated a peculiar condition that he called
'paramorphism' where a mineral species has a
dimorphous state that because of temperature
differences passes from one mineral species into
another. For example, he describes a natrolite
crystal from Norway that normally would be
an orthorhombic mineral but had an exterior
form that was monoclinic in habit. Other ex-
amples are the change of aragonite to calcite
(both CaC0 3 ) at a certain temperature or the
paramorphs of rutile after brookite (both Ti0 2 )
from Magnet Cove, Arkansas.
In 1855, Gustav Georg Winkler
published his Die Pseudomorphosen des
Miner alreichs\ &90 \ It is a cclear and concise
review of pseudomorphism, containing a
critical summation of all facts and explanations
pertaining to the phenomena as it relates
to the mineral kingdom. Winkler recognizes
two types of pseudomorphism. The first,
produced principally from atmospheric effects,
causes the original material to be altered.
The second, produced through mineralizing
solutions, replaces the orginal mineral with a
new mineral that is carried in the solution.
The book describes specific replacements,
gives commentary of the viewpoints of Blum,
Haidinger, Landgrebe, and others, and contains
a large descriptive section.
Winkler organizes pseudomorphs into a
classification system based upon if the mineral
is metallic or non-metallic. His categories are
summarized below:
I. Pseudomorphosen of the non-metallic minerals.
[ yj T. Scheerer, Der Paramorphismus und seine Bedeutung
in die Chemie, Mineralogie, und Geologic Braunschweig,
1854.
[690J G.G.Winkler, Die Pseudomorphosen des Mineralreichs.
Miinchen, 1855. vi, 136 p.
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6.7 PSEUDOMORPHS
A. Pseudomorphosen of first kind (fluor-spar after
calcspar).
B. Pseudomorphosen of second kind:
a) Non-metallic minerals by non-metallic pleases
(quartz after Calcspar),
b) Non-metallic minerals by metallic pleases (quartz
after bleiglanz).
II. Pseudomorphosen of the metallic minerals.
A. Pseudomorphosen of first kind (brown iron stone
after Eisenspat).
B. Pseudomorphosen of second kind:
a) Metallic minerals by non-metallic pleases (brown iron
stone after Calcspar),
b) Metallic minerals by metallic pleases (brown iron
stone after lead gloss).
The French chemist Achille Delesse in
1859 looked at pseudomorph formation from a
purely chemical point of view. I 691 ! Determinig
the composition of inclusions contained inside
the individual pseudomorphs, Delesse was able
to show conclusively what the original mineral
was, and derived a chemical process that
would convert the original mineral to the new.
His work was influential and fundemental to
understanding pseudomorphic transformation.
Prior to the 1870's researches on mineral
pseudomorphs were limited to observations
that could be made on specimens seen with the
naked eye. However, the introduction of both
the petrological microscope and FERDINAND
Zirkel's microscopical methods showed the
great importance of pseudomorphism in the
geological process, especially with relation to
the formation of economic mineral deposits. I 692 !
Zirkel's microscopic methods were collected
together and first published as a dissertation
by Franz Eugen Geinitz.! 693 ] This led to
a surge of investigations into pseudomorphic
replacement as viewed through the microscope.
Studies into the conditions that caused the
original mineral substance to transformbecame
[691] j^ Delesse, "Recherches sur les pseudomorphoses,"
Annals des Mines, 16 (1859), p. 317-392. English translation,
Geologist, 1860, p. 396-404, 450-453; 1861, p. 14-19.
[692] p_ Zirkel., Die mikroskopische Beschaffenheit der
Mineralien und Gesteine. Leipzig, 1873, and F. Zirkel., Die
Einfiihrung des Mikroskops in das mineralogisch-geologische
Studium. Leipzig, 1881.
I 3J F.E. Geinitz., "Studien iiber Mineralpseudomorpho-
sen," Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, 1876, 449-503.
important research. Geinitz was also able
to show that the transformation occurs
preferentially along the crystallographic axes.
Furthermore, Geinitz came to believe
from the results of his investigations, that
pseudomorphs come to existed based upon
their chemical compostion, and that two
possible methods of transformation were
possible:
1. a casing, often by the new substance in an educated
manner, with in-grown crystals already by around
giving gesteinsmasse.
2. an actual, gradual displacement of the old substance
by the new.
Much emphasis was placed on the meaning
of the preservation of crystalline form during
the transformation process. Using microscopic
techniques Geinitz proved that the vast
majority of pseudomorphs were created by the
replacement of old material with new minerals,
as opposed to displacement following casting
or other filling out, and that replacement was
a common method for ore deposits to form.
Geinitz gave the following version of how
to organize the pseudomorphs based upon the
chemical processes:
1. Pseudomorphs, developed without loss and without
additional components (Paramorphosen).
2. Pseudomorphs resulting from loss of components
(Apomorphosen). There is leaching and replacement
at the same time.
3. Pseudomorphs, resulted from addition of compo-
nents (Epimorphosen). There is no leaching, and
the replacement takes place via the addition of com-
ponents.
4. Pseudomorphs, resulting from the exchange of com-
ponents, between the original and the pseudomor-
phic mineral (partial Allomorphosen).
5. Pseudomorphs, resulted from the total exchange of
components between the original and pseudomorphic
mineral (total Allomorphosen).! 694 ]
Geinitz' research sparked in a large
number of other studies to be prepared
about mineral alteration. For the most part
microscopes were employed to review how
[694] y.Fj. Geinitz, "Zur Systematik der Pseudomorpho-
sen," Tschermak's mineralogische und petrographischer Mit-
theilungen, 2 (1880), p. 489.
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6.8 Paragenesis
crystals form within rocks and their method
of alteration. For example, in 1876 and 1883,
Johann Theodor Lemberg investigated and
described the effects of aqueous solutions on
mineral silicates.! 695 ]
Max Bauer wrote on the pseudomorphs
of calcite after aragonite, and made many
worthy observations that threw light onto
paramorphismJ 696 ! He attributed the change
to a molecular relocation with in the solid state
of the crystal that over time converted the
crystal system from othorhombic to trigonal,
but kept the chemical compostion constant.
In 1891, Bauer continued his studies of
dimorphous pseudomorphs with his publication
on the paramorphs of minerals with reference to
that of rutile after brookite from Magnet Cove,
Arkansas and of rutile after anatase.I 697 !
Henry Alexander Miers in 1896
published an admirable paper on 131 British
pseudomorphs, never before described.! 698 ]
The list has general interest and illustrates the
line of study regarding pseudomorphs. Miers
follows these interesting determinations with
a list of possible but insufficiently determined
pseudomorphs comprising 56 examples.
Many other studies of specific pseudo-
morphs appeared particularly among German
mineralogists. However, relatively few gen-
eral papers about pseudomorphs appeared af-
ter Geinitz' study. Among the general papers,
Austin F. Rogers published a good account
in 1910 that is still on one of the best in En-
glish on its subject.! 6 "] Clifford Frondel
in 1935 also contributed an authortative mono-
graph based on an extensive study of pseu-
! ] J. Lemberg., "Tiber Silicatumwandlungen," Deutsche
Geologisches Gesellschaft Zeitschrift, 28 (1876), p. 519-621;
ibid., "Zur Kenntniss der Bildung und Umwandlung von
Silicaten," Deutsche Geologisches Gesellschaft Zeitschrift, 35
(1883), p. 557-618.
[696J jyj Bauer, "Uber Pseudomorphosen von Kalkspath
nach Aragonit," Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, 1 (1886),
p. 62.
[697J jyj Bauer, "Pseudomorphosen von Rutil nach
Brookite," Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, 5 (1891), 16 p.
[b98\ Yi.A. Miers., "On some British pseudomorphs,"
Mineralogical Magazine, 11 (1897), no. 53, p. 263-285.
[699J a.F. Rogers., "Notes on some pseudomorphs,
petrifications, and alterations," Proceedings of the American
Philosophical Society, 49 (1910), no. 194, p. 17-23.
domorphs contained in the collections of the
American Museum of Natural History in New
York.! 700 ' He was an authority on the subject
and well acquainted with the previous litera-
ture about pseudomorphs, and his work is still
perhaps the best available study in English on
the subject.
6.8 Paragenesis! 701 !
Minerals are complex, naturally occurring
chemical compounds that form within the
interior of the earth over a period of
time. As the mineral species form the
conditions surrounding their formation such
as temperature, pressure, composition of the
mineralizing fluid that nurture the development
of one species may change so that other species
are deposited. These new conditions may
also mean that previously deposited minerals
are now replaced or altered to new minerals
or in other cases dissolved away completely.
The term 'paragenesis' refers to the time-
successive order of formation of a group of
associated minerals within a particular deposit.
Since the great majority of mineral occurrences
have been formed by several distinct periods
of mineralization, the complete description
of the paragenesis of a deposit involves
establishing the order in which the constituent
minerals have been formed and the sequence
of reabsorptions and replacements that have
occurred. To develop a theoretical profile of
how minerals deposited, a full understanding
of the physical and chemical processes present
at the time of formation are required. It
is not surprising then that although certain
mineral species were almost always observed
[70UJ (j Fj-ondel., "Catalogue of mineral pseudomorphs in
the American Museum of Natural History," Bulletin of the
American Museum of Natural History, 57 (1935), p. 389-426.
[701] Pusher historical information may be found in:
Frank Dawson Adams., "Origin and nature of ore
deposits: An historical study," Bulletin of the Geological
Society of America, 45 (1934), p. 375-424. • Walther
Fischer., Gesteins- und Lagerstattenbildung im Wandel der
wissenschaftlichen Anschauung. Stuttgart, E. Schweizerbart,
1961. viii, 592 p., illus., index. [Detailed history of
petrology and the study of ore deposition.] • Victor Moritz
Goldschmidt., Die kontaktmetamorphose im Kristianiagebiet.
Kristiania, In Kommission bei J. Dybwad, 1911. ix, 483 p.,
2 plates, maps, diagrams. [Reviews previous research into
paragenesis.] • Paul Groth., Entwicklungsgeschichte der
mineralogischen Wissenschaften, 1926, p. 194-211.
176
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6.8 Paragenesis
to be associated together, it was not until
the chemical aspects of mineralogy were fully
developed that the paragenesis process was
fully conceptualized.
Typical of the late eighteenth century
was the description by Jean-Baptiste Louis
Rome de l'Isle of the metallic ores
contained in his personal mineral cabinet. In
his Description Methodique d'une Collection
de Mineraux (Paris, 1773) he gives the
standard physical characteristics, localities,
and mineral associations (i.e., paragenesis)
for each specimen. However, he makes no
connection between the associated minerals
other than listing them. This was common to
descriptive mineralogies of the period because
by and large their descriptions were based
on individual specimens separated from the
environment in which they formed. This
made it exquisitely difficult to recognize that
there was a distinct sequence of processes that
created the specimen. Therefore it was left
to a group of researchers and writers who
had lengthy, practical experience working in
mines, and who recorded their observations in
full descriptions of the mineral veins within
the mines to accumulate the evidence that
eventually compelled those simple lists to
morph into the idea of mineral paragenesis.
Early evidence that lead to building a theory
of paragenesis was supplied by the authors of
books describing ore deposits, and speculation
as to how the ores formed inside the earth.
A professor at the Bergakademie in
Freiberg, Johann Friedrich Wilhelm von
Charpentier wrote in 1778 his excellent and
pioneering book, Mineralogische Geographie
der Chursachsischen Lande (Leipzig, 1778). In
this work he set out the results of a long
period of observation and study about ore
deposits and their minerals. He gives an
excellent description of the veins and other
mineral occurrences of Saxony and the adjacent
regions, and in the last few pages of the book
discusses the question of the probable origin of
the ores. He gives an admirable presentation
of the facts gathered during his long years
of mining experience. Charpentier considers
in succession those observations that have a
definite bearing on the question of the genesis of
the ore deposits, and, based on them, he offers
an explanation of their origin, which, he says,
cannot be considered as more than a conjecture
but which he believes represents the closest
approximation to the truth attainable at that
time.
Charpentier abandons beliefs the ancient
believes and proposes that mineral deposits,
including the veins were created by some
alteration happening to the original country
rock. He comes to this opinion based upon
his long experience of first-hand observation
of mineralized veins in the earth and notes
that ores like cassiterite (tin) are distributed
through their host rock like a huge three
dimensional web. He envisions an ore deposit
forms in a way analogous to the process that
forms petrified wood. Petrified wood, he notes,
was not silicified from the outside in, noting
that had that occurred the hard silica would act
like a shell around the woody interior. There
apparently was some unknown process that
changed the original wood to silica — a change
Charpentier considers even more remarkable
than the creation of the stock work of an ore
deposit.
Carl Abraham Gerhard, who wrote
in 1781 his Versuch einer Geschichte des
Mineralreichs held that veins were open fissures
which originated through great movements in
the earth's crust as well as from other causes,
and that they were filled by the action of waters
dissolving material out of the surrounding
country rock and depositing it in these fissures.
The famous and elaborate work on mining
written by Friedich Wilhelm Heinrich
von Trebra. I 702 ! contains a small
section that speculates on the genesis of
ore deposits. He agrees with Charpentier
that his speculation is only a theory and is
open to many objections. Trebra believed
ore bodies developed through "Gahrung"
and "Faulniss" , which literally translated
means "Fermentation" and "Decomposition" ,
respectively. This is an echo of the ancient
beliefs that processes with in the earth were
analogous to those inside a living body of
[702J Friedich Wilhelm Heinrich von Trebra., Erfahrungen
vom Innern der Gebirge. Dessau und Leipzig, 1785.
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6.8 Paragenesis
an animal, and as an animals body was
nourished by blood and other fluids contained
in a circulatory system, so the earth was
nourished by fluids circulating in its body.
The central fire located deep in the earth
supplied the energy to cause circulation to
occur. Trebra notes that when some organic
bodies like yeast come into contact with water,
the mass undergoes substantial changes and
ferments. In dead animals, when the body
is exposed to air, they like wise substantially
change through decomposition. It was thought
that similar processes existed inside the earth,
and that this was how ore deposits and
veins formed. By the eighteenth century, the
German miner's coined the terms "Gahrung"
and "Faulniss" to describe the processes of ore
and vein creation, which Trebra adopts in his
writing. The modern terms, Metamorphism
and Weathering, embrace most, if not all, of
these natural operations. Trebra is silent,
however, as to any theory regarding the
possible sources for the minerals that filled the
veins.
Abraham Gottlob Werner, the fa-
mous mineralogist, also set about to give a the-
oretical answer to the problem of ore forma-
tion and thus gave stimulus to the search for a
solution. His Von den Entstehung der Gange,
published in 1791, more than previous similar
works, made the study of vein formation an in-
tegral study in historical geology. I 703 ! He adds
some observations to the previously existing
knowledge of the internal structure of the veins,
the phenomena displayed at the intersection of
different sets of veins, and the differences be-
tween the internal structure of veins and beds.
However, it is Werner's new and novel theory
of vein formation that caused his work to be
widely studied. As the chief supporter of the
Neptunist theory, which he had developed, and
which theorized most rocks were created by be-
ing deposited in ancient oceans, he suggested
that as the sediments settled from the ocean
and became compacted as rocks, cracks devel-
oped in the mass due to the squeezing out of
the water or other events such as earthquakes.
[703J Abraham Gottlob Werner., Neue Theorie von der
Entstehung der Gange. Freiberg, 1791.
Some of these open fissures would extend all
the way to the surface, and if still located under
the sea, they would be filled with waters of the
great ocean. In such fissures the oceanic waters
would lay undisturbed and would over time pre-
cipitate and crystallize the minerals that form
a mineral vein or deposit. Werner did not be-
lieve that veins derived their metallic content
from the country rock through the action of
circulating waters, because the country rock in
districts where metal-bearing veins occur, con-
tains no traces of the metals which are found in
the veins. This theory is not possible, because
he says the first layer of material secreted along
the walls of the fissure would make it imper-
meable to the passage of all further solutions.
Werner's personal charm, however, must have
been altogether remarkable. No other teacher
of geological science either before or since has
approached him in the extent of his personal
influence or in the breadth of his contempo-
rary fame, and his theory of ore deposition
was widely studied. It was entirely disproved
by the early nineteenth century, however, hi
fact, the Bergrath Friedrich Constantinl 704 ! of
Werner's own city, Freiberg, less than fifty years
after the publication of Werner's Neue Theorie,
writes that not only this theory, but Werner's
whole system of geognosy, had completely bro-
ken down under the accumulation of a great
body of newly discovered facts. For example,
FORCHAMMER, of Copenhagen, in an 1835 pa-
per, detailed the results of a series of chem-
ical analyses which showed that, contrary to
the statement of Werner, minute quantities of
the heavy metals were present in almost all
rocks. I 705 ! Forchammer correctly claimed that
circulating ground waters made their way lat-
erally into fissures, carrying materials in solu-
tion, and filled the fissures, thus giving rise to
mineral veins, but he did not make the connec-
tion to a sequence of mineral depositions, and
missed describing paragenesis.
The theory of paragenesis, or the associ-
ation of minerals of common origin was sug-
[<04J Friedrich Constantin, Freiherr von Benst., Kritische
Beleuchtung der Werner'schen Gangtheorie. Freiberg, 1840.
[705]
[ Title Needed 1
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6.8 Paragenesis
gested as a general idea by the great Rus-
sian mineralogist Vasily Mikhaylovich Sev-
EE.GIN in 1798, I 706 ' who noted the signifi-
cance of mineral associations — sphalerite and
galena, for example — and developed a theory
on the contiguity of minerals that he described
as the occupance of two or more minerals in one
place. I 707 ! Even when a later Russian mineral-
ogist, Dmitrii Ivanovich Sokolov, wrote a
detailed textbook of mineralogy. I 708 ! He cor-
rectly attributed the physical properties of min-
erals, including morphology, color, shape, lus-
ter, cleavage, hardness, to the chemical compo-
sition of the mineral. Like many mineralogists,
Sokolov was interested in mineral associations,
and discusses something like paragenesis in his
textbook of mineralogy. The Russian insights
into paragenesis remained unknown and unrec-
ognized to European researchers, however. The
theories of Werner had much more influence.
In his massive description of the min-
eralogy, geology, and mining of Saxony,
FREIESLEBEN provides an abundance of data
regarding mineral associations actually ob-
served in the mines, particularly the tin de-
posits. I 709 ! In other countries concepts sur-
rounding the importance of mineral associa-
tions were beginning to take root. Robert
Jameson for example, in the second edition
of his System of Mineralogy published in 1816
continues to give an account of the mineral as-
sociations when he describes the geographic sit-
uation that specific mineral species are known
to occur. The Englishman W. Henwood in
a series of writings between 1831 and 1846
presents descriptions of mineral associations
observed in the mines of Cornwall.! 710 ] An-
[GIVE
[706J p erV y e Osnovania Mineralogii, p. 85-86.:
QUOTATION]
l 707 \ I.D. Sedletskii. "AKa,n. B.M. CeBepTHH h yneime o
napareHe3iice MHHepajioB. [Acad. V.M. Severgin and the
study of the paragenesis of minerals]", Vestn. As USSR, 1
(1948). • I.D. Sedletskii. "IlpHopHTeT pyccKoro y^exoro
B.M. CeBeprima b ynexiiii o napareHe3Hce MHHepajioB.
[Russian scientific priority of V.M. Severgin in the study
of the paragenesis of minerals.], Zap. Rostov State Univ., 11
(1948), no. 6.
[708] D m it r ii Ivanovich Sokolov., Pvkobo^ctbo Ktj Mmh-
epajiorin.. St. Petersburg, 1832.
[709] Fi-eiesleben., Geognostische Arbeiten, 1807-1815.
[710]
dr.es Manuel del Rio published many min-
eralogical papers related to Mexican mineral-
ogy and geology, including work on the origin
of mineral veins, the associations seen in sul-
fide minerals, and the effect of trace elements
on a minerals physical properties, and polymor-
phism.
The French geologist G.A. Daubree
authored in 1841 a particularly important
paper, in which he compares chemically the
tin ores of Germany, England, and France, and
notes that in all cases the tin ore (cassiterite)
is always accompanied by minerals such as
fluorite or that contain the elements
fluorine or boron. I 711 ! At the time,
it was generally accepted from laboratory
experiments that there was a chemical affinity
between silicon and tin. In his study, Daubree
concludes that fluorine and boron must
impregnate the original host rock where the
ore deposits formed, and when a mineralizing
solution containing tin and silicon came into
contact, cassiterite, quartz, fluorite, and the
associated minerals were deposited. This
theory was later expanded when it was shown
that titanium was also present. Later, after
paragenesis was firmly established, Daubree 's
observations were shown to be correct, and that
the tin containing minerals of Saxony had been
formed from original sulphides ores that had
been acted upon not by a metalliferous solution
but by the penetration of flourine and boron
gas penetrating from deep inside the earth.
In 1843 Daubree published an overview and
description of the geology and mineralogical
conditions of a large number of Swedish and
Norwegian ores.! 712 ! Again he recognizes the
importance of the geological conditions in the
formation of ore deposits. In this case, the type
of host rock and the presence or absence of
pegmatite material. The work formed together
with Hisinger's topographical studies a valuable
study of the mineralogy and geology of Sweden
[ Title Needed ]
[ ]
[711 J g_a. Daubree., "Memo-ire sur le gisement, la
constitution et l'origin anias de mineral d'etain," Ann. de
Mines, Paris, 1841.
[712] q J± Daubree., "Memoire sur les deposits metalliferes
de la Suede et de la Norwege," Ann. de Mines, Paris, 1843.
179
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6.8 Paragenesis
and Norway.
It was the long history of mining in Saxony
that provided an extensive line of observations
from which the German theorists could draw.
In addition, there was by the middle of the
nineteenth century an active study of the
geology of central Europe being carried out and
new observations were regularly being reported
and published. Finally in 1849, the connection
of mineral association was more generally
explained by Johann August Friedrich
Breithaupt in his Die Paragenesis der
Mineralien (The Paragenesis of Minerals), that
gave a formal name to the study. I 713 ! This
was by far Breithaupt 's greatest contribution
to mineralogy and to the developing study of
ore deposit formation. Although as it has been
shown some earlier researchers had noticed that
there was some regularity in the association of
different minerals, Breithaupt was the first to
make a comprehensive study of the associations
and emphasis their importance. Studying
the minerals of the Schwarzenberg region,
Breithaupt developed a classification of 20
mineral associations.
[GIVE TABLE]
Breithaupt 's ideas received a great deal of
observational and experimental support in the
course of the nineteenth century. Tangentially
the study of pseudomorph formation and other
geochemical processes contributed greatly to
understanding paragentic formation.
The importance of Breithaupt 's work was
immediately recognized by others, especially
those researchers studying the emerging field
of geochemistry. For example, Bischof in
his important Lehrbuch der chemischen und
physikalischen Geologie (Textbook of Chemical
and Physical Geology) published between
1847 and 1855 discusses the importance of
mineral associations, basing his observations
on Breithaupt's work and other related
publications. A.E. Reuss' work that describes
the paragentic formation of minerals in
Pribram in Bohemia clearly shows Breithaupt's
influence. Ruess demonstrates that the main
sequence of mineralization that started with
galena, and progressed through sphalerite and
barite, to the various carbonate minerals, like
calcite. He recognized from the diversity
of mineral mixes that multiple generations
of mineralization occurred; however, Reuss
missed connecting the formation of minerals
with the surrounding geology.
It is the combination of geology together
with the presence of mineralizing fluids that
cause mineral species to develop. This was
a large and complex concept to grasp, and
a splendid early example of this complete
approach was the examination of the silver ores
of the Andrea Mountains of Saxony published
in 1865 by H. CrednerJ 714 ] Credner is
also credited with preparing the first modern
geological map of Saxony and a study of the
ore deposits of North America, which are the
principal works of his career.
In the 1860s, Gustav Tschermak began
a series of studies into petrology. This led
him into the study of paragenesis of minerals
in several granites, the quartz content of
plagioclase, and the role of olivine in various
rock types. I 715 ! hi fact, the study of mineral
paragenesis was deemed important enough that
Alfred W. Stelzner began teaching in 1860
a course in the subject at the Bergakademie
in FreibergJ 716 ! In 1865, Geyer and
Ehrenfriedersdorf published a study of
South American silver minerals that included
descriptions of their paragenesis.! 717 ]
'Gang-formations' were observed by Brei-
thaupt, which did not appear part of the main
mineral deposit formation. BERNHARD VON
CoTTA in his Erzlagerstdttenlehre (Ore De-
posit Instruction) of 18????? was probably the
first to call these occupance "contact ore de-
[713]
[714]
715]
716]
717]
Title Needed
Title Needed
Title Needed
Title Needed
Title Needed
180
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6.8 Paragenesis
posits" , and their geology derived from eruptive
or intrusive magma rock.
As a student of Breithaupt, PAUL Groth
paid particular attention to the paragenesis
of minerals. In an 1885 monograph on the
mineralogy of Dauphiny, Groth accounted for
the dependence of axinite-epidote sequences
in amphibole schists and of anatase-turnerite
sequences in gneiss by the leaching of elements
from the surrounding rock. He continued to
develop paragenesis and his Topographische
Ubersicht der Mineiallageistatten (1917) that
gave a general description of mineral deposts
based upon geography was one of the best
surveys of the time.
As for the paragenesis associated with
pegmatites, the great Norwegian researcher
W. BR0GGER is of fundamental importance
for his research on the chemistry of these
interesting geological bodies, especially where
they contact and interact with the surrounding
rock. The first researcher to apply rigidly
the laws of physical chemistry to the problems
of mineral associations at contact zones
between host rock and a magmatic heat
source was the Norwegian geochemist Victor
Moritz Goldschmidt who gave a full
account of contact metamorphic processes in
his important Die kontaktmetamorphose in
the Kristianiagebiet (Kristiania, 1911). While
discussing his own theories, Goldschmidt covers
in detail all the earlier work in mineral
associations and paragenesis. Even though
his work is fundamentally geological in nature
and outside the scope of historical mineralogy,
the information presented was valuable to
preparing the preceding historical presentation.
Paragenesis began to be viewed as a
distinct process in all of geology and not
limited to ore deposition. This had an
important effect on not only mineralogy, but
also geology generally. Mineral formation
began to be viewed as one part of a much
fuller geological process, that led to more
efficient geological exploration. Geologists of
all nations began to reevaluate and interpret
the geological structure of their nation in new
ways and with a broader spectrum of theories.
In Scandinavia, the ore deposit and geological
studies of W. BR0GGER in the last part
of the nineteenth century were part of this
trend. Developments in petrology and various
theories of rock formation allowed him to make
new observations about the "Kristainiagebeit"
formation of Norway. Previously, it had been
studied by I.H.L. Vogt who showed in 1893
the silica rich intrusion to be enriched with
a high percentage of heavy metal that were
later deposited as concentrated formations of
economic value along the contact zones of
the intrusion.! 718 ] This model could be
applied to other geological formations through
out the world, and as a result other formations
of a similar nature were recognized. This
led to an explosion of general studies of ore
deposits, their formation, and a classification
of their types, all ultimately based upon their
paragenesis.
By the beginning of the twentieth century
the concept of mineral paragenesis was firmly
established, hi fact, enough was known of the
types of mineral formation that would occur
based on the conditions of a mineralizing fluid
such as a pegmatitic magma, that paragentic
classifications of minerals were proposed in
1900 and 1908 by A. de Lapparent,! 719 ! and
in 1932 by F. Angel and R. ScharizerJ 720 !
In addition, a number of important books on
the subject of ore deposits were published:
Emmons,! 72 !] Kemp,! 722 ! R. Beck, 1901,[ 723 1
A. Bereat, 1904-1906,! 724 ] and F. Beyschlag,
719]
72U J Franz Angel and Rudolf Scharizer, Grundriss der
Mineralparagenese. Wien, J. Springer, 1932. xii, 293, [1] p.
721]
Title Needed
Title Needed
Title Needed
722]
723]
724]
Title Needed
Title Needed
Title Needed
181
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by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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7.1 Origin of Minerals
1910-1913. I 725 l These texts are the
foundation of modern economic geology theory,
and they all are derived to some extent on
the development of theories regarding mineral
paragenesis.
7.0 Experimental Mineralogy
REWORK: In the 19th century the first
attempts were made to create minerals and
igneous rocks artificially. The different
methods employed were classified by Fuchs,
Fouque and Michel-Levy and Bourgeois as
follows:
1. Crystallization by fusion (simple fusion without
solvents; fusion with solvents but without chemical
reactions; fusion involving chemical reactions).
2. Crystallization by sublimation (simple sublimation;
chemical reaction between volatile substances; reac-
tion between volatile and non-volatile substances).
3. Crystallization by solution (solution without chemi-
cal action; chemical reaction of two liquids; reaction
of liquids and solids).
Among the most interesting syntheses
were: the laboratory production of marble from
limestone (James Hall, 1801); the production
of artificial quartz and orthoclase by the
action of pure or slightly carbonated water
under high pressure (Senarmont, Daubree
and Friedel); the production of cassiterite
(tinstone) and rutile by the action of water
vapour on a chloride or fluoride (Daubree);
the production of metallic sulphides by the
action of sulphuretted hydrogen on a chloride
(Durocher); that of orthoclase, albite, quartz,
emerald and zircon, by chemical reaction in
the presence of mineralizers (Hautefeuille); and
finally the synthesis of rubies (Fremy, Feil and
Verneuil, 1877-1891).
Fouque and Michel-Levy's elegant exper-
iments on the artificial production of igneous
rocks (1878-1881) helped to solve a number
of outstanding problems. In particular, they
helped to prove the impossibility of synthesiz-
ing granitic rocks by igneous fusion alone.
Experimental syntheses of inorganic chem-
ical compounds have thrown much new light
[725]
[ Title Needed 1
on the genesis and transformations of miner-
als in nature. By modifying the technique of
H. de Senarmont (1851), R. Weil and R. Ho-
cart (1951-1953) were able to study the for-
mation of silver ore and of various sulphides
and arsenides in greater detail. Other experi-
mental studies have yielded important clues to
the origin of certain microstructures observed
in metallic ores. J. Morocewicz (1898), J. H. L.
Vogt (1924), N. L. Bowen, W. Eitel, P. Grig-
oriev and O. F. Tuttle have done decisive work
on the reproduc tion of magmatic minerals by
the 'dry path'.
The role of water as a mineralizer, in the
supercritical state and in the presence of alkali
salts, which was first demonstrated by Friedel
(1890-1891), was confirmed by G. W. Morey
and Earl Ingerson (1937) and by C. J. van
Nieuwenburg (1932-1935). Synthetic studies of
argillaceous minerals were made by W. Noll
(1935-1936) and R. Roy (1950-1961) .
Using the high temperatures and pressures
produced by the detonation of explosives, A.
Michel-Levy and J. Wyart (1938-1948) were
able to reproduce various minerals associated
with meta morphic transformations. Under
different experimental conditions,
Mme Christophe-Michel-Levy (1953-1957)
succeeded in producing a series of metamorphic
silicates and in reconstructing a number
of natural parageneses. J. Wyart and
H.G.F. Winkler studied the metamorphic
transformations of certain argillaceous rocks; S.
Caillere, S. Henin and J. Esquevin succeeded
in synthesizing the mineral constituents of
phyllites.
On the whole, the experimental work
has tended to confirm the observations of
mineralogists and petrographers in the field.
7.1 Origin of Minerals i 726 i
From the earliest times, many theories were
invented to explain how minerals came to exist.
After chemistry had developed sufficiently,
L J Further historical information may be found in:
D.P. Grigor'ev., Ontogeny of minerals. Translated from
Russian by IPST staff. Translation edited by Y. Brenner.
Jerusalem, Israel Program for Scientific Translation, 1965.
v, [1], 250 p., illus. [The introduction contains an historical
essay on the development of ideas about the origin of
minerals.!
182
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7.1 Origin of Minerals
attempts were made to synthesis minerals,
and this led to a better understanding of
the processes that were needed for mineral
formation in the earth. In particular,
considerations of the effect of temperature and
pressure on the mineralizing solutions has led
from the 19th century until today's studies to a
firm grasp of why minerals not only form, but
why specific suites of species occur together.
7.1.1 Fluid Inclusion Studies I 727 !
REWORK: Fluid inclusions are small volumes
of a fluid in a crystal. These fluids can
be trapped for example along growth zones
or crystal edges or in any imperfection of a
crystal during growth as primary inclusions.
When a mineral is fractured during growth
syngenetic microcracks will be healed in the
presence of a fluid which may be trapped
as pseudosecondary inclusions. Any stress
after crystal growth will lead to epigenetic
fractures and secondary inclusions may be the
result of their recrystallization. Primary and
pseudosecondary inclusions will thus contain
the fluid from which the host crystal has
grown. Therefore they can provide information
on the fluid composition of the corresponding
environment (magmatic hydrothermal fluids,
basinal brines, heated meteoric waters, etc.).
But also secondary inclusions may provide
information on the later geological history of
a crystal.
The study of fluid inclusions has become
a routine method for solving a wide range of
geoscientific problems of different disciplines
like petrology, structural analysis, or the
genesis and exploration of ore or hydrocarbon
deposits. It took, however, a long time to
establish fluid inclusions as a reliable tool for
answering geological questions. This paper
refers to the historical development of fluid
inclusion research from early observations to
[727] other historical information may be found in:
Frederick Gordon Smith., Historical development of inclusion
thermometry. Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1953.
[i]-iii, [1], 1-149 p., biblio., index. [Excellent, little
known history of mineral inclusion studies.] • Robert
Wiesheu and Ulrich F. Hein., "The history of fluid inclusion
studies" (pp. 309-325), in: Bernhard Fritscher and Fergus
Henderson, eds., Toward a history of mineralogy, petrology,
and geochemistry. Miinchen, Institut fur Geschichte der
Naturwissenschaften, 1998.
first experiments and introduces the work of
the most important scientists in its historical
context. Finally, some statistical data about
the latest developments and a short outlook on
the near future are given.
By their composition the majority of fluid
inclusions are water-salt-gas mixtures with
NaCl being the most important salt and C02,
CH4, and N2 as the most important gas species.
In terms of thermodynamics a fluid inclusion
represent a closed (isochoric) system which
is defined by pressure (P), temperature (T),
volume (V) and chemical composition (X) . Two
of these parameters (V, X) are fixed during
formation of an inclusion while P and T remain
variable after trapping.
At room temperature most fluid inclusions
contain two phases, a vapour bubble and
an (aqueous) solution. But other phase
combinations as two immiscible liquids (liquid
C02 and water for example) with or without a
vapour bubble are common as well. Additional
solids may occur which are termed daughter
crystals if they precipitated from the trapped
solution. Halite is by far the most common
solid phase observed. Figure 1 shows
an example of a multiphase fluid inclusion
with three daughter crystals (halite, sylvite,
arcanite) .
The aim of any fluid inclusion study is
the reconstruction of the PTVX-properties.
The most applied method is micro thermometry
which means the observation of individual
fluid inclusions on a heating- and freezing
stage under the microscope in the temperature
range of-180°C (i. e. cooling with liquid
nitrogen) to +600° C. After complete freezing
(solidification) the inclusions are carefully
warmed or heated and any observable phase
change up to total homogenization (one-phase
state) is recorded. Initial melting of any
solid phase permits the identification of the
involved aqueous and also gaseous systems
(H20-NaCl, H20-C02, C02-CH4, etc.). Final
melting temperatures (or temperatures of
dissolution) point to the concentration of
individual components in the corresponding
system. The freezing-point depression of ice in
aqueous inclusions, for example, is a measure
for the total salt concentration (salinity) which
183
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by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
7.1 Origin of Minerals
is commonly expressed as weight percent
NaCl equivalent. The tem-perature of total
homogenization of an inclusion defines its
density. Furthermore the homogenization
temperature means the minimum trapping
temperature.
A microthermometric investigation would
begin with supercooling and complete freezing
of the inclusion (E). During subsequent warm-
ing ice melting occurs until the last ice crystal
disappears at the temperature of final melting
(Tm) in D. Further warming means expansion
of the liquid phase along the liquid- vapour co-
tectic curve until the vapour bubble disappears
at the temperature of homogenization (Th) in
B. After homogenization a small increase of the
temperature by further warming would lead to
a large increase of the inclusions' internal pres-
sure along the iso chore.
Inclusions in crystals are most probably
documented for the first time in the fourth
century by the Roman Claudian [c375-c404],
who wrote down nine epigrams with the title
De crystallo cut aqua tnerat.l hi the 11th
century the Mid Asian scholar al-Blrum [973-
cl050] gave a first detailed description of fluid
inclusions, but it was only in the second
half of the 17th century that scientists used
these observations for genetic interpretations
of minerals and gemstones. Nicolaus Steno
[1638-1686], the famous geologist and founder
of the 'law of stratification', observed fluid
inclusions along blue and white growth zones
of chevron quartz. I 728 ! He concluded
that the crystal grew from the inner to the
outer zones by precipitation from a solution
and that the inclusions represent relics of this
solution. This conclusion was problematic since
it contradicted the Aristotelian tradition which
interpreted quartz crystals as fossil icicles.
The first English description of fluid
inclusions dates back to 1672 when Robert
Boyle [1627-1691] reported a large moving
bubble in quartz. He concluded that
gemstones, like salt, originate from liquid and
soft material because gemstones have crystal
shapes and cleavages similar to that of salt
[728] st en0; N. 1669. Prodromus de solido intra solidum
naturaliter contento. Florenz: Stella.
crystals. I 729 ! Like Steno he denied the origin
of quartz from icicles. He argued that ice is less
dense than water and therefore cannot contain
water inclusions, whereas, according to his own
calculations, the specific weight of quartz is
2.65 g/cm3.
Other scientists followed. Between 1702
and 1711 Johann Jakob Scheuchzer [1672-
1733] published observations on vapour bubbles
in quartzJ 730 ! He favored the notion
that quartz had its origin from water because
of the fact that all water contains vapour
bubbles. Generally, large inclusions attracted
the attention of early naturalists (Dewey 1818;
Dwight 1820; see Smith, 1953, for additional
references). Besides pure descriptions there
were first reports on the nature of the trapped
fluid. Commander Deodat de Dolomieu (1792)
may have been the first to report inclusions in
quartz filled with petroleum.! 731 ] Hayden
(1819) described a new mineral, neocronite,
that spread a terrible smell. I 732 ! In fact
the mineral turned out to be common feldspar
containing H2S-bearing inclusions.
The first analytical and experimental
work to establish the composition of specific
inclusions was done in the early 19th century.
Scipione Breislak [1750-1826], in 1818, analyzed
petroleum inclusions in quartz. I 733 ! Sir
Humphrey Davy [1778-1829] opened inclusions
by drilling under water, oil and even mercury
and pipetted the released fluids for chemical
analysis. Moreover, he was the first to observe
fluid inclusions with a microscope.! 734 ] In
1823 David Brewster [1781-1868] published two
[729] Boyle, R. 1672. Essay about the origine and virtues
of gems. London, William Godbid.
[730]
[ Title Needed ]
[ ]
I 731 ! Dolomieu, Deodat de. 1792. Sur de l'huile de petrol
dans le cristal de roche et les fluides elastiques tires dur
quartz. Observation sur la Physique 42:318-19.
[732]
[ Title Needed ]
[ ]
[733] Breislak, S. 1818. Institutions geologiques. Trans-
lated from the Italian by P. J. L. Campmas. Milan, Impr.
imperiale et royale.
[734] rj aV y 5 H. 1822. On the state of water and aeriform
matter in cavities found in certain crystals. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society of London 2:367-76.
184
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by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
NOT FOR PUBLICATION Printed: September 18, 2007
7.1 Origin of Minerals
papers about fluid inclusions in the Edinburgh
Philosophical Journal.! 735 ] He observed
fluid inclusions containing a vapour bubble and
two immiscible fluids and found out that the
expansion of the second fluid (carbon dioxide,
as he concluded later) was 32 times greater than
the expansion of water. Brewster also reported
for the first time daughter crystals within fluid
inclusions and identified them as calcite. For
his innovative pressure experiments he used
rifle barrels as auto-claves which were the most
stable vessels available at that time. The
results of these investigations, including the
work of William Nicol [1768-1851], I 736 ! were
used as very strong evidence to support the
Neptunist theory that all crustal materials had
their origin from ocean suspension or solution.
Ongoing research added more details on fluid
compositions. Jean-Baptiste Dumas [1800-
1884], in 1830, I 737 l and Heinrich Rose [1795-
1864], in 1839,[ 738 1 reported inclusions of an
inflammable gas (C02) in rock salt. Brewster
(1845) observed the formation of daughter
minerals upon heating of inclusions (i. e.
retrograde solubility of carbonates) I 739 ! and
Robert Bunsen [1811-1899], in 1851, identified
CH4 in rock salt from Wieliczka/PolandJ 740 !
The year 1858 marked a milestone in the
history of fluid inclusion research. Sir Henry
Clifton Sorby [1826-1908], "The Father of Mi-
[735] Brewster, D. 1823. On the existence of a group of
movable crystals of carbonate of lime in a fluid cavity of
quartz. Edinburgh Philosophical Journal 9:268-70.; ibid.,
1823. On the existence of two new fluids in the cavities
of minerals, which are immiscible, and which possess
remarkable physical properties. Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal 9:94-107.
I 736 ! Nichol, W. 1828. Observations on the fluids con-
tained in crystallized minerals. Edinburgh Philosophical
Journal 5:94-96.
[737J Dumas, J. 1830. Note sur une variete de sel gemme
qui decrepite au contact de l'eau. Annales de Chimie et
Physique 43:318-20.
I 738 ! Rose, H. 1839. Uber das Knistersalz von Wieliczka.
Annalen der Physik und Chemie 48:353-61.
[739J _^ 1845 On the existence of crystals with different
primitive forms and physical properties in the cavities of
minerals; with additional observations on the new fluids
in which they occur. Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh 16:11-22.
[740J B unserl) Yi. 1851. Uber die Prozesse der vulkanischen
Gesteinsbildung Islands. Annalen der Physik und Chemie
83:197-272.
croscopic Petrography",! 741 ] published his pa-
per On the Microscopical Structure of Crystals
indicating the Origin of Minerals and Rocks
(Sorby 1858). This paper was based on the four
fundamentals: observation, experiment, theo-
retical interpretation, and application, and it
presented the first systematics on fluid inclu-
sions.! 742 ]
Sorby was the first to propose that the gas
bubbles present in most fluid inclusions were
the result of differential thermal contraction of
the enclosing host mineral and the included
liquid during cooling from a higher temperature
of trapping to the temperature of observation
(room temperature). Consequently, reheating
of such inclusions would lead to disappearance
of the bubble and the temperature at which this
occurs (homogenization temperature) could
serve as an estimate on the temperature of
mineral formation. His outstanding talent for
observation and precise documentation resulted
in five attached plates which represent the first
systematic documentation on observed fluid
inclusions and which have maintained their
validity for petrological interpretations even
today. I 743 l
Experimentally Sorby proved that the
most common liquid in fluid inclusions is
water. He heated and decrepitated inclusions,
collected and condensed the released vapour,
cooled it and determined the resulting solids
at low temperatures by their shape and their
melting point to be ice crystals. Moreover
he identified other components released during
these experiments as sylvite (KC1) and halite
(NaCl). In experiments with artificial fluid
inclusions he showed that the expansion
coefficients for a variety of solutions on heating
were one or two orders of magnitude greater
than those of the enclosing host minerals.
From these experiments he developed a set of
formulae which permitted the calculation of
I 741 l Johnson, D. A., ed. 1979. H. C. Sorby centenary
issue. Journal of the Geological Society of the Sheffield
University 7 (4): 181-93.
[742]
[ Title Needed ]
[ ]
[743] Touret, j #) 1984. Les inclusions fluides: histoire d'un
paradoxe. Bulletin Miner alogiques 107:125-37.
185
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by Curtis P. Schuh, Tucson, AZ — Edit Draft. [1200dpi]
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7.1 Origin of Minerals
the homogenization temperature for a given
inclusion on the basis of the observed filling
degree (i. e. the volume fraction of the liquid
phase) at room temperature for a variety of
compositions.
The formal perfection and the innovative
character of Sorby's paper inspired Jacques
Touret (1984) to compare it with other
masterpieces which marked the beginning
of a new technique such as the bible of
Johannes Gutenberg or the violins of Antonio
StradivariJ 744 !
The German scientists Hermann Vogel-
sang [1838-1874] and Ferdinand Zirkel [1838-
1912] were among the first to use the termi-
nology and the techniques of Sorby to carry
out further investigations on fluid inclusions
in rock-forming minerals, in particular on plu-
tonic and volcanic rocks. I 745 ! Zirkel further-
more heated fluid inclusions and examined the
vapour with spectroscopical methods. I 746 !
The first primitive heating stage was
constructed by John Arthur Phillips [1822-
1887], in 1875, who used a paraffin bath for
this purpose. I 747 ! Other scientists working
on fluid inclusions at that time were Walter
Noel Hartley [1846-1913], I 748 l and Edward
Sang [1805-1890] in England,! 749 ! or George
[7 J Touret, J., 1984. Les inclusions fluides: histoire d'un
paradoxe. Bulletin Mineralogiques 107:125-37.
[745] Vogelsang, H. 1867. Philosophie der Geologie und
mikroskopische Gesteinsstudien. Bonn: Cohen und Sohn.;
Vogelsang, H., and H. Geissler. 1869. Uber die Natur der
Flussigkeitseinschliisse in gewissen Mineralien. Annalen
der Physik und Chemie 137:56-75.; Zirkel, F. 1866. Uber
die mikroskopische Zusammensetzung und Structur der
diesjahrigen Laven von Nea-Kammeni bei Santorin. Neues
Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Geologie und Palaontologie
53:769-87.
[746] Z irkel, F. 1870. Mikromineralogische Mitteilungen.
Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Geologie und Palaontolo-
gie, 1870, 801-32.
[747] Phillips, J. A. 1875. The rocks of the mining district
of Cornwall and their relation to metalliferous deposits.
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London
31:319-45.
I 748 ! Hartley, W. N. 1877a. Observations on fluid-cavities.
Journal of the Chemical Society of London 31 (1): 241-49.;
ibid., 1877b. On attraction and repulsion of bubbles by
heat. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London 20 (18):
150-52.
[749] Sang, E. 1873. Notice of a singular property exhibited
by the fluid enclosed in crystal cavities. Proceedings of the
Royal Society of Edinburgh 8:86-88.
Wesson Hawes [1848-1882] I 750 ! and Charles
Lee Reese [1862-1940] in the United States of
America.! 751 ] In Russia many researchers
critically reviewed the articles of their German,
English and American colleagues (see, for
example, Karpinsky 1880). I 752 !
Until the end of the 19th century more
than 150 papers were published on fluid
inclusions. In spite of this fact the turn of
the century was characterized by a certain
scepticism about the use of fluid inclusions,
partly influenced by some critical papers of
Phillips (1875) I 753 l and Zirkel (1873).[ 754 1
Nevertheless until 1920 about 50 more articles
appeared by well-known researchers like Harry
Rosenbusch [1836-1914], I 755 l Johann Georg
Koenigsberger [1874-1946] and Wolf Johannes
Miiller [1874-1942], I 756 l and Rudolf Scharizer
[1859-1935] I 757 l mainly to test the usage
of this method for solving different problems
of mineral formation and formation of ore
deposits.
1921 marks a turning point in the
fluid inclusion research. Some scientists
now considered the problems exclusively from
the physico-chemical point. The German
Richard Nacken (b. 1884) was the first to
apply state diagrams of water and carbon
I 75 °] Hawes, G. W. 1881. On liquid carbon dioxide in
smoky quartz. American Journal of Science 21:209-16.
[751] p eesS; c L_ 1898. Petroleum inclusions in quartz
crystals. Journal of the American Chemical Society 20:795-
97.
I 752 ! Karpinsky, A. P. 1880. On the occurrence of
inclusions of liquid carbon dioxide in mineral substances.
Gornyi Zhurnal 2 (4-5): 96-117.
[753] phiiii pS; j. A. 1875. The rocks of the mining district
of Cornwall and their relation to metalliferous deposits.
Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London
31:319-45.
[754] Zij-kei^ p_ 1873. Die mikroskopische Beschaffenheit
der Mineralien und Gesteine. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann
Verlag.
[755] Posenbusch, H. 1887. Mikroskopische Physiographic
der Mineralien und Gesteine. Bd. 2. Stuttgart:
Schweizerbart.
I 756 ! Konigsberger, J., and W. J. Miiller. 1906. Uber
die Flussigkeitseinschliisse im Quarz alpiner Mineralklufte.
Centralblatt fur Mineralogie 1906: 72-77.
I 757 ! Scharizer, R. 1920. Zur Frage der Bildung der
Einschliisse von fliissigem Kohlendioxyd in Mineralien.
Centralblatt fur Mineralogie, Abt. B., 1920: 143-48.
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7.2 Artificial Minerals
dioxide. I 758 ! He further showed that only
saline fluid inclusions with a vapour bubble can
be used as a thermometer, whereas gaseous
fluid inclusion mainly composed of carbon
dioxide are excellent indicators to determine
the pressure during the formation of the host
mineral. Nacken thereby systematically used
synthetic fluid inclusions for his experiments.
Many other scientists added new ideas on
the formation and interpretations of fluid
inclusions. They emphasized the importance
to distinguish between primary and secondary
inclusions, proved that some of the older
work contained misinterpretations and tried to
convince the scientific world of the reliability of
microthermometry as a serious method.
7.2 Artificial Minerals l 759 !
REWORK: Speculation on how metals and
minerals formed within the earth has always
existed in history. Aristotle's theory of mineral
formation revolved around exhalations inside
the earth interacting with physical conditions
such as hot or cold to form minerals. Later,
it was a popular belief that a mineral seed
existed deep in the rock from which the
minerals and metals grew. The basic idea
of the philosopher's stone came from similar
speculation. It was not until the invention of
physical chemistry at the end of the eighteenth
century that experimenters slowly recognized
that minerals and rocks were actually complex
chemical compounds that had formed under
very different conditions than existed on the
surface of the earth. They theorized that the
conditions inside the earth that were present
when a specific mineral or rock formed could
be experimentally duplicated, and through the
introduction of the proper chemical elements,
artificial minerals might be artificially created.
In the nineteenth century the first
attempts were made to create minerals and
igneous rocks artificially. The different
methods employed were classified by the
[758] Nacken, R. 1921. Welche Folgerungen ergeben
sich aus dem Auftreten von Fliissigkeitseinschlussen in
Mineralen? Centralblatt fur Mineralogie 1921: 12-20, 35-
43.
[759J G ro th, Entwicklungsgeschicte der mineralogischen Wiss-
enschaften, 1926, p. 226-228.
researchers as follows:
1. Crystallization by fusion (simple fusion without
solvents; fusion with solvents but without chemical
reactions; fusion involving chemical reactions).
2. Crystallization by sublimation (simple sublimation;
chemical reaction between volatile substances; reac-
tion between volatile and non-volatile substances).
3. Crystallization by solution (solution without chemi-
cal action; chemical reaction of two liquids; reaction
of liquids and solids).
On the whole, the experimental work that
began in the nineteenth century has tended to
confirm the observations of mineralogists and
petrographers in the field.
The English chemist JAMES HALL [1761-
1832] appears to be the first to successfully
create artificial minerals and rocks. Among the
most interesting syntheses were: the laboratory
production of marble from limestone (James
Hall, 1801).
Hall is remembered chiefly for the
experimental work he carried out to counter
certain criticisms of James Hutton's Theory of
the Earth, although he made other important
contributions to geology. His first reaction
to the Theory had been unfavorable, and it
was only after numerous conversations with
Hutton that he was persuaded to accept most
of its fundamental principles. Once convinced,
he provided strong support for Hutton, not
only by his experiments but also by field
observations.
Hall's first experiments were undertaken
to refute the claim that if igneous rocks
had originated as molten masses injected into
overlying strata, they would be found to
occur naturally as masses of glass, not as
crystalline rocks. This claim was made because
earlier experimenters had found that artificially
melted basalt and similar rocks, when cooled,
formed a glass. Hall had read accounts of Rene
Reaumur's experiments on porcelain; and in
a local glass foundry he had noticed that a
mass of molten glass which had been allowed
to cool slowly had congealed to a stony mass
containing some crystals. He conceived the idea
that igneous rocks, if they had cooled slowly,
as seemed probable under natural conditions,
would form crystalline rocks rather than a
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7.2 Artificial Minerals
glass. Not long after Hutton's death in 1797
he carried out a series of experiments to prove
this.
Hall melted specimens of intrusive and
extrusive basalt ("whinstone and lava") from
fifteen British and foreign localities and allowed
the fused masses to cool slowly. The
cooled melts he obtained were stony masses,
sometimes containing obvious crystals; but
none, so far as is known, resembled at all closely
the rocks from which they had been derived.
Some of his cooled melts have been preserved,
and subsequent microscopic examination has
shown that one of them contained small
crystals of feldspar, augite, olivine, and iron
ore, minerals characteristic of the rocks used in
the experiments. Hall's results were sufficiently
convincing to prove that fused basalt does not
necessarily cool to a glass; but he had not
taken into account the fact that, under natural
conditions, igneous rocks take very much longer
to cool than the time that he had allowed.
The second criticism dealt with by
Hall was the obvious one that if the
consolidation of limestones had been effected
in the manner Hutton supposed — by the
action of subterranean heat — they would have
decomposed with loss of carbon dioxide.
Hutton had in fact suggested that this would
not happen if the limestones were heated under
great pressure, such as that which would be
exerted by an overlying mass of seawater. Hall
proved this experimentally.
The task proved extremely difficult,
but Hall showed great determination and
remarkable experimental skill in bringing his
investigation to a satisfactory conclusion.
Between 1798 and 1805 he carried out more
than 500 separate experiments. It was a classic
case of proceeding by trial and error. No
apparatus suitable for his purpose existed, and
Hall had to design and construct his own. His
method was to insert small weighed amounts
of various types of limestone or carbonate of
lime into a tubular container. Among many
difficulties he encountered, the principal ones
were the selection of suitable material for the
container (which had to be nonporous and
capable of withstanding both high temperature
and high pressures) and the devising of an
effective method of sealing the container after
inserting the carbonate of lime.
Hall used Wedgwood pyrometers to
regulate the temperature and related the
Wedgwood scale to the melting point of silver.
On this basis it seems probable that he
attained temperatures in excess of 1000 °C.
To estimate the pressures reached, he adapted
to his purpose a method devised by Count
Rumford to measure the explosive power of
gunpowder. He converted his results to a figure
significant in relation to Hutton's theory, the
highest pressure obtained being equivalent to a
column of seawater 2,720 meters in height.
Hall certainly proved that limestone can
be heated to high temperatures under high
pressure without suffering decomposition. In
the most successful of his experiments the
loss in weight of the heated limestone was
insignificant. It is probable that in some
experiments he produced crystalline marble.
He also claimed to have fused limestone; recent
research suggests that possibly he may have
done so, but this is uncertain. It was many
years before Hall's experiments were repeated
successfully, and his results aroused great
interest in Europe. Some of the apparatus he
used and the end products of his experiments
on basalt and limestone are now in the
Geological Museum in London and in the
British Museum (Natural History).
In 1848 the German mineralogist JoHANN
Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann [1782-18??]
published the results of his investigations into
the material that formed on the walls in the
furnaces and smoke stacks of various smelters
in Germany! 760 ] He found that a variety of
mineral species were sublimated and deposited
on the interior of the stacks, and included
the following metals, silver, lead, copper,
iron, and bismuth, as well as the mineral
species galena, sphaerite, cuprite, magnetite,
chrysolite, orthoclase, and annabergite.
The production of artificial quartz and or-
thoclase by the action of pure or slightly car-
bonated water under high pressure (Senarmont
1851, Daubree and Friedel).
[760] j p_L_ Hausmann., "Beitrage zur metallugischen
Krystallkunde," Abhandlungen des Gesellschaft der Wissen-
schaften, Gottingen, 4 (1848-50) and 5 (1851-52).
188
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7.2 Artificial Minerals
In his 1852 doctoral dissertation, I 761 ! N.S.
MANROSS working in Wohler's laboratory at
the University of Gottingen showed techniques
for artificially forming a variety of minerals
including barite, celestite, anhydryite, apatite,
pyromorphite, wolframite, scheelite, crococite,
wulfenite, and anglesite. Previously, Daubree
obtained microscopic crystals of apatite. I 762 !
Hausmann had observed wulfenite occuring
in the walls of the furnace at Bleiberg in
CarinthiaJ 763 ]
1857: Jakob [Joseph] Schabus in
his Bestimmung der Krystallgestalten in
chemischen Laboratories 64 ^ describes the
various forms of crystals created in the
laboratory. Rammelsberg in the 1857
supplemental volume to his Krystallographishe
Chemie frequently references Schabus' work.
1857: F.A. Gurlt., Der pyrogenneten
kiinstlichen Mineralien. 1857. I 765 !
1859: The production of cassiterite
(tinstone) and rutile by the action of water
vapour on a chloride or fluoride (Daubree).
Already in the beginning of the section about
the Zusammenvorkommen of the minerals
it was mentioned that A. DAUBREE had
artificially represented krystallisierten dioxides
of tin and titanium. The purpose of
these work was the proof that the minerals
concerned could have formed in nature from
volatile halogen connections, on which their
paragenetischen conditions pointed. G.-A.
Daubree., Etudes Synthetiques de Geologie
Experimentale. Paris, Dunod, 1879. I 766 !
In 1848 Daubree was summoned to Stras-
bourg to take the chair of mineralogy and ge-
ology, and there he established an important
experimental laboratory for the study of miner-
alogical and geological processes. The pattern
of Daubree's lifework was now established, and
I 761 ! N.S. Manross., 1852, 32 p.
[762] G A D au b ri §e., Comptes Rendus, 32 (18??), p. 615.
[763] j pL Hausmann., Ann. Chem. und Pharm., 81
(18??), p. 224.
[764] Schabus, Jakob [Joseph]., Bestimmung der Krys-
tallgestalten in chemischen Laboratories
[765] p_A_ Gurlt., Der pyrogenneten kiinstlichen Mineralien.
1857.
[ 6J G.-A. Daubree., Etudes Synthetiques de Geologie
Experimentale. Paris, Dunod, 1879.
he is remembered for his contributions to the
understanding of geochemical processes, the
application of engineering principles to an un-
derstanding of geological structures and miner-
alization patterns, and the economic exploita-
tion of ore bodies. The first of these interests
resulted in Etudes et experiences synthetiques
. . . (1859) . His interest in experimental geol-
ogy was reflected in Rapport sur les progres de
la geologie experimentale (1867), which was fol-
lowed by his work of most lasting significance,
Etudes synthetiques de geologie experimentale
(1879). Many of the experiments described in
the latter are still referred to, but ironically it
was his mechanical rather than his chemical ex-
periments that most influenced later work. In
particular, the production of joint patterns as-
sociated with folding and torsion proved a very
valuable stim ulus to the experimental studies
of such geologists as Bailey Willis and Ernst
and Hans Cloos.
By 1865, the literature on mineral
synthesis was substantial enough that a
bibliography of the subject was compiled by A.
BoueJ 767 ! It provides a chronological list of
attempts to create artificial minerals, followed
by an alphabetical list of the mineral species
made, and a review of how artificial rocks are
made.
DuROCHER did work on the production of
metallic sulphides by the action of sulphuretted
hydrogen on a chloride.
Around the same time, in the center
19. Century, began of Paris into a set
of experimental work, which had, without
proceeding from geological considerations,
substantially the purpose to represent the
connections on chemical way, occurring in
nature and thus for the mineral customer and
for the chemical Krystallographie it became
extraordinarily important particularly that
they did not permit to examine itself the
substances finding in nature in pure and/or
their different polymorphe modifications exact
reference of their characteristics. This
areas affected in particular innovative: J.J.
[767] j^ Boue., "Bibliographie der kiinstlichen Miner-
alienerzeugung," Sitzungsberichte der K. Akademie der Wiss-
ensdiaften, Wien, 51 (1865), Abtheil I, p. 7-73. [Cf. Marg-
erie, 1896, no. 389.]
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7.2 Artificial Minerals
Ebelmen (1814-1852), who the mechanisms
the porcelain factory in Sevres for its work use
could.
1851: H.H. De Senarmont [1808-
1862] In "Experiences sur la production arti-
ficielle de polychromisme dans les substances
cristallisees" (1851), Senarmont was the first to
describe the production of artificial pleochroism
in strontium nitrate pentahydrate, which had
been prepared by saturating the substance with
ammoniacal logwood extract and other organic
dyestuffs. He also reported on less success-
ful experiments involving rock candy (sugar),
Rochelle salt, potassium nitrate, and sodium
nitrate. The syntheses that Senarmont car-
ried out in the years 1849-1851 are recounted in
" Experiences sur la formation des mineraux par
la voie humide dans les gites metalliferes con-
cretionnees" (1851) and are an essential con-
tribution to the understanding of mineral for-
mation. Since C02, H2S, alkali salts, sul-
fides, and carbonates predominate in thermal
springs, he assumed that the formation of ore
veins from these components would necessar-
ily occur at elevated temperatures and pres-
sures. Thus he placed those components that
he wished to have interact in sealed glass tubes,
which were inserted into a sealed pipe filled
with water. The apparatus was then embed-
ded in coal dust and heated in the gas ovens
of the steel mills at Ivry-sur-Seine. Through ei-
ther double decomposition of a soluble salt with
Na2C03 or CaC03, or precipitation of a solu-
ble salt using alkali carbonate in a supersatu-
rated C02 solution, Senarmont produced mag-
nesite, siderite, rhodochrosite, cobalt carbon-
ate, nickel carbonate, smithsonite, and mala-
chite, as well as barite, fluorite, and quartz in
crystalline form.
Senarmont also synthesized pure silver,
copper, arsenic, and hematite. From
metallic salts and alkali sulfides he obtained
mostly amorphous sulfides-including marcasite,
pyrite, manganese sul-fide, hauerite, NiS,
C03S4, sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite;
and he obtained realgar, orpiment, stibnite,
bismuthinite, arsenopyrite, proustite, and
pyrargyrite in crystalline form. He was
similarly successful in crystallizing PbS and
ZnS in a supersaturated H2S solution and in
obtaining pyrite and chalcopyrite in the form
of a granulated powder with metallic luster.
If he wished to avoid an immediate reaction,
he inserted into the glass tube a thin ampul
containing a salt and a gas bubble. When
heat was applied the gas bubble burst the
ampul. Altogether Senarmont succeeded in
synthesizing twenty-nine vein minerals from the
alkali sulfides and carbonates commonly found
in thermal springs with metallic salts. In these
syntheses the temperature rarely exceeded
350° C. He gave an exact crystallographic
description of all the compounds he was able to
crystallize. In addition, he described the effect
of the solutions employed on the glass tubes,
the flaking off of pieces of glass from the tubes,
and the danger of explosion involved in the use
of sealed tubes (bombs).
The famous chemist H.E. Sainte Claire
Sainte-Claire-Deville (1818-1881) and in
the section about the krystallographische study
of the minerals already appreciative. Deville
was one of the most prolific and versatile
chemists of the nineteenth century, making
major contributions in most areas of his science.
Deville was essentially an experimentalist and
had little interest in chemical theory. He
worked out a process for producing pure
aluminum by reducing its salts with sodium.
Deville's methods made both metals readily
available and drastically reduced their cost, but
he himself did not take much part in their later
industrial development. He used the sodium
obtained by his method for the preparation of
such elements as silicon, boron, and titanium.
His investigations of the metallurgy of platinum
led to honors from the Russian government.
In many of his studies, such as those on
the artificial production of natural minerals,
Deville employed very high temperatures and
became a recognized authority on the use of
this technique.
Henri Jules Debray [1827-1888]. He
undertook his first scientific work in collabo-
ration with St. Claire Deville, a professor at
the Ecole Normale. Their first experiments
were in the use of an oxyhydrogen blowpipe
to melt platinum. They were commissioned by
the Russian government to investigate the ap-
plicability of platinum-indium alloys to coinage
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7.2 Artificial Minerals
and ascertained that these alloys resist corro-
sion even better than platinum does. At their
suggestion the standard meter in Paris was
made, under their supervision, from an alloy
composed of 90 percent platinum and 10 per-
cent iridium. In further publications Debray
reported on investigations of the compounds of
tungsten, arsenic, and antimony; on the proper-
ties of rhodium; and on the compounds in the
platinum metals family and methods of sepa-
rating them.
1875: C.W.C. Fuchs, Die Kunstlich
Dargestellten Mineralien. Haarlem, 1875. I 768 !
Paul Gabriel Hautefeuille [1836-
1902], who into the Sorbonne particularly the
mineral synthesis dedicated a laboratory fur-
nished, and a number of younger researchers.
That of orthoclase, albite, quartz, emerald and
zircon, by chemical reaction in the presence of
mineralizers. Influenced in his chemical studies
by Deville's thermochemical approach, Haute-
feuille was a member of that group at the Ecole
Normale Superieure which included Henri De-
bray, L. J. Troost, Alfred Ditte, and F. Isam-
bert. Hautefeuille 's best- known studies were
his reproductions of numerous crystallized min-
erals by utilizing mineral catalysts and varied
temperature conditions; he carried on this re-
search at a time when the generality of poly-
morphism among crystals was not fully real-
ized. In his doctoral thesis, for example, he es-
tablished that three different types of titanium
dioxide — the rutile, octahedrite, and brookite
crystals — could each be prepared in the lab-
oratory from the amorphous dioxide; he also
demonstrated the temperature dependence of
two of the crystalline forms of silica — quartz
and tridymite — and successfully produced a va-
riety of alkaline feldspars and beryls, including
the emerald. In his experiments Haute-feuille
employed catalysts readily available under nat-
ural conditions, and his work confirmed the
views of the French school of lithology dating
from Flie de Beaumont.
1882: Fouque and Michel-Levy's elegant
experiments on the artificial production of
igneous rocks (1878-1881) helped to solve a
number of outstanding problems. In particular,
they helped to prove the impossibility of
synthesizing granitic rocks by igneous fusion
alone. In addition here those geologists,
who were occupied with it, belong the
minerals arising in the Eruptivgesteinen and
to their mixtures, thus those rocks to explain
under possible approximation to conditions of
their education in nature and with similar
petrographic characteristics; there is this above
all F. Fouque (1828-1904) and its pupils lind
coworker A. Michel-Levy (1844 to 1911),
who its work inVdem mineralogical laboratory
of the Fcole standard. sup. implemented.
There is also an extensive collection of
preparations of the French Mineralsynthetiker,
while the most complete is set up in the
mineralogical collection of the Fcole of the
mines. The first systematically arranged
discussion of the all artificial representations
of minerals, implemented up to then, contains
the work ven of F. Fouque and Michel Michel-
Levy, Synthese Mineraux et la Roches (Paris
1882). Pes]
Fouque in collaboration with Michel-Levy,
he successfully synthesized a large number
of igneous rocks in an attempt to determine
the conditions necessary for the production
of their mineralogical constituents. From
1878 to 1882, Fouque and Michel-Levy worked
continuously on the artificial synthesis of
igneous rocks, primarily to determine the
conditions surrounding their origins. They
were successful in producing the majority of
volcanic rocks with the identical mineralogical
composition and structural peculiarities found
in nature. Their work verified the importance
of the rate of cooling on the extent of
crystallization and the sizes of grain, and
demonstrated that rocks of distinctly different
mineralogical composition would be formed
from the same magma, depending on the
conditions of crystallization.
From 1878 to 1882 Michel-Levy and
Fouque worked to synthesize igneous rocks
artificially, believing that if they could
determine the peculiar conditions surrounding
[768] c.w.c. Fuchs.,
Haarlem, 1875.
Die Kunstlich Dargestellten Mineralien.
[769J FA. Fouque and M. Levy., Synthese des Mineraux et
des Roches. Pariy. Masyon. 1882.
191
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7.2 Artificial Minerals
the rocks' genesis, they might arrive at
important geological conclusions. Despite the
meager equipment of the laboratory at the
College de France in which they carried out
their experiments, they produced rocks having
the mineralogical composition and structure
identical with most of the volcanic rocks found
in nature. They published jointly twenty-two
articles and a book, Synthese des mineraux
et des roches (1882), which incorporated the
results of their work. Their most important
conclusions were that the degree of crystallinity
depended largely upon the rate of cooling and
that rocks of distinctly different mineralogical
compositions would be formed from the same
magma, depending upon the conditions of
crystallization. Their failure to reproduce the
trachytes and rhyolites demonstrated that in
order to obtain the characteristic elements of
these rocks, the presence of mineralizers was
necessary to lessen the viscosity of the magma
and to allow crystallization.
1884: Soon thereafter (1884) the careful
composition of L.Z. Bourgeois followed this
in that in an Appendix to the second volume
of the Encyclopedie Chimique published
by Fremy. Apparently, it was reissued
separately. I 770 !
1884: The extensive work of the Norwe-
gian J. H. L. Vogt, which supplied "Studien
liber Schlacken" (Stockholm 1884) connections
krystallisierter in the paper under use of the
analyses Akermans the proof of the occurrence
of a row in metallurgical products and which
knowledge of the emergence of minerals in dry
Schmelzfliissen in the following years impor-
tantly extended.
1890: Charles Friedel The role of
water as a mineralizer, in the supercritical
state and in the presence of alkali salts,
which was first demonstrated by Friedel (1890-
1891). Charles Friedel, succeeded in
producing percylite, cumengeite, and boleite.
Famous chemist Charles Friedel (1832-1899),
who taught mineralogy and organic chemistry
at the University of Paris and was, at the
same time, the curator of the mineralogi-
[770J L_2. Bourgeois., Reproduction Artificielle des Mineraux.
Paris, Dunod, 1884.
cal collections of the School of Mines. He
introduced his son, Georges Friedel [????-
????], the famous crystallographer to mineral
synthesis when he was still in his teens.
Together the Friedels first published accounts
of a number of syntheses produced in a steel
tube lined with platinum, at about 500° C.
and under high pressure. Synthetic minerals
were prepared by letting group I hydroxides
and silicates or salt solutions act on mica.
Among nonminerals he obtained tricalcium
aluminum hexahydroxytrichloride di-hydrate
(1897) and a calcium aluminate (1903),
both known for their twinning, and lithium
metasilicate (Li2Si03), which syncrystallizes
with beryllium orthosilicate (Be2Si04). With
Francois Grandjean, Georges Friedel went on
to synthesized chlorites by attacking pyroxene
with alkali solutions (1909). By preparing
potassium nepheline (1912) he settled the
question of "excess silica" in the nepheline
formula.
Georges Friedel's work (1896-1899) estab-
lished the interstitial nature of zeolitic water,
which can be replaced by many liquids and
gases in the zeolitic "sponge." He found zeolitic
water in compounds other than zeolites.
1890: Cornelius Doelter in 1890 re-
produced the zeolites (apophyllitc, okenitc,
chabazite, phacolite, heulandite, stilbite, lau-
niontite, thomsonite, analcite, natrolite, scole-
cite, prehnite). Doelter insisted on the confir-
mation of all suppositions through experiment.
He first devoted himself to synthesis and pre-
pared nepheline and pyroxenes (1884), a sulfide
and a sulfosalt (1886), micas (1888), and a ze-
olite (1890). In this work he improved Charles
Frieders pressure vessels and used liquid and
solid carbon dioxide to obtain higher pressure.
Experiments on remelting and recrystallization
carried out after 1883 had shown that minerals
other than the original ones could be separated
out from the fused mass. For example, Doel-
ter obtained an augite andesite from a fused
mass of eclogite. He likewise investigated the
remelting of rocks and the influence of miner-
alizers on the occurrence of rock-forming min-
erals. His Allgemeine chemische Mineralogie
(Leipzig, 1890) presented the knowledge he had
gained of these matters.
192
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7.2 Artificial Minerals
In 1890 Doelter studied the absorption of
water by dehydrated zeolites and the solubility
of silicates in water. At the same time he
demonstrated that in electrolysis, fused basalt
concentrates iron at the cathode and that,
therefore, fused silicates behave like electrolytes
and not like alloys. Since the application of the
physical-chemical laws developed for aqueous
solutions to silicate fusions was hampered by
the lack of reliable constants, Doelter began
in 1899 to determine the melting points of
important minerals and, in 1901, those of
mixtures. In 1901 he ascertained the volume
increase of liquid and solidified rock fusions
relative to the solid parent rock and found that
minerals which are difficult to fuse are also
difficult to dissolve and very hard (1902). In
1902 Doelter presented a viscosity series from
liquid basalt to viscous granite, recognizing the
influence of mineralizers on viscosity and on the
lowering of the melting point, as well as their
catalytic and chemical activity — e.g., in the
formation of mica and of tourmaline. Moreover,
he found that magmatic differentiation "is
nothing else than the final result of mineral
segregation." For melting-point determinations
he constructed the crystallization microscope
built by C. Reichert with the heating oven of
W. C. Heraeus (described in 1904; improved
in 1909). In 1904 he was able to confirm
the suspected influence of the inoculation of
solution-melts with seed crystals.
With his Physikalisch-chemische Miner-
alogie (Leipzig, 1905), Doelter showed himself
to be, along with J. H. L. Vogt, the most im-
portant cofounder of this new discipline, even
though he held that the direct transfer of the re-
sults of physical chemistry was not always pos-
sible, because in silicate fusions a restoration
of equilibrium is impeded by the subcooling
and by reduced diffusion resulting from viscos-
ity. The chief advantage that he saw in physical
chemistry was that it had set the direction that
experimental work should follow.
1891: Etienne Stanislaus Meunier
Les Methodes de Synthase en Mineralogie
(1891) is a comprehensive textbook describing
all aspects of synthesizing mineral compounds
in the laboratory. Meunier describes the
accidental creation of minerals as well as giving
the scientific rational behind mineral creation.
He then provides detailed instructions for
creating a large number of mineral species in
the laboratory including recipes, apparatus,
coloring agents, etc. The entire text is fully
referenced to original citations and includes at
the conclusion indexes to the names of the
various authors and a comprehensive subject
listing.
1891: Johan Hermann Lie Vogt
[1858-1932] studied the formations of minerals
in slags and lavas in 1891. Structural
formulae-in analogy with those evolved in
organic chemical research-were evolved. R.
Schauzer contributed hypothetical graphic
formuke for the organization of Orthoclase,
Kaolin, Hydrargillite, Pyrophyllite, Talc,
Serpentine, Brucite, Enstatite, and Clarke
attacked the problem of the zeolites. Vogt
in 1894 went on with his interesting inquiries
into the genesis of minerals, reproducing-
or trying to do so-the formation of ore
deposits by differentiation processes in basic
magmas. These studies were later published
in Vogt's Die Silikatschmelzlosungen mit
besonderer Riicksicht auf die Mineralbildung
(1903-1904). I 771 !
Vogt was a pioneer in ore geology and in
the physical chemistry of silicates as a basis
for igneous rock petrology. His work in the
latter field began with studies of slag miner-
als. In a series of papers, the first of which
appeared in 1883, he provided the first de-
scriptions of a number of slag minerals: en-
statite, wollastonite (pseudo-wollastonite), fay
alite, monticellite varieties, akermannite, old-
hamite, manganblende (alaban-dite), troilite,
and sphalerite. Vogt soon began using the
crystallization of slags as a model for silicate
crystallization in igneous rocks, as shown by
the title of his papers of 1888-1890: "Beitrage
zur Kenntnis der Gesetze der Mineralbildung
in Schmelzmassen und in den neovulkanischen
Ergussgesteinen." Inspired by his mineralogi-
cal studies of slags, he generalized his studies
of ores and silicate rocks in "Die Silikatschmel-
zlosungen" (2 pts., 1902), a pioneer paper in
1 1 J.H.L. Vogt., Die Silikatschmelzlosungen mit besonderer
Riicksicht auf die Mineralbildung. 1903-04.
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7.2 Artificial Minerals
which the crystallization relations of the dif-
ferent minerals and their dependence upon eu-
tectic relations are considered. The lowering
of melting points in melts with several com-
ponents and the importance of eutectic com-
positions in binary series are discussed. The
general relationships are applied to natural sil-
icate melts and specifically to the eutectic re-
lation between quartz and feldspars in igneous
rocks. Bearing still more directly on natural re-
lationships is " Physikalisch-chemische Gesetze
der Kristallizationsfolge in Eruptiv-Ge-steinen"
(1905), in which the crystallization within the
ternary feldspar system orthoclase-albite-anor-
thite and the granite system quartz-orthoclase-
al-bite is discussed. Not all of Vogt's main con-
clusions have proved correct, but he applied the
principles of physical chemistry to natural sili-
cate systems more intensely than anyone else of
his generation and therefore is often called the
father of modern physicochemical petrology.
The progress made in the subject of
mineral synthesis has been remarkably rapid
in the last two decades, and the success of
the French chemists in this line has been
particularly marked. The excellent books of
Fouque and Levy (1882) and of Bourgeois
(1884), which gave a full summary of what
had been accomplished in the way of forming
artificial minerals, are now followed by a
volume by another active worker in the same
field, Etienne Stanislaus Meunier [1843-
1925] . In 1891 he published his Les Methodes
de Synthese en Mineralogie^ 72 ^ that occupies
a place of its own, for it is devoted particularly
to an explanation of the methods used and
general principles involved. The first part
discusses the contemporaneous formation of
minerals in nature; and a second part is given
to the cases of accidental synthesis, furnace
products, etc. The third and most important
division describes the method of synthesis
proper; first by the dry way involving simple
crystallization by molecular change, by igneous
fusion and by the intervention of a mineralizer;
then simple decomposition; chemical union;
precipitation and finally, double decomposition.
[772] Etienne Stanislaus Meunier., Les Methodes de Synthese
en Mineralogie. Paris, 1891. 359 p.
The methods of synthesis in the wet way
are also described with similar system and
thoroughness as also those where the method
is mixed. This summary will give an idea of
the wide range of topics here presented, but
the volume calls for the close study that it fully
merits.
1894: Bruno Doss in 1894 artificially
prepared Anatase and Rutile, by saturation of
a bead of microcosmic salt with titanium oxide.
1896: About this time (1896) L. Michel
made artificial Powellite.
1896: One to close to conclusions 19
Century continued representation of this area
gave Chemische Mineralogie (Leipzig 1896) of
Reinhard Brauns.
1898: Other experimental studies have
yielded important clues to the origin of certain
microstructures observed in metallic ores. In
the same direction J. Morocewicz (1898),
and A. LAGOIRO were active in Warsaw.
In 1899 G. BODLANDER treated the
now important question of "solid solutions,"
which Van't Hoff first promulgated. This
is a profound study having to do with
the intermixtures-solution so-called-of solids in
each other.
Mineral Synthesis had been greatly ad-
vanced, Daubree, Doelter, Levy, Fouque and
others contributed to this subject and elaborate
speculations upon the constitution of minerals
filled the journals.
Muthmann and Kuntze, R. Brauns, Ben
Saude, contributed observations upon the
optical anomalies of metric crystals, in which
emerged the idea that in the process of
crystallization, for an instant, upon hardening
not only a contraction of the mass, as
in colloidal bodies, occurs, but the form
of the crystal has an influence upon this
contraction which gives rise to various and
contrasted effects, according to the nature of
the surrounding mass, according to pressure,
to temperature, and the concentration of the
solution and always similar effects under similar
conditions.
1910: C. Doelter are in detail treated
with the individual minerals the syntheses
the same drew up extensive hand beech of
mineral chemistry. The synthetic studies of
194
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7.2 Artificial Minerals
Doelter were always a subject of perennial
interest to that industrious investigator, and
they were continued with interesting results.
He found upon melting potashmica, that
recrystallization yielded leucite and nephelite,
lithia-mica also produced leucite and nephelite
; zinnwaldite, leucite ; magnesia, mica, augite,
spinel, chrvsolite, meionite, orthoclase(?) ;
clinochlore, spinel, olivine, augite ; tourmaline,
olivine, spinel ; axinite, augite datolite,
olivine, anorthite, pyroxene( ?) ; epidote,
augite and anorthite, and, with mixtures of
fluoride of sodium and calcium, anorthite and
meionite. Zoisite and manganese chloride
yielded manganese garnet ; garnet itself with
a fluoride, biotite, or with less fluoride,
anorthite, meionite, augite. Doelter further
experimented upon the syntheses of horn-
blende, wernerite, acmite, and came to the
conclusion that through the influence of
fluorides, chlorides, and through the influence
of varying temperatures a fixed mixture gave
most diverse results.
1913: Norman Levi Bowen [1887-1956]
have done decisive work on the reproduction
of magmatic minerals by the 'dry path'. In
preparing his doctoral dissertation on a phase-
equilibrium study of the nepheline-carnegieite-
anorthite system, Bowen followed the work of
the Norwegian J. H. L. Vogt, who had made
petrological analyses using physical chemistry.
He worked under the direction of A. L. Day
of the Geophysical Laboratory and was also
influenced by early association with R. A. Daly.
Bowen published critical phase diagrams
for the study of the major igneous rocks:
the plagioclase system in 1913, the MgO-
Si02 system and the ternary system diopside-
forsterite-silica in 1914, and, with colleagues,
another twenty-one phase diagrams; the last
appeared almost coincidentally with his death.
From the beginning, his principal concern was
the differentiation of igneous rocks. In 1927
he wrote: ". . . rock series can not be
partitioned off into such divisions as gabbro,
diorite, etc., each having a eutectic of its own.
All of these belong to a single crystallization
series, to a single polycomponent system, which
is dominated by reaction series."
Silicate phase-equilibria studies, in partic-
ular his own plagioclase diagram, formed the
bases on which Bowen published his carefully
reasoned theory of the . . .
A practical textbook describing the vari-
ous methods and techniques to create artifical
minerals was published by E. DlTTLER in 1915
as the Mineralsynthetisches Praktikum.P 73 ^
1920: In a prize winning essay published
(Presschrift) in Leipzig W. ElTEL appeared
a critical and treatment of the syntheses
of the feldspar representatives particularly
supplemented by own attempts important for
the petrographic research communicated, to a
group of silicates, which sets particularly large
difficulties to the reproduction against.
Precious Stones
A subset of the manufacturing of artificial min-
erals that had besides interesting theoretical
concerns but also important financial associa-
tions, was the creation of gem crystals. Because
of their importance and value as ornamental
stones, rubies, sapphires, diamonds, emeralds,
and others have been the subject of intensive
investigations.
1728: Charles-Francois De Cister-
NAI Du Fay wrote on the the coloring of ar-
tificial gems ( 1728)-(DSB).[ 774 1
By investigating the reaction at high
temperatures of volatile fluorides on oxygen
compounds, H. Saint Claire Deville [1818-
1881] and his assistant obtained in 1858 crystals
up to two centimeter of white and green
corundum, ruby, sapphire, zircon, chrysoberyl,
and spinel. To obtain the red corundum or
ruby, they added trace amounts of fluoride
of chromium to the mixture. They observed
that if too much chromium was added, the
corundum developed a fine green color. They
also produced the aluminum silicate mineral
staurolite by either decomposing fluoride of
aluminum by silica or fluoride of silica by
aluminum.
KUNZ ..J 775 !
I 773 ! E. Dittler., Mineralsynthetisches Praktikum. 1915.
[774] 77777 C.-F. Du Fay., "Observations sur quelques
experiences de l'aimant," 1728, p. 355-369.
[775] Q eor g e F. Kunz., "On the new artificial rubies. Il-
lustrated with specimens and microscopical preparations,"
Transactions of the New York Academy Sciences, 6 (1886), 4-
11.
195
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8.0 Crystallography
The synthesis of rubies, 1877-1891. E.
Fremy (1891) published his laborious work
in the artificial production of the ruby. I 776 !
It was in 1877 that he and M. Feil first
achieved success; at first the ruby made was in
sheets, lamellar and friable, but of no practical
use. The color was obtained from bichromate
of potash. As the alumina should be very
pure, ammonia alum was calcined to obtain it:
the alumina was mixed with K2Co3 and this
mixture again with fluoride of beryllium and
potassium bichromate. Prolonged calcination
of the mixture at 1500° C. with circulation of
moist air followed. The moisture disengages
hydrofluoric acid, this appears to effect the
isolation of the alumina which has combined
with the alkali or the earth, and crystallization
succeeds. From research on the setting of
hydraulic cement, Fremy proceeded to the
synthesis of rubies by heating alumina with
potassium chromate and barium fluoride.
Verneuil
Diamonds ...I 777 !
WlLBERT GOODCHILD., Precious stones,
by W. Goodchild ... With a chapter on
artificial stones, by Robert Dykes. London,
A. Constable and co. ltd., 1908. x, 309 p.
illus. I 778 l
J. BOYER ..J 779 !
N. HEATON., "The production and
identification of artificial precious stones,"
Smithsonian Institution. Annual Report, 1911.
Washington, 1912, p. 217-34. I 780 !
F. KRAUSS., Synthetische Edelsteine.
Berlin, Georg Stilke, 1929. 134 p., illus.
[Bibliography, p. 116-128.]! 781 !
[776] p I £ my> La Synthese Du Rubis, 1891.
[777] 3 utan, Diamant. Encyclopedie chimique de Fremy,
Band II, e. Teil, 1885.
[778] Goodchild, Wilbert. Precious stones, by W. Goodchild
With a chapter on artificial stones, by Robert Dykes.
London, A. Constable and co. ltd., 1908. x, 309 p. illus.
[779] Boyer, J., La synthese des pierres precieuses. Paris,
Gauthier-Villars 1909. 30, [2] p. illus., plates.
German translation, ibid. , Die synthetischen Edelsteine, ihre
Geschichte, Herstellung und Eigenschaften. Berlin, M. Krayn,
1910. 57 p. ill., tables, diagrs. [On artificial precious
stones.]
[7e0J Heaton, N., "The production and identification of
artificial precious stones," Smithsonian Institution. Annual
Report, 1911. Washington, 1912, p. 217-34.
[781] Krauss, F., Synthetische Edelsteine. Berlin, Georg
I. Menditti., "La collezione dei cristalli
artificiali del Real museo mineralogico in
Napoli."! 782 ]
Literature
1891 Etienne S. Meunier., Les Methodes de Synthese en
Mineralogie. Paris, 1891.
1993 Scheel, H.J., "Historical Introduction, Chapter 1" (1,
pp. 1-48) in: D.T.J. Hurle, ed., Handbook of Crystal
Growth. Amsterdam. Elsevier. 1993.
8.0 Crystallography^ 83 ]
Stilke, 1929. 134 p., illus. [Bibliography, p. 116-128.]
|782] Menditti, I., "La collezione dei cristalli artificiali del
Real museo mineralogico in Napoli," Aduseologia scientifica,
15 (1998), no. 1, 21-31.
|783] Other historical information may be found in:
M. Betz., "One century of protein crystallography: the
phycobiliproteins," Biological chemistry, 378 (1997), no.
3-4, p. 167-176. • John G. Burke., Origins of the
science of crystals. Berkeley and Los Angeles, University
of California Press, 1966. [8], 198 p., illus., index.
[A detailed history of crystallography.] • H. Deas.,
"Crystallography and crystallographers in early 19 th
century England," Centaurus, 6 (1959), p. 129-148. • V.V.
Dolivo-Dobrovolsky., "Evolution de la cristallographie et
les problemes a resoudre," Zapisky Inst. Mines, Leningrad,
Annal, 8 (1934), p. 160-169. [History of crystallography,
from the aspect of industrial applications.] • E. Fabian.,
Die Entdeckung der Kristalle: der historische Weg der
Kristallforschung zur Wissenschaft. Leipzig, Deutscher
Verlag f ur Grundstoffindustrie, 1986. 193 p., illus. ,
portraits. [History of crystallography; ISBN: 3342001089]
• Paul Groth., Entwicklungsgeschichte der miner alogischen
Wissenschaften. Berlin, Julius Springer, 1926. [4], 262 p.,
index. • J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of
crystallography. New York, Elsevier , 1990. 156 p., illus. ,
biblio., index. [Contains much valuable historical material
on crystallography.] • CM. Marx., Geschichte der
Crystallkunde. Carlsruhe und Baden, D.R. Marx, 1825.
xiv, [2], 313, [3] p., 10 plates. [Reprinted, Wiesbaden,
M. Sandig, 1970. An early history of crystallography.]
• Helene Metzger., La genese de la science des cristaux.
Paris, 1918. 249 p., index. [Excellent history of
crystallography, with emphasis on the French contribution.]
• I.I. Shafranovskii., HcTopiiHa KpHCTajuiorpacftHH b
Pocchh [Istoriia kristallografii v Rossii]. Leningrad, Izd-
vo Akademii nauk SSSR [Leningradskoe otd-nie], 1962.
413 p., illus. [History of crystallography in Russia] • ibid.,
HcTopiraa KpiicTajuiorpai|)HH c ^peBHeHinnx BpeMeH p,o
Ha^ajia 19. CTOJieTHHa [Istoriia kristallografii s drevnei-
shikh vremen do nachala 19. stoletiia]. Leningrad, Nauka,
Leningrrad otd-nie, 1978. 295 p., illus. [General history
of crystallography in the 19th century.] • ibid., HcTopiiHa
KpHCTajiJiorpai|)HH IIII4I1I BeK [Istoriia kristallografii XIX
vek]. Leningrad, "Nauka," Leningradskoe otd-nie, 1980.
323 p., illus., portraits. [History of crystallography in
the 19th century. A bibliogaphy of works consulted is
given on pages 306-316.] • H. Tertsch., Das Geheimnis der
Kristallwelt. Roman einer Wissenschaft. Mit 12 Tafeln und
48 Abbildungen. Wien, Gerlach & Wiedling, 1947. 391 p.,
12 plates. [History of mineralogy and crystallography.]
196
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i.l Geometrical Crystallography
The word crystal is derived from the Greek
word KpvaiaXXoq, meaning clear ice, mirroring
the long held belief that rock crystal,
transparent quartz, was permanently frozen
water. The Latin crystallus is derived from
this and describes any geometrically shaped
gemstone. The term crystal was extended in
the 17 th century to include all regularly shaped
chemical salts, and subsequently to all natural
geometrically shaped objects. The study of the
crystallized forms and properties of substances
is known as crystallography. It is a science that
in its earliest period developed directly from
mineral studies, but which since the discovery
of X-ray diffraction has grown into a complete
discipline separate but still interlinked with its
original partner. Due to their inorganic nature
most minerals are inherently crystalline in
nature and objects of study in crystallography.
8.1 Geometrical Crystallography! 784 !
REWORK: During the 16 th century studies
dealing with crystals were mainly connected
with books about minerals and mining; how-
ever, some important contributions appeared
in which morphological aspects of crystals were
considered. At the beginning of the century
books on mining, like the German Bergbuch-
lein, referred to the shapes of minerals and their
practical applications. In 1540 the Italian Van-
noccio Biringuccio [1480-1539] published a
book, De la Pirotechnia, which is a practical
description of the techniques of smelting and
refining ores and metals, and contains several
references to the perfect shapes of some miner-
als, in particular pyrite cubes and galena cleav-
ages.
Later, the book by Gerogius Agricola
[1494-1555], De Natura Fossilium (1546),
considered the first textbook of mineralogy,
contains a classification of minerals founded
on physical properties such as color, weight,
transparency, lustre, taste, odor, shape, and
texture. In this book, which attributes
the so-called powers of minerals to their
natural properties and not to supernatural
[784J other historical information may be found in: M.
Senechal., "Brief history of geometrical crystallography"
(pp. 43-60), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed., Historical atlas of
crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
design, there is also commentary by Agricola
on the geometrical shape of minerals and
emphasized its importance as a distinguishing
characteristic.
In his book De Subtilitate of 1550, the
Italian polymath Girolamo Cardano [1501-
1576] tried, without much success, to show
that the hexagonal form of quartz was created
by the close packing of spherical particles.
Cardano wondered about the six-sided forms
of quartz (crystallus), suggesting that it might
have formed, as did the hexagonal form of the
bee's cell, from the surrounding and reciprocal
pressures of spheres. But he abandoned
this physical explanation, instead assuming
some internal force which expressed itself in
the length, the breadth, and the depth of
the crystal gave rise to the six sides of
quartz. This was a view much ridiculed by
his opponent, Julius Casar Scaliger [1484-
1558]. I 785 ! Cardano also wrote on the
nature and forms of primarily gem minerals.
Although he was primarily concerned with their
color, he clearly is aware of their crystalline
individuality. I 786 !
Christoph Entzelt (Latin, Encelius)
[1517-1586] in his De Re Metallica (1551)
published his observations upon the minerals
of the earth, which he had seen. I 787 ! He
notes the regularity and persistency of crystals,
and expresses his admiration for nature in the
depths of the earth that have such power of
geometry to create these crystallized masses,
where he too says, he as seen figures of little
fishes, and the outline of lions and wolfs.
There appeared in 1556 Agricola's most
renowned and influential work, De Re Metal-
lica, which is mainly concerned with mining
techniques.! 788 ] About minerals, he brought
into notice, their relation, color, taste, odor,
luster, hardness, transparency, density, and
[785J j q Scaliger., Exotericarum Exercitationum. Lutetiae,
1557. [4], 476, [31]f., illus.
[786] q Cardano., Somniorum Synesiorum ... De Gemmis et
Coloribvs Liber. Basil, 1562. 2 parts. [42], [2] blank, 278 p.:
[36], 413, [1] p.
I 787 l C. Entzelt., De Re Metallica, Francofurti, 1551. [16],
271, [1] p., 5 woodcuts.
[788] G Agricola., De Re Metallica, Basilae, 1556. [12], 538
(i.e., 502), [74] p., numerous woodcut illus.
197
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8.1 Geometrical Crystallography
form. Agricola observed the variety of crys-
talline forms of minerals, how many possessed
angles, some had triangular faces, others were
cubic like pyrite, while the modifying secondary
faces around the terminal pyramids of quartz
excited his wonder. He theorized that miner-
als, especially crystals, had been formed from
a pure liquid solution.
Crystallographical studies received an im-
portant advance when the German goldsmith
and jeweller, Wentzel Jamitzer [1508-1586]
prepared 140 models of geometrical forms, in
which the original simple forms were abun-
dantly modified and then grouped in compos-
ite multiples, so that the resultant polyhedrons
suggest twinning and trilling of the forms. He
published the results of his study in the Per-
spective! Corporum Regularium (1568) .I 789 '
The book of Conrad Gesner [1516-
1565], De Rerum Fossilium, Lapidum et
Gemmarum, published in 1565, used a
classification of 'fossils' based on two main
characteristics, their shapes and names. I 790 !
His first class for example, Geometrical Forms,
whose forms are based upon, or have some
relation to, the geometrical conception of
points, lines or angles, includes all transparent
or translucent minerals, spherical concretions,
and forms that display distinct angles, such as
pyrite and quartz. Gesner also pointed out
irregularities in the angles and faces of quartz.
At the end of the century BERNARD
PALISSY [c1510-1590] wrote an important book,
Discours Admirables (1580), in which he
attaches importance to the geometrical forms
of crystals, observing that all are triangular,
quadrangular or pentagonal.! 791 ] He also
considered the process of crystallization from
solution.
Superstitions and mystical properties were
reflected in the various writings of JoHANN
Baptista van Helmont [1577-1644], which
involved fabulous and metaphysical explana-
[7S9J ^y Jamitzer., Perspectiva Corporum Regularium.
Niimburg, 1568. [8] p., [49] leaves of plates.
[79UJ (j Gesner., De Rerum Fossilium, Lapidum et
Gemmarum. Tiguri, 1565. Aa-Cc 8 Dd-Yy 8 (M8 and i8
blank) .
[791] g Palissy., Discours Admirables. Paris, 1580. [16],
361, [23] p.
tions, the crude substitute for more radical
knowledge, which was then unattainable. Even
so, he was the first to speculated correctly
on the composition of complex chemical com-
pounds, by reducing them to simple bodies.
He utilized quantitative procedures in his stud-
ies, developing techniques to study gas forma-
tion from fermentation, the evaporation of wa-
ter, and introduced for the first time the term
"gas," and defined its role in different chemi-
cal processes. He rejected the old notion that
said crystal was water that had undergone ex-
tremely cold freezing, saying it was opposed to
the essence of life that one thing should pass
into another by an exterior influence, viz., snow
by cold.
Theophrastus Paracelsus [1493-1541]
connected the metals and minerals with the
influences of the seven planets and neighboring
stars. These metals and minerals had been
ejected from these distant bodies and fallen on
the earth, but the quartzes, beryls and citrine
had been "coagulated" from water contained in
the "snow stars," and come to earth with the
snow and frost. I 792 !
The De Metallicis Libri authored by An-
dreas Caesalpinus [1519-1603] and pub-
lished in 1596, contains information that at-
tempts to reveal the secret of crystalliza-
tion.! 793 ] He discussed the first artificially
prepared alum, saltpeter and sugar crystals,
and said of quartz, which because of its uni-
versality and perfect crystallization challenged
the senses. It has been formed from the purest
substance, and so in its six-sided prism very
nearly approachs the shape of the circle, which
might be regarded as the perfection of form.
He imagined the terminal pyramid of quartz
was created by deficiency of material for the
continuation of the prismatic faces, and that
it was more clear and less contaminated than
the rest of the crystal, in which, as it were, the
dregs of the solution settled.
8.1.1 Seventeenth Century
[792] r-^ p araC elsus., Ettliche Tractat Philippi Theophrasti
Paracelsi ... von naturlichen Dingen. Strassburg, 1570. [16],
532 p.
[793J j^ Caesalpinus., De Metallicis Libri. Romae, 1596.
[16], 222, [2] p.
198
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i.l Geometrical Crystallography
REWORK: In the 17th century began to
appear the first careful study of crystals. The
distinguished Anselmus Boetius de Boodt
[cl550-1632] wrote in 1609 in his Gemmarum
et Lapidum Historia (History of Gems and
Stones) that the most influential principle in
minerals was a lapidifying power, or a force to
form stone. Material separated from solution
through withdrawal of heat was drawn into
angular shapes, and stones which increase
through growth, as crystals, possess a force
not dissimilar to that of plants, whereby they
are formed. Boodt believed the six sided
form of quartz unexplainable, but formed by
such causes similar to those that give peculiar
shaped leaves and flowers to plants.
Typical of the mediaeval views of the
conception of natural world were expressed by
Petrus Arlensis (or Peter von Arles)
[1580-1637?] when he designed a connection
between the seven metals, the seven precious
stones, and the seven planets. I 794 ! On
the form of quartz he speculats: "When the
earthy and supernatural matter separated itself
from water, it (the matter) struggles in every
part to consolidate itself, and lines (radii), as
if drawn from some central point, appear to
shoot outward toward the circumference. But,
as they (the lines) meet opposing lines, they
cannot complete a circle, but only (through
peripheral impact) form a six-sided figure." He
further asserts that the moon symbolized both
silver and quartz.
Johannes Kepler [1571-1630] wrote his
Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula in 1611, as a
New Year's gift to a friend. I 795 ! In it he
tries to discover a reason that the shape of
snow flakes is always six sided. He speculates
that the crystals have an internal structure
of minute spherical particles that are densely
packed in a symmetrical way. Kepler also
contributed to the philosophical discussion of
crystallography when he took five geometrical
solids and evolved from them a series of forms,
[7 J P. Arlensis., Sympathia Septem Metallorum ac Septem
Selectorum Lapidum Ad Planetas. It is appended at the end
of: Camillo Leonardi., Speculum Lapidum. Paris, 1610. [44],
244, [4], 245-499, [36] p., illus., 2 ports.
[795] j Kepler., Strena Seu de Nive Sexangula, Francofurti
ad Monvem, 1611. 24 p., 3 woodcut illus.
related and interdependent, of which many are
exactly reproduced in nature.! 796 ]
An important observation to the future of
crystallography was when WlLLEBRORD Snel
(Latinized, Snellius) [1580-1626] discovered,
but did not publish, about 1621 the law of
refraction of light when it transversed a liquid;
his discovery has only come down to us through
its mention in a later book by Vossius, De Lucis
Natura et Proprietate (1662). DESCARTES
rediscoved this same law, which he presents
in his work Les Meteores (1637) that was
published with the Discours de la Methode.
In 1658 Pierre Gassendi [1592-1655]
published a book De Rebus Terrenis Inanimis
that contains a chapter 'De lapidibus ac
Metallis', in which he speculates that crystals
are built of discrete particles arranged in a
regular way, their polyhedral form, therefore,
being a direct result of this process.
The German Jesuit polymath ATHANA-
SIUS KlRCHER [1601-1680] connected the geo-
metric shapes of the precious stones to the ac-
tion of the special emitting forces.! 797 ] Like
so many of his prdecessors, he attacked anew
the persistant problem of crystalline form, and
fixed his gaze on the enigmatic six-sided, pyra-
mid terminated quartz. He declares that its
particular form is derived from peculiar endow-
ments of the salt composing it, and that in all
salts a force caused their particles to build out-
ward from a center along four, five or six lines,
and so polyhedral shapes of four, five or six
sides were created. The spaces between the
lines were filled up by inrushing particles com-
pelled there by a certain magnetic impulse.
In 1665 the the famous Micrographia of
Robert Hooke [1635-1703] was published. It
contains descriptions and observations made by
the author through the microscope of many
materials, mainly biological, but also of some
crystals. Hooke shows the regularity of angle
between corresponding faces to be independent
of the infinite variety in the sizes of crystal
faces, which he explains by the corpuscular
hypothesis. He also attempts an explanation
of the flat shape of crystal faces by the closest
[796] j K e p] er ^ Mysterium Cosmographicum. 1595.
I 797 l A. Kircher., . 1665.
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8.1 Geometrical Crystallography
packing of spherical particles. He still uses the
term 'crystal' for quartz and the the description
'angular bodies' for the other forms of crystals.
In Holland Antonio van Leeuwenhoek
[1632-1723] published several memoirs on
microscopic observations and in particular on
crystal growth (1685); however, his main book,
Arcana Natura Detecta, which collects together
most of his papers, was not published until
1695. He made many valuable obseravations on
gypsum including angular measurements of it
rhomboic plate. Using a microscope of his own
design, Leeuwenhoek saw the increase in size
of the needle-shaped small crystals as a drop
of solution that contained dissolved gypsum
evaporated. He also reports that the angles
of the small crystals remain constant as they
form.
One of the first important experimental
discoveries in crystallography was made in
1669 when the double refraction of light by
crystals of Iceland spar (calcite) was reported
by Erasmus Bartholin [1625-1698]. i 798 i A
distinguished mathematician, he made a series
of experiments with calcite, measuring the
angles of the mineral's cleavages, which he
found them to be constant, even in the smallest
fragments, dissolved specimens in various acids,
examined its colors, and with astonishment
recorded calcite's power of producing duplicate
images (double refraction).
Also in 1669 Nicolaus Steno [1638-
1686] reported his discovery the constancy
of interfacial angles in quartz crystals in his
De Solido Intra Soldum Naturaliter Contento
Dissertationis Prodromus.P"] This is
the founding principle in crystallography that
laid the basis of the science upon a fixed
law and brought into scientific unity a series
of apparently disparent information about
minerals. The general form of the law, that all
mineral crystals have constant interfacial angles
would not be stated for more than a century.
Steno also expressed the idea that crystals
were created by the accumulation of very small
l 79 °J E. Bartholin., Experimenta Crystalli Islandici Disdia-
clastici. Hafniae, 1669. [4], 60 p., diagrams.
[799] n. Steno., De Solido Intra Soldum Naturaliter Contento
Dissertationis Prodromus. Florentiae, 1669. [2], 78, [2] p.,
one folding plate.
particles. He insisted upon the formation of
crystals from the outside by the addition of
material derived from a fluid in which they
might be immersed, not from some vegetative
process that grew them from the inside. He
noticed the unequal enlargement of crystals,
their obliquity, and in the case of quartz
explained the striated prismatic faces were due
to the oscillation of the terminal (pyramidal)
faces with the side (prismatic) faces.
Double refraction was theoretically exam-
ined by Christiaan Huygens [1629-1695],
who observed the phenomena in calcite, and
wrote an exhaustive treatment of the subject
that left little of subsequent speculation. I 800 !
He also is credited with detecting double re-
fraction in quartz, only the second mineral dis-
covered to exhibit the property. He anticipated
some modern molecular theories, in his sugges-
tion that calcite was made up of minute ellip-
soids, arranged in such a way as to form rhom-
bohedral pyramids, and that the points of their
consecutive contact along certain planes, paral-
lel to the rhombohedral faces, formed surfaces
of easy cleavage.
Isaac Newton [1642-1727] was also
intrigued by the double refraction exhibited by
calcite. Indeed, it was from his experiments
with how light interacted with the mineral that
led him to advance his theory of the four-
sided nature of light and to oppose the theory
of wave-motion. Newton also calculated the
thickness of the thinnest plates of mica and
gypsum.
The English chemist Robert Boyle
[1627-1691] about mid-century, in his book
The Sceptical Chymist (1661) used the word
crystal in a general sense, not restricting its
meaning to rock crystal (quartz). In 1672 he
published the book, An Essay about the Origin
and Virtues of Gems, where he takes notice
of the constant shape of each mineral species,
but not to the constancy of their interfacial
angles.! 801 ! Like Steno, he also believed
that crystals grew from fluid solution by the
[800J (j Huygens., TraitS de la Lumiere. Lugduni
Batavorum, 1690. [8], 124, [2], 125-128, [2], 129-180 p.
[801] j^ Boyle., An Essay about the Origine and Virtues of
Gems. London, 1672. [16], 185 p. (i.e., 184, page 181
omitted).
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i.l Geometrical Crystallography
successive superposition of layers of particles.
He observed the geometric outlines of minerals,
and made some observations about the cavities
in stones, lined with minute crystals, remarking
that they formed from a lapidifying juice
(succus lapidesceus) of great purity. He also
noticed the lamellar texture of many minerals
and made a long, patient series of notes and
descriptions about crystalline forms.
In 1688 Dominico Guglielmini [1655-
1710] extended Steno's law to other manufac-
tured crystals, such as nitre (potassium ni-
trate), common salt (sodium chloride), alum
(hydrated aluminium potassium sulfate) and
blue vitriol (copper sulfate) . I 802 ! He ob-
served that the crystals he created from solu-
tion all had fixed angles to their interfactial an-
gles, which was a unique form restricted to each
species. From his experiments he stated that
no matter how large, crystals were formed from
innumerable similar smaller crystals, and that
these, fitting together, leave openings that give
porosity to the crystal or contain water which
may be expelled by heat. Guglielmini contin-
ued his studies on crystals and in 1705 proposed
four basic forms for the particles of salts: the
cube, the hexagonal prism, the rhombohedron
and the octahedron, which combined to form
the various different salts. Guglielmini's obser-
vations helped pave a clear path for the science
of crystals to expand from a collection of spec-
ulative facts to the outlines of a great science.
The next stage of growth was now about to
usher in the profound and varied facts which
built up crystallography, and laid in chemical
composition the foundation of a rational sys-
tem.
8.1.2 Eighteenth Century
REWORK: The 18 th century was dominated by
the development in the fields of mathematics,
physics, chemistry and biology. Progress was
also made in crystallogrpahy; however, only
a few scientists studied aspects of crystals.
In 1723 Moritz Anton Cappeller [1685-
1769] proposed a morphological classification
of minerals and rocks, and was one of the
first to use the word 'crystallography' in
[802] pj Guglielmini., RiBessioni Filosofiche Dedotte dalle
Figure de' Sali. Pisa, 1688. [4], 39, [1] p., one plate.
his treatise, Prodromus Crystallographiae de
Cristallis Improprie sic dictis Commentarium
(1723). I 803 ! He enumerated the structural
types of mineral occurrences as spherical,
conical, wedgeshaped, fibrous, micaceous, and
lenticular.
A writer who held many mystic beliefs,
Emmanuel Swedenborg [1688-1772] com-
posed works on natural philosophy in which
he developed extremely complex and confused
views of the structure of matter.! 804 ] For ex-
ample, he believed common salt to consist of
the water balls strongly connected with chains
of solid salt molecules, which occupy space be-
tween the balls.
In his chemical reseach HERMANN Boer-
HAAVE [1688-1738] noted the external forms
of natural and artificial crystals, and rejected
the common opinion that they are consolidated
from extremely dense water, although he does
not say how they are formed.! 805 ]
Quartz crystals are described by JoHANN
Jacob Scheuchzer [1672-1733] in his account
of an excursion through Switzerland. He
considered crystallography an interesting but
difficult subject, that he had pursued for
sometime, and had not discovered a path
through its labyrinth. He gives a summary of
all observations back until Pliny, and describes
the different colored varieties including brown,
black, yellow (citrine), purple (amethyst), red,
and green. He notes that the group of
precious stones composed of rock crystal and
its varieties, do not have many differences
between the varieties, other than variations
in hardness and luster. When Scheuchzer
made the connection that amethyst was related
to rock crystal, it would seem only natural
that he would come to the fundamental
question, are they both of the exactly same
composition?, but he never asks this question.
He also described numerous crystals with
inclusions of other crystalline substances,
impressions, channels, water drops, etc. and
[803] ma Cappeller., Prodromus Crystallographiae de
Cristallis Improprie sic dictis Commentarium. Lucern, 1723.
43 p., 3 engraved plates.
[804] g Swedenborg., Principia Rerum Naturalium. Leipzig,
1734. 3 vols.
[805] H Boerhaave., Elementa Chemiae. London, 1702.
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8.1 Geometrical Crystallography
calls Switzerland the true fatherland of rock
crystal. As to the origin of rock crystal
Scheuchzer supports the ancient belief that an
icy environment such as that found in the Swiss
Alps made the dense crystallization of water
easy, relative to elsewhere. He also criticizes
Steno's view that quartz develops from the
crystallization out of a fluid.
Louis Bourguet [1678-1742] cast aside
the ancient, childish notions that minerals
originated from seeds and germs, in his
Lettres Philosophiques sur la Formation des
sels et des C'rystauxA 806 ^ He does not
regard stalactites as subterranean vegetable
growths and he incorporates the efflorescences
of various salts with minerals, whereas others
had separated them. He properly separated
fossils from minerals, recognizing that these
so called petrifications were derived from
once living organisms, and therefore not
actually a mineralogical substance. Such
distinctions were of great significance to the
whole methodology of mineral studies. About
the form of cystals, he believed they were
composed of tiny triangularly shaped molecules
that built up triangular tetrahedrons, three-
sided prisms or similar plates that accumulated
together to build the crystal. It was sufficient
Bourguet contented to observe triangles on the
pyramidal faces of Quartz as well as alum to
see the proof of his theory.
In a description of a cave system, which
discussed how the various rock formations were
created, Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
[1656-1708] believed that stalagmites were akin
to petrified trees. Because they displayed
such curious and suggestive forms, he held the
view they were not deposited by water at all
but grew from some hidden seed contained in
the host rock like a plant, and furthermore
the stalagmitic formation drew its nourishment
from the same host rock. I 807 ! In a similar
view, he thought aggregates of crystals were
[8Ub] j^ Bourguet., Lettres Philosophiques sur la Formation
des sels et des Crystaux. Amsterdam, 1729. xliv, 220, [12] p.,
one plate.
[807] jp ^ e Tournefort., "Description du Labyrinthe de
Candie avec quelques observations sur l'accroissement et
sur la Generation des Pierres," Memoire de l'Academie
Royale des Sciences, 1702.
like the flowers of the various salts, and were
not recognized for their true nature because the
particles forming them were too small.
The crystal structure of calcite and
gypsum were studied by the mathematician
and physicist Gabriel Philippe de la Hire
[1677-1719]. In a treatise from 1710 he
described very exactly the form of calcite called
Iceland spar, determining the vertical angle
formed by two planes of the rhombohedron at
105° and also examining double refraction.! 808 ]
He next turned his attention to talc, as he called
it; the same material which was used in the
manufacture of plaster of Paris. That it was a
mixture of natural gypsum was at the time still
not known. La Hire described the arrow-shaped
hemitropes, determined the cleavage direction
of gypsum, like Bourguet, thought that the
crystals were composed from triangular flakes,
and measured its angles at 50°, 60° and 70°.
He also investigated the refraction of gypsum
and found it to be doubled, but much weaker
than Iceland spar.
Dortous de Mairan [1678-1771] in his
Dissertation sur la Glace (1716) speculated
that salt, pyrites, and snow were formed from
needleshaped molecules.! 809 ]
John Hill [1707-1775] maintained that
the double refraction is specific only to
transparent bodies, which are composed from
rhombohedral parts. He then gives a list of
bodies he has examined that show the property:
(1) Talc, which in thick masses elevates the line,
(2) Selenite, (3) Rock crystal (quartz), and (4)
Calc spar (calcite). He gives careful attention
to the crystal forms he observes in limy spars,
discussing their formation. He believed that
Linneaus' hypothesis that a salt determines
the ultimate form of a crystal was erroneous
thinking that if one were to go so far as to
assume that a containiment, even with it is
undetectable, would form the crystal, then one
[808] q p de i a Hire., "Observations sur une espece de talc
qu'on trouve communement proche de Paris au-dessus des
bancs de pierre de platre," Memoires de l'Academie Royale
des Sciences, 1710, p. 341-352.
[809] Dortous de Mairan., Dissertation sur la Glace ou
Explication Physique de la Formation de la Glace et de
ses divers Phenomenes. Paris, 1716. • R. Hooykaas.,
"Kristalstreping en kristalstructuur," Chemisch Weekblad,
47 (1951), p. 1-7.
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i.l Geometrical Crystallography
must consider the appearance of crystallization
as proof that it contained the hidden salt.
JOHANN GOTSCHALK WALLBRIUS [1709-
1785] in Mineralogia, eller Mineralriket
(1747) distinguished between the causes of
crystallization and the causes of the forms of
crystals, stating that form was related to the
kind of metal contained and not to the salt as
Linneaus surmised.
The Russian genius Mikhail Vasilievich
Lomonosov [1711-1765] in his work On the
Genesis and Nature of Saltpeter (1749) called
attention to the constancy of the interfacial
angles in nitre crystals, and explained their
form by the densest packing of spherical
particles. However, his work had no
practical influence on the development of
crystallography, because it was written in
Russian, and was only recognized at the
beginning of the 20 th century as an important
crystallographic work. Rudjer G. Boskovic
(Boscovich) [1711-1787] (1755) supported the
idea that crystals were formed by molecules
connected by attractive and repulsive forces,
which was for the time, a very advanced idea.
The German mining professional JOHANN
Friedrich Henckel [1678-1744] wrote about
the metals as if they possessed animate
affections, and assigned to them a certain moral
order, making these particular affinities and
unions something akin to love and friendship.
He considered the crystal shape of some
minerals such as pyrite to be useful in
distinguishing its species. He also recognized
that the cubic form of pyrite remained constant
in terms of its angular arrangement.
Franz Ulrich Theodosius Aepinus
[1724-1802] studied the pyroelectric effect
in tourmaline and attempted to relate the
property to the axes of the crystal (1756) (see
§ )
The Swiss mathematician LEONHARD
Euler [1707-1783] published celebrated works
of mathematical theorems on polyhedra and
on transformations that more than a century
later became the basis for fundamental research
in geometrical crystallography. The earliest of
these, published in 1752, was his discovery that
for any 3-dimensional polyhedron the number
of faces (F), edges (E) and vertices (V) are
related by the formula: F — E + V = 2.
He proved in 1765 that a product of two
rotations about intersecting axes is itself a
rotation, and that every proper motion is a
product of a rotation and a translation. The
significance of geometric transformation was
not yet established in crystal science and the
value of Euler's studies was not fully realized
until the more general study of configurations
used in crystal structure analysis that lay far in
the future.
In 1767 Christian F. Westfeld [1746-
1823] expressed the opinion after experiment-
ing with cleavages of calcite that the min-
eral was composed of minute rhombohedra
molecules. I 810 ! Nearly simultaneously, Jo-
hann G. Gahn [1745-1818], a student of Tor-
bern Bergman [1735-1784], made an iden-
tical observation. Showing how a scalenohe-
dron crystal of calcite based upon a rhombo-
hedron cleavage could be formed, was, how-
ever, first published by Bergman himself in
1773. I 811 ! This was an important practical
and theoretical step in crystallography, which
conclusively showed that the formation of at
least one mineral could be attributed to be the
result of the superposition of layers of minute
parallelepipedic shaped particles on an original
parallelepipedic nucleus.
Carl Linne (Latinized, Linneaus) [1707-
1778], incorporated minerals in his general clas-
sification of nature from the first appearance of
his famous Systema Naturae published in 1735.
Throughout his life, he continued to study min-
erals intensely, trying to use their external char-
acteristics to place them with in a system of
classification like he had so successfully system-
atized plants and animals. For his morpholog-
ical approach that argued strongly for classi-
fying crystals according to their shapes, Linne
was called the founder of the science of crystal-
lography by both Rome de l'lsle and Haiiy, al-
though he held a strong belief in the idea that
minerals procreate and grow like vegetatbles.
[810] C.F. Westfeld., Mineralogische Abhandlungeii. Gottin-
gen, 1767.
[ 1J T.O. Bergman., "Variae Crystallorum Formae a
Spatho Orthae," ?????????????, 11 (1773), p. ??-??. ■ ibid.,
Physical and Chemical Essays. Translated from Latin by
Edmund Cullen. London, 1784. 3 vols.
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8.1 Geometrical Crystallography
In 1768, in the third volume of his Systema
Naturae, which was the last full statement he
gave on the subject, Linne applies his moropho-
logical approach favoring it over other physical
or chemcical examinations when he classifies
crystals into classes, rders, genera and species.
Relying on the external form of the crystals he
groups together those that are cubic, hexag-
onal, octahedral, and rhombic dodecahedral.
Linne approach to sorting crystals by external
form had tremendous impact on future crystal-
lographers.
The German mineralogist JoHANN KARL
Gehler [1732-1796] emphasized the impor-
tance of the external and physical properties
of crystals to distinguish individual mineral
species (1757).[ 812 1 This work would in
1774 influence the German mineralogist ABRA-
HAM Gottlob Werner [1750-1817], who was
greatly impressed by Gehler's book, to write
his own treatise on determinative mineral-
ogy, which appeared in 1774 under the title
Von den ausserlichen Kennzeichen der Fos-
si/ien.I 813 ] Expressing his own conception
of crystals, Werner states that their morphol-
ogy was based on six, instead of four, primary
forms: icosahedron, hexahedron, prism, pyra-
mid, plate and lens. Otherwise, he appar-
ently was not very much interested in crystal-
lography, writing very little on the subject.
In 1772 Jean Baptiste Louis Rome
DE L'lSLE [1736-1790] published the first
edition of his widely acclaimed treatise on
crystallography which was a 'state of the art'
account of minerals and crystals.! 814 ! He
acknowledges in his preface that to a large
extent he is following in the footsteps of
Linnaeus. Recognizing that the forms of
even very diverse crystalline substances could
be very nearly the same, he considered that
there was some hidden affinity in the material
that linked them together. He believed in
a molecular theory of crystallization, that
crystals were built from the juxtaposition of
^ 1 J.K. Gehler., De Characteribus Fossilium Externis.
Lipsiae, 1757.
[S13J a.G. Werner., Von den ausserlichen Kennzeichen der
Fossilien. Leipzig, 1774.
[814] J b_l_ Rome de l'Isle., Essai de CristaUographie. Paris,
identical molecules that arranged themselves
in a distinct pattern, and that the quality of
perfection in the crystal ultimately depended
on the purity of the solution from which it
formed. He accepted the idea that the figure
of a mineral crystal was due to a specific salt
that was present, but did not wholeheartedly
accept the theory. Pure metals he noted
formed crystals, but no chemical technique had
yet rested a salt from them, suggesting that
the saline principle was erroneous, but failure
to locate the salt did not mean the theory
was wrong. Finally he remarks that it is a
controversay he does not want to enter. After
giving a full treatment of crystal analysis for
the known minerals, in an appendix he lists
110 crsytal forms that have been observed.
Quite rightly Rome's book is said to have given
the first definition of crystallography as a new
science.
After the good reception Rome's book
received, preparations for a new much
expanded edition were undertaken. Arnould
Carangeot [1742-1806], a student and
assistant to Rome de l'Isle helped in preparing
the polyhedral terra cotta clay models of the
crystal forms that would be illustrated on the
plates. Frustrated at not being able to exactly
render a complex crystal of quartz, Carangeot
cut from cardboard a template that represented
the interfacial angle two faces formed with one
another. Much to his suprise, he found that all
of the faces of the prism had exactly the same
angle, eventhough the quartz crystal looked
bizzare. Applying his template to all the other
quartz crystals on hand he recognized with
satisfaction that the angle remained constant.
Further templates and experimentation led him
to conclude that for all crystals, each pair
of adjoining crystal faces had a specific value
to their angle, regardless of how distorted
the crystal might appear. I 815 ! After
being shown how the templates accurately
determined a crystallographic angle, Rome de
l'Isle realized immediately the importance of
[815J j^ Carangeot., "Goniometre, ou mesure-angle,"
Journal de Physique, 22 (1783), p. 193-???. « ibid., "Lettre a
M. de Lametherie sur le goniometre," Journal de Physique,
29 (1786), p. 226-???. • ibid., "Lettre de M. Carangeot a
M. Kaestner," Journal de Physique, 31 (1787), p. 204-???.
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i.l Geometrical Crystallography
the achievement and, with the help of his
pupils, created a general form of the device
that could measure any angle, applying the
new tool to all the crystals available in his
laboratory. This confirmed the generality of
the Law of Constancy of Interfacial Angles and
in 1783 when the second edition of Rome's
Cristallographie was published it used the
new law and new contact goniometer as its
foundation stone. I 816 !
The application of goniometry is the prin-
cipal difference immediately apparent in the
second edition of Rome's Cristallographie com-
pared with his earlier work. By the time of
its publication, Rome had made crucial ad-
vances towards a quantitative crystallography.
He was, for example, now abot to list over 450
possible crystal forms, and provide for each
accurate angle measurements between differ-
ent crystal surfaces made with the contact go-
niometer. Armed with his law, he was able
to somewhat elaborate on his definition of the
primitive form and how it related to the exter-
nal crystal, but Rome never made the theoret-
ical leap to create an elegant theory from the
information. Nevertheless, Rome captured in-
formation from his crystallographical laws and
together with his broadened concept of the re-
lationship between crystal form and chemical
composition, he made the Cristallographie into
the finest mineralogical treatise written to its
time.
hi this same period and only a year
after the second edition of Rome's appeared
Rene Just Hauy [1743-1826] published his
first book on crystallography, Essai d'une
Theorie sur la Structure des Crystaux (1784),
which were certainly very heavily influenced
by the works of Bergman and Rome de
l'lsle. I 817 ! He is considered the founder of
modern crystallography because of his rigid
mathematical approach to crystallographic
problems that led him to announce the law of
simple rational intercepts. It was, however,
in the geometrical part of his Traite de
Mineralogie (1801) that he presented his ideas
I 816 ! J.B.L. Rome de l'lsle., Cristallographie. Paris, 1783.
4 vols.
[817] yi .J. Hauy., Essai d'une Theorie sur la Structure des
Crystaux. Paris, 1784. [8], 236 p., 8 folding plates.
in a more clear and complete form, adding a
large number of crystal drawings to illustrate
his theories. In it, Hauy brought together
the advances in crystallography into a coherent
structural theory, based on the structural unit,
the "molecule constituante" (later renamed by
him to "molecule integrante") . Haiiy's model
depicted crystals as built up out of these
molecular units which were polyhedral in form.
Hauy also theorized a common "nucleus" or
"primitive form" for all crystals of the same
"species." This primative form was often
revealed by cleavage of a crystal symmetrically
along its angles and edges. Highly influential
in the development of crystallography, Haiiy's
researches and theories superseded all previous
attempts, and these were presented in the
author's own literary fluency. His work was
recognized as the most important offered by
France to the science of crystallography and
mineralogy that placed the country at the
forefront of the European nations in this
science.
Pierre Clement Grignon [1723-1784]
thought fire caused the fusion of metals, and
slow cooling from the molten condition resulted
in the production of crystals. I 818 ! His
view was that each body in the universe had
a characteristic figure which, together with
the chemical composition of the substance,
made it a distinct individual. According
to Grignon, material matter could not exist
without form because both came into existence
similtaneously, and endowed the material with
its individual essence.
A French chemist Nicolaus Le Blanc
[1742-1806] believed that careful chemical
experimentation ought to shed some light on
the mechanism of the process of crystallization,
which was a new approach to the problem. He
expressed the view that the true essence of
crystallography should encompass the study of
the conditions that give rise to crystal growth
so that the form of a particular crystal might
not only be explained but predicted. I 819 !
[818] pc. Grignon., Memoires de Physique: sur leFer. Paris,
1775, p. 476-481.
[819] n L e Blanc, "Essai sur quelques phenomenes relatifs
a la cristallisation des sels neutres," Journal de Physique,
28 (1786), p. 341-345. * ibid., "De la Cristallotechnie ou
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8.1 Geometrical Crystallography
8.1.3 Nineteenth Century
REWORK: In the 19 th century there was
an explosion of crystallographic works dealing
with both practical and theoretical aspects
of the science. New instruments allowed the
crystallographers of the era to gather accurate
numerical data from natural specimens and
develop a classification of crystal forms and
from there a theory of crystal structure.
Important advances were made in physical
crystallography after the discovery in 1808
by Etienne Louis Malus [1775-1812] of
polarized light by reflection. This discovery
provided the basis for many theories and
experiments that would build the foundations
of optical mineralogy (see § ).
Nicolaus Leblanc who had proposed
theories on crystal formation at the end of
the 18 th century further extended his theory,
publishing the summation of his views in
the De la Crystallotechnie ou Essai sur
les Phenomenes de la Cristallisation that
appeared in 1802. I 820 ! In particular, he
showed that when another chemical compound
was mixed into a different pure compound, the
form of the crystal of the combination could
be considerablly different than either of the
components individually.
By the early years of the 19 th century,
advances in chemistry were having an adverse
effect on Hauy's insistance that each mineral
species had a distinct molecule integrant and
a unique chemistry. This could not explain
anomalies such as the species calcite and
aragonite. Both minerals have chemical
compostion of calcium carbonate (CaC0 3 ), but
each crystallizes in a different crystal system,
and hence by Hauy's definition a different
form of the primary particle. Tremendous
efforts were made by Hauy's supporters to
reconcile these facts and save his theory,
but to little avail. The French Count
Jacques-Louis Bournon [1751-1825], who
had fled France to avoid being guillotined,
relocated to London. There he wrote and
Essai sur les phenomenes de la cristallisation," Journal de
Physique, 55 (1802), p. 296-313.
[820J n Leblanc, De la Crystallotechnie ou Essai sur les
Phenomenes de la Cristallisation. Paris, 1802.
had published a 3 volume treatise concerning
the properties and relationship between calcite
and its structural isomorph, aragonite. I 821 l
Although quanatative analysis proved them
to be chemically identical, examination of
their physical properties showed aragonite to
be harder, heavier and to possess a different
crystal form, on which basis aragonite had
been called a separate species by mineralogists
who did not support Hauyian theories.
Bournon wrote his work, his most important
mineralogical contribution, to support the
position that calcite and aragonite were
separate mineral species, and that the final
determination of whether a mineral is a distinct
species relies on physical characteristics, not
chemical properties.
The studies of Francois Sulpice Beu-
DANT [1787-1850] continued the crystallochem-
cial approach proposed by Le Blanc. He studied
the dependence of exterior form on the condi-
tions that existed during crystallization. In-
vestigating the action of atmospheric pressure,
the humidity of air, heat, concentration, vol-
ume of solution and electric current to the iden-
tical crystallizing solutions, he arrived at the
conclusion that a change in the initial condi-
tions rapidly affects the speed of crystalliza-
tion and the ultimate crystal size, but it such
changes are not reflected in their morpholog-
ical form.! 822 ! He did record that if other
substances are introduced into the crystallizing
fluid, changes would occur. For example, the
aluminum alum, which crystallizes from a ho-
mogenous aqueous solution in the form of octa-
hedrons, will crystallize from a nitric acid solu-
tion as cuboctahedrons. Beudant made similar
studies with a wide range of materials, provid-
ing evidence of the existence of what are now
termed solid solutions within in minerals. His
research also played a positive role in the dis-
covery of isomorphism.
In 1817 Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs
[1774-1856] studied the morphological kinship
I 821 ! J.-L. Bournon., Traite de Mineraiog-ie. London, 1808.
Also released in the same year under the title, Traite complet
de la Chaux Carbonatee et de l'Arragonite.
[o22\ p_g_ Beudant., "Recherches sur les causes qui peuvent
faire varier les formes cristallines d'une meme substance
minerale," ADC, 8 (1818), p. 5-50.
206
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i.l Geometrical Crystallography
between two chemically similar minerals,
aragonite (calcium carbonate; CaC0 3 ) and
strontianite (strontium carbonate; SrC0 3 )
which showed a path to isomorphism.! 823 ]
At the Berlin Academy in December
1819 Eilhard Mitscherlich [1794-1863] pre-
sented his important paper on isomorphism,
which was immediately translated into French
where it was published in 1820J 824 ! Modern
chemical crystallography is considered to have
originated with this work and on its extension
to polymorphism in 1822. At that time the dis-
covery of isomorphism and polymorphism ran
against Hauy's hypothesis that crystallography
was the dominate feature of mineral species,
with chemistry playing a subservient role. An
interesting correspondence between Haiiy and
Berzelius shows Hauy's strong opposition to the
work of Mitscherlich.
Despite its advantages, Hauy's theory was
not universally accepted by crystallographers
outside France. The established German min-
eralogist Dietrich Ludwig G. Karsten
[1768-1810] asked a young mineralogist, CHRIS-
TIAN Samuel Weiss [1780-1856] to help in the
preparation of a German tranlation of Hauy's
four volume Traite de Mineralogie (1801). It
was a long process, extending from 1804 to 1810
before it was complete. Weiss did not how-
ever confine himself to a simple transfer of the
original text. He includes his own views on
the theory and appends an important article
"Dynamische Ansicht der Krystallisation" (dy-
namic view for the crystallization) in which he
introduced the important concept of anisotropy
and stated the zone law which is the equiva-
lent of Hauy's law of simple rational intercepts.
The supporters of this study denied existence
of atoms and asserted that material was formed
by the opposite forces of attraction and repul-
sion (a view Weiss apparently maintained his
entire life). This was a direct challanged to
Hauy's theory.
Johann Jakob Bernhardi [1770-1850]
conceived the idea of considering, instead of
[82a\ j n von Fuchs., "Ueber den Arragonit tmd
Strontianit," J. Chem. Phys. JSC Schweigger, 19 (1817),
p. 113-137.
I 824 ] E. Mitscherlich., "???????," ??????, ?? (1819), p. ??-
??. • ibid., "???????," ??????, It (1820), p. ??-??.
Weiss's faces or zones, the perpendiculars to
the faces drawn from the centre of the system.
He then poses the question of what is the
smallest number of simple forms to derive all
crystallization according to the simplest laws.
This idea led to him first advancing the idea of
crystal systems in 1808J 825 !
Weiss defended a dissertation in 1809 De
Indagando Formarum Cristallinarum Char-
acters Geometrico Principali (About The
Method Of Determining The Basic Geometric
Nature Of Crystalline Forms) that first distin-
guished between seven systems of crystals dif-
fering in the number and nature of their axes
of symmetry. In Weiss's scheme, any face could
be defined by the ratio of the intercepts cut
off by it on the axes of symmetry. He pro-
posed the description of the faces of crystals
in relation to three main axes that he called
a, b and c, whose designation and orientation
are still adopted today. Two other important
works of Weiss were De Charactere Geometrico
Principali Formarum Crystallinarum Octae-
dricarum (1809) and 'Uebersichtliche Darstel-
lung der verschiedenen natiirlichen Abteilungen
der Kristallisations-Systeme' (1815). In these
works he proposed the classification of crystals
in four main systems, with subdivisions, but he
only considered crystallographic axes mutually
perpendicular.
At the time tremendous attention was
given to the description of crystal morphology.
The importance of accurate measurements of
crystal angles was full recognized, but the
contact goniometer could only be used on
large crystals and even so was only accurate
to about 1/2 a degree. In 1809 the English
mineralogist, William Hyde Wollaston
[1766-1828] invented a reflecting goniometer
that allowed for a magnitude of greater
precscion in the measurements. Soon other
models of the goniometer were introduced so
that measurements could be made from even
the smallest of crystals (see §14.5 for a full
description) .
Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann
[1782-1859] introduced spherical trigonometry
^ J J.J. Bernhardi., "Darstellung einer neuen Methode,
Kristalle zu beschreiben," Journal fur die Chemie und Physik
von A. F. Gehlen, 5 (1808), p. 157-198, 492-564, 625-654.
207
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8.1 Geometrical Crystallography
as a method for describing crystal forms.
Later his ideas were developed by Franz
Ernst Neumann [1798-1895] which led
to his introduction of the gnomic and
stereographic projections to crystallography
in his Beitrage zur Krystallonomie of 1823
(see §14.7). The concept was reintroduced
by Johann G. Grassmann in 1829, but it
was not until William Hallowes Miller
and Friedrich August Quenstedt applied
Neumann's approach that it became standard
in crystallographic studies.
Extending the work of Weiss, FRIEDRICH
Mohs [1773-1839], in his Grundriss der
Mineralogie (1822), considered crystal forms
where the three axes were oblique to each other
and proposed six crystallographic systems.
Using the systems of notation of Whewell
(1825) and others, WILLIAM HALLOWES
Miller [1801-1880] exploited the advantages
of stereographic projection to such good result
that his Treatise on Crystallography (1839)
rapidly eclipsed all other works on the subject.
His crystallographic notation is now universally
adopted.
A former student of Wiess, GuSTAV
Rose [1798-1873] took an active part in
the discovery of isomorphism, helping to
make crystallographic measurements on a
reflecting goniometer. He continued his
mineralogical studies, accompanying Humboldt
on a famous journey through the regions
of Siberia, and publishing a mineralogical-
geological description of the lands they
travelled through.! 826 ] He also continued
to study the geometric properties of crystals
which he summerized in his book, Elemente der
Krystallographie (1833), later translated into
French and Russian. He gives similtaneously
the characteristics of minerals together with
crystallographic data. The engravings, which
illustrate text, depict crystals in the orthogonal
projections. Rose's discussion deals with the
precise descriptive study of mineral forms with
the accumulation of goniometric data. In
1844 he published a classic monograph on the
crystal system of quartz. I 827 ! This is the
I 826 ! G. Rose.,
first large monograph about the morphology of
quartz, in which Rose concludes that it should
belong to the "tetartohedral" subdivision of
hexagonal system, thereby recognizing its
trigonal characteristics while it is in the
hexagonal class.
In 1870 Paul Heinrich von Groth
[1843-1927] examined the effect of change
in crystal form when certain elements are
substituted in the chemical composition of
crystals, and called it "morphotropism."
In 1879 Francois Ernest Mallard
[1833-1894] introduced his own theories and
methods that replaced Hauy's laborious com-
putations with elegant and rapid calcula-
tions. I 828 l He also proposes an ingenious meth-
ods of zones, and makes extensive use of stere-
ographic and gnomic projection to disentangle
difficult crystallographic problems. Through-
out his work Mallard developed and extended
Bravais' lattice theory, especially with respect
to the importance of crystal faces and twins.
In the last decade of the century, Ver.NAD-
SKII [xxxx-xxxx] showed that polymorphism
was a general phenomenon (1892).
A. Werner proposed in 1893 a coordi-
nation theory for the arrangement of atoms in
crystal structures, that provide a deeper insight
into structural properties of crystals.
Other physical characteristics of crystals,
including their thermal, mechanical, electrical
and magnetic properties, were studied exten-
sively during the 19 th century. Among the
many research workers are Stokes (1851), W.
Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1854), J. Curie & P.
Curie (1880) and Voigt (1876).
Others to include:
William Whewell [1794-1866]
Henry James Brooke
Abraham Gotthelf Kastner
Christian Kramp
Armand Levy [1794-1841]
Karl Caesar von Leonhard
August Breithaupt [1791-1873]
David Brewster [1781-1868]
Wilhelm Haidinger [1795-1871]
Berlin, 1844. [4], 58 p., 5 plates.
3erlin, 1837-42. 2 vols. [828] p E Ma i la rd., Traite de Cristallographie. Paris, 1879-
[827] q Rose., fiber das Krystallisationssystem des Quarzes. 84. 2 vols., plus atlas.
208
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i.l Geometrical Crystallography
Johann Fr.iedr.ich Hessel [1796-1872]
Johann Gottlieb Christian Norr.enberg
[1787-1862]
Carl Fr.iedr.ich Naumann [1797-1873]
Martin Heinrich Klaproth [1743-1817]
Mor.itz Ludwig Frankenheim [1801-1869]
Arcangelo Scacchi [1810-1893]
Auguste Bravais [1811-1863]
Quintino Sella [1827-1884]
Louis Pasteur [1822-1895]
Gerhard vom Rath [1830-1888]
Christian Friedrich Martin Websky
[1824-1886]
Friedrich August Genth [1820-1893]
George Jarvis Brush [1831-1912]
Samuel Lewis Penfield [1856-1906]
Leopold Heinrich Fischer [1817-1886]
Victor Moritz Goldschmidt
Gabriel Auguste Daubr.ee [1814-1896]
schoenflies
Fedorov
8.1.4 Twentieth Century
REWORK: Crystallography by the beginning
of the 20 th century was a mature science.
Atomic theory was giving a picture of
what built, structurally, the internal material
of the crystals, but no scientist thought
that it it would be anything more than
conjecture. It was therefore the province of the
crystallographers to continue to explore what
they could observe and construct theories to
explain their observations.
In a large monograph on crystal science,
Georges Friedel [1865-1933] summerized all
that was known at the time.! 829 ! He
introduced much clarity to the study and
helped develop theoretical crystallography. His
research led him to make many important
innovations, including the reticular theory
published in 1907. I 830 !
In 1912, crystal science was turned on
its collective head by the development of X-
ray diffraction that allowed experimenters and
theorists to gain direct information about the
internal structure of crystals (see §8.3). This
[az9\ q Friedel., Etude sur Jes Groupements Cristallins.
Paris, 1904. 485 p., illus.
[830] G Friede i Paris, 1907.
innovation altered crystallography in a positive
direction, and allowed it to bloom as its own
discipline.
Crystal morphology was still of practical
study. Viktor Goldschmidt [1853-1933] in
1913 capped his long and distinguished ca-
reer as a distinguished crystallographer with
start of the publication of his encyclopedia of
crystal morphology, Atlas der Krystallformen,
whose purpose was to collect, index and re-
produce in one work all the crystal forms ob-
served for every mineral species. This work
was the keystone to the author's crystallo-
graphic research. Together with the Index der
Krystallformen der Mineralien (3 vols., Berlin,
1886-91) and Kristallographische Winkelta-
bellen (Berlin, 1897), it forms the last segment
of a trilology Goldschmidt had intended to pub-
lish from the start of his carrer, and which
incidently defined modern crystal morpholog-
ical studies. In the preface to the text, Gold-
schmidt explains the broad standpoint that has
led him to develop this work. His desire was to
bring together the material necessary for solv-
ing many of the problems of crystals and their
growth, particularly with respect to habit, the
frequency of occurrence of certain forms and
the relative size of the faces. The tremendous
depth of the work is astonishing, with the crys-
tal forms of many mineral species represented
by several hundred crystal drawings. The text
is arranged alphabetically by mineral name,
and consists of two parts. The first and most
important of these are the plates, for they cre-
ate the esthetic value of the work. Reproduc-
tions of many thousands of crystal drawings il-
lustrate graphically all the variations in form
observed for every mineral. Supporting these
figures is the text, which lists the various char-
acteristics of the minerals, and gives a detailed
accounting of the locality and exact reference
sources for each figure pictured.
Finally, by the second decade of the
century, the development of lattice dynamics
through application of quantum theory, by
Max Born [1882-1970] and others gave a
working model of how the atoms in a crystalline
structure coexist with one another.
209
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8.1 Geometrical Crystallography
8.1.5 Twinned Crystals! 831 !
REWORK: The morphological study of crys-
tals in the 19 th century tended to be limited to
descriptions of ideally formed crystalline forms.
This was particular true of the German school
headed by Weiss and Mohs. However, attempts
to translate from idealized, theoretical models
to natural crystals, with all of their complica-
tions and imperfections, was not easy. In fact,
for a long period such comparisons, which usu-
ally conflicted with the models developed by
the morphologists were not attempted. It was
only much later that the value of comparisons
between theory and nature was recognized that
the physical study of real crystals was intensi-
fied.
One pressing problem for the theorists
was an explanation of naturally occurring
crystallographic intergrowths. Apart from
ordinary crystals, these are composite crystals
consisting of two (usually equal and similar)
crystals united in a symmetrical intergrowth,
usually with the individual crystals in reversed
positions with respect to each other. These
are called twinned crystals, or 'twins' for
short. A new symmetry operation (called
a twin element), which is lacking in a
single untwinned crystal, relates the individual
crystals in a twinned position. But it was
not until the introduction of X-ray analysis
that this atomic arrangement was confirmed.
In fact crystallized specimens of this type had
been observed, described, and sometimes even
illustrated since the middle 18 th century, and
they required explanation, which was a thorny
problem for crystallographers.
In his Essai de Cristallographie (1772)
J.B.L. Rome de l'Isle emphasized the
primacy of form in his definition of a crystal
[831] other historical information may be found in:
R.W. Calm., "Twinned crystals," Advances in Physics, 3
(1954), no. 12, p. 202-445. * M. Loftier., "Strukturelle
und kristallochemische Grundlagen der Zwillingsbildung,"
Neues Jahrbuch fur Mineralogie, Abteil A, 68 (1934), p.
125-193. • M. Senechal., "Brief history of geometrical
crystallography" (pp. 43-60), in: J. Lima-de-Faria, ed.,
Historical atlas of crystallography. New York, Elsevier, 1990.
• I.I. Shafranovskii., McTopiraa KpiicTajuiorpac[)iiii XIX
BeK [Istoriia kristallografii XIX vek]. Leningrad, 1980, p.
193-198. • F. Wallerant., Groupements cristallins. Paris, G.
Carre & C. Naud, 1899. 81 p., illus. [Contains a detailed
investigation of crystallographic twins, p. 20-27.]
to be any mineral of polyhedral shape and had
even given approximate interfacial angles for
some species, together with many illustrations
of natural crystals. After the invention of the
contact goniometer and the discovery of the law
of constancy of interfacial angles of minerals of
the same species, Rome in the second edition
of his Cristallographie (1783) determined six
primitive forms, and showed how they could by
truncation be modified to produce secondary
forms to mimic the variation of forms seen in
real crystals. During this study he was also the
first to single out twinned crystals for special
attention. Rome describes the mineral species
staurolite, a mineral that frequently forms
distinctive twins, calling them such specimens
a 'made.'! 832 ] He then goes on to say that he
calls any crystal a made that consists of two
crystals, one of which is inverted and attached
in a reverse direction. I 833 ! He further clarifies
that specimens of this type are not a simple
group of two or more crystals, but that the
crystals are mirrors of each other. I 834 ! He
gives further examples of gypsum, harmotome,
feldspar, and cassiterite as crystals that could
twin.
Even before the discovery of the goniome-
ter, the Swedish chemist and mineralogist To-R-
ber.n Bergman had attempted to apply his
theory of a standard 'nucleus' as the building
block of crystals to form a polyhedra of a macro
crystal.! 835 ] He had successfully applied it
to his description of calcite, but the analogous
[832] Made, meaning spot or mark, was then a synonym
for chiastolite (a variety of andalusite), meaning cross-wise,
alluding to the black center which a crystal often shows
when cut into sections, and showing a distinctive cross.
Made was used as a synonym in the French literature in
1751 by Christophe Paul Gautron de Robien in his Nouvelles
Ide'es sur la Formation des Fossiles (1751).
[833] "J' a pelle made tout cristal, qui est produit par
l'inversion en sens versus Irish de l'une moitiers de ce meme
cristal." J.B.L. Rome de l'Isle., Essai de Cristallographie,
1783, p. 93.
[834] tiQ e n ' es t point un cristal simple corn un groupe de
deux ou de plusieurs cristaux, ou meme de deux moitiers
retournes d'un meme cristal." J.B.L. Rome de l'Isle., Essai
de Cristallographie, 1783, p. 93.
[835] t.O. Bergman., "Variae crystallorum formae a
spatho orthae," Nova Acta Regiae Soc. Sci. Ups., 1 (1773), p.
150-155.; English translation by E. Cullen (1784) contained
in T. Bergman, Physical and Chemical Essays, London, 1784.
3 Vols.
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i.l Geometrical Crystallography
construction he applied to a cruciform stauro-
lite twin failed. At that time, the identification
of twinned crystals as polycrystalline structures
had not been made.
Later, Abraham Gottlob Werner
mentions twins for the first time in his
description of the Pabst von Ohain mineral
collection. He notes that there were "Zwillinge"
crystals among the collection's specimens of
chalcopyrite ("Kupferkies"), calcite, gypsum,
and harmotomeJ 836 ! This description was
translated literally into French as 'jumeaux'
by his students J. P. Vanberchem-Berthout
and H. Struve in their translation of Werner's
handbook of mineralogy. I 837 ! They associated
it with the same mineral examples. Ludwig
August Emmerling also noticed twins of
gypsum with both sides of a crystal flaring at
opposing angles. I 838 l
Apparently, Rene Just Hauy remained
unaware of the use of "jumeaux" to describe
twinned crystals, because he does not mention
it, instead he complains of Rome's use of
the expression of macleJ 839 ! He tries
to replace the descriptor macles by different
designations which had been attached to a
variety of exterior characteristics. He classifies
twins as "formes secundaires" and divides them
into "transpose, hemitrope, rectangulaire,
obliquangle, sexradie, cruziforme, genicule
et triglyphe" . I 840 ! The cornucopia of
designations he had to use to describe the
various forms encountered illuminates the fact
that he had trouble incorporating twins into
his structural theory of crystals. Hauy made
wide use of the term hemitropie that stressed
the idea that twins consisted of two crystal
halves turned against each other. Applying his
theory of crystal structure he also realized that
there was a twin face from which the two halves
[836] A.G.Werner., Verzeichnis der Mineralien des Kabinetts
des Berghauptmanns Pabst von Ohain. 1791.
[837] j_p i Vanberchem-Berthout and H. Struve., Principe
de Mineralogie. 1794.
[838] L A Emmerling., Lehrbuch der Mineralogie. 1797.
[839] "Rome de l'Isle les nommoit macles, mais ce nom se
trouve deja applique a une espece de mineral tres commune,
j'ai cru devoir en eviter le doubles emploi." R.J. Hairy.,
Traite de Mineralogie. 1801, p. 106.
I 84 °] R.J. Hairy., Traite de Mineralogie. 1801., p. 201.
formed creating the twin. This caused him
to isolate two types of twin, interpenetration
twins and penetration twins. In the later case
he also noticed that penetration twins have a
higher degree of symmetry in comparison to the
symmetry of the single crystals that enter into
the adhesion.
Pupils of Werner became the guardians
of mineralogy in the early 19 th century.
They also treated twins in their writings.
Christian Samuel Weiss who developed
a three dimension coordinate system to
mathematically understand crystal forms, also
took into account distorted and twinned
crystals in his theoretical model. He was
therefore able to fully define the twin laws for
feldspar ("Baveno" and "Dauphine"), pyrite
("Iron Cross"), quartz ("Brazil Law"), and
chabasiteJ 841 ! He expressed the laws as the
position of two individual crystal joined along a
common boundary surface. He also suspected
that distorted crystals of calcite and quartz
might form as a consequence of twinning.
He also gives a full description of staurolite
twins, noting that there is a higher degree of
symmetry in the combination then is seen in
the in the individual crystals.
Friedrich Mohs, who had a spirit
of arranging, brought for the first time a
classification of twins based on their features.
He does not like Haiiy's use of hemitrope
crystals to describe such specimens preferring
instead the use of twin crystals saying that
the former term refers to only a single
crystal whereas the later deals with two
individuals.! 842 ] Mohs refers to four types of
twinning, indicating that the twin plane does
not always have to coincide with a specific
crystalline face. In connection with this, he
assumed that twins occurred to specific laws
of crystal formation.
1. The face of composition to be parallel to a
face of crystallization, and the axis of revolution,
perpendicular to it, to be at the same time an axis
of crystallization.
[841] c.S. Weiss., Kristallographische Abhandlungen. 1816.
[842] R Mohs., GrundriB der Mineralogie, 1822, p. 300.;
English translation by W. von Haidinger, Treatise on
Mineralogy, 1825, 1, p. 243.
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8.1 Geometrical Crystallography
2. The face of composition to be parallel to a face of
crystallization, and the axis of revolution, not parallel
to any axis of crystallization.
3. The face of composition is perpendicular to an edge
of the crystalline form, and the axis of revolution
parallel to this edge.
4. The face of composition is parallel to a face of
crystallization, but the axis of revolution lies in
the same face, and coincides with an axis of the
crystalline form.! 843 !
Interestingly, Mohs in his classification
does not include a rotation axis along the axis
of the contact twin, which shows how difficult
twin laws were to observe in nature.
Developing on the models of Weiss
and Mohs, Carl Friedrich Naumann
introduced analytic-geometrical methods to
crystallography and in this way treated also
the twin problem. In his textbook of
crystallography he distinguishes twins with
the mutually inclined (not parallel) axes and
twins with parallel axes. I 844 ! The latter
are formed only by crystals with 'Merohedry'
forms. I 845 ! Two crystals with the faces
of hemihedral forms (i.e. the having the
half number faces in comparison with the
number of faces of general holohedral form)
are oriented relative to each other so that
the totality of two hemihedral forms form
summary holohedral (holohedral) form. This
phenomenon had been noted by C.S. Weiss.
Mohs differentiates sharply between twins with
parallel and crossed axes. He shapes his
terms just as sharply 'Juxtapositions' and
'penetration twins', implying that the parts
are in such intimate contact with each other
over part of their bounding surfaces that they
cohere, this cohesion being often, though not
always, as strong as the internal cohesion of
a single crystal (Cahn, 1954). Naumann sets
up the requirement that the line of rotation
[843] F> Mohs., GrundriB der Mineralogie, 1822, p. 300.;
English translation by W. von Haidinger, Treatise on
Mineralogy, 1825, 1, p. 243.
[844J rjp Naumann., Lehrbuch der reinen und angewandten
KristaUographie, 1830.
[845J ]yierohedry, from Greek origin, implies that each
component crystal has fewer faces than it would have if
the structure had the highest symmetry possible for the
lattice on which it is based.
must always be a crystallographic component,
thus either one of the axes of the crystal
structure or an edge or a surface-normal of one
of their basic shapes. If twins are rotational
along two different twin axes (i.e. Carlsbad
twins), Naumann speaks of a twin axis, as
differentiated from a normal axis. I 846 !
The Franz Neumann school essentially
maintained Naumann's point of view concern-
ing the twin possibilities, but looked for their
solution on the basis of ball projection and
spherical trigonometry. This is the approach
that was followed in the later work of WlLHELM
J. Grailich and Albr.echt Schrauf. They
believe the axis of twinning is a common axis
between the two individual crystals and those
of the surfaces one for the axis of the other one.
The crystallographic work of the begin-
ning half of the 19 th century period belongs to
a study of the theoretical structures through
mathematics (§8.4.). The research of the crys-
tallographers strive for an abstract crystallog-
raphy, which has little in common with practi-
cal mineralogy. They occupied themselve 
